Gusle
The Gusle (also Gusla , plural Guslen ; Albanian Lahuta ) is a traditional string instrument from the Balkans . Belonging to the group of chordophone instruments, it is a lute with a bowl neck that is struck with a horsehair string with a simple bow, a more original stringed instrument of folklore and folk music. The pear-shaped sound box, ideally made of maple wood , is covered with animal skin. The head of the gusle is mostly decorated with stylized animal motifs such as ibex or horse head, but more recently also falcons, eagles or portraits of historical personalities. The ornamentation and material of the gusle originate from the pastoral culture. It is one of the oldest solo musical instruments on the Balkan Peninsula and has remained unchanged in its original form and way of playing until today ( ).
The gusle is the instrument of the epic singer of the Balkan Peninsula in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia, who is called Guslar ( Guslari ) or Albanian Lahutar . The Guslar sings and accompanies himself on his Gusle. While the classical epics, which were formerly only passed down orally, today come from the broad written context of folk poetry, the musical component in Guslenspiel remains true to the traditional practice, in which even during today's important competitive performances, musical improvisation, comparable to the practice in jazz, in its traditional tradition has remained the dominant principle.
It was only with the writing of the epic songs by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (from 1814) that oral poetry actually began to be written down, the repertoire of which today largely comes from this corpus and includes the classical anthology (in a Confucian sense) of oral literature in the Serbian language. These epics were not written by the Slavic and Albanian population as a medium of art, but are rather a complex medium of expression that sums up the long cultural history in great depth. In their oldest forms they come from the Middle Ages and still carry pagan- animistic ideas , which stand out so conspicuously in the folk culture of the southern Slavs. The epics add up several centuries of historical reality and spiritual needs. The gusle itself, made of maple wood, also symbolizes the mediation with the ancestral cult and is in itself the emblem of epic song as well as a symbol of national identity in its home countries.
Milman Parry and Albert Bates Lord developed the basis of the oral poetry theory in the context of the Homeric question from views on the stylistic methodology of the orally traditional folk epic, which was still strongly present at the time, among illiterate Christian and Muslim cast-iron players in Montenegro and south-west Serbia . As a result, the patriarchal regions of Yugoslavia, in which the Guslenspiel had been preserved in its original form until over the second half of the twentieth century, became an “epic laboratory”, the starting point for the investigation of poetic language and the use of substitutable “formulas” for oral poetry to a new, globally received literary direction - oral literature - provided essential impulses as well as a comparative methodology in the investigation of oral poetry in the epic literature of antiquity, in Byzantine Greek, Old English and Old French.
etymology
The word Gusle comes from the Old Slavic word "gosl" for fiber. The Old Slavic stem morpheme gǫdsli (Russian gúsli , Slovak husle , Czech housle ) is associated with guditi, or gudalo. The exact origin of the nominations of the related terms gusle, gadulka , gudok and gudalo, the latter as the name for the bow of the gusle, could, according to Walther Wünsch, shed light on a more precise assignment in the history of the development of the gusle.
In the linguistic usage of the South Slavs there is the feminine plural tantum “gusle” , which has established itself as a lexeme, as well as the older “gusli” , which can be found in the area of the central Drinalauflauf, around Arilje and throughout Montenegro. The use of the morphemes / e / and / i / can be found in the linguistic usage of one and the same speaker, alternating it can also be used in the lyrics or everyday language. The singular form “gusla” is only found in eastern Serbia, west of the Timok, around Niš, Ivanjica, and in the area of Zlatibor. Only “gusla” is used on Korčula. The term "gusle" was introduced into European literature by Alberto Fortis.
The Albanian lexeme lahuta also refers to another instrument, a kind of lute with eight strings that are plucked with quills. The Albanian lahuta , like the German lute, goes back to Arabic al-'ud zu ud (wood, instrument made of wood, zither, lute).
In Serbo-Croatian usage, the Gusle is a feminine plural tantum ( Serbo-Croatian Gusla / Gusle , Serbian - Cyrillic Гусла / Гусле ; Albanian definite lahuta , indefinite lahutë ).
Construction and parts
A gusle consists of the neck ( Držak ), the head, the vertebra ( Rukuć or Klin ) and the resonance box ( Varnjačka ).
The thick strings of the gusle are made up of up to 30 horsehair, a relatively unusual material for stringing an instrument. The horsehair tears easily, so you have to tune and play the instrument carefully. The string position of the Gusle is similar to that of the Gadulka and Lijerica .
The Gusle is constructed similarly to the Gadulka , but differs from it in that it has a narrower and considerably longer neck. Instead of the wooden resonance board, the gusle has a stretched skin.
The strings of gusle are much too far from the neck away to pushing down on the neck. The sound of the gusle is very oriental in contrast to the gadulka or the lijerica , which have a violin-like sound.
The sound body is covered with a thin animal skin, which contributes to the characteristic sound of the gusle. The gusle is bowed with a large, wooden horsehair bow , but a normal violin bow can also be used.
| German | Albanian | Bosnian | Croatian | Serbian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gusle | lahuta | gusle | ||
| Resonance box | trupi | varljača | varjača | |
| neck | qafa | vrat | vrat | |
| head | coca | glava | glava | |
| whirl | kurriz | ključ | ||
| string | korda | strune | ||
| web | shala | konjić | ||
| arc | harku | lučac | ||
ornamentation
It is arguably the most elaborately decorated Balkan musical instrument. At the head of the bridge there is usually an animal head carved out of wood such as goat, ram or horse head, birds such as eagles or even anthropomorphic figures. The bridge itself is decorated with rich patterns, sometimes entwined with snakes carved into the wood. The individual ornaments such as the capricorn, the symbol of absolute freedom, or the emblem of the snake for the danger of evil, are motifs of popular culture in which pagan-animistic ideas find their expression.
The back of the sound box bears elaborate floral patterns such as the tree of life ornament, rosettes and braided patterns. The bows, too, are often ornamental, then mostly in the form of a coiled snake. Newer Guslen often had state emblems as a motif, especially up until the transition phase in the transition from socialist to democratic societies. In Montenegro, the type of ibex head most commonly used in the past is now being replaced by eagle or falcon symbols.
materials
Various traditional Gusle materials are 30–40 combed horsehair for the bow. The arch itself is made of well-dried hardwood, mostly branches of the cornel cherry . The resonance box and neck are cut from one piece of wood. At best, a quarter of a tree trunk is used, in which the gusle is only made from the less brittle sapwood . Among the used trees that sound wood supply, this maple is estimated, as a so-called džever javor (German Riegel maple, English: curly maple ) or belo Javorje drvo (white maple ), which from the sycamore and Bosnia, Montenegro, southwest Serbia and Albania also comes from the Greek maple . The use of bar maple (= sycamore maple) can also be found in violin making. Also in the songs in the opening lines of today's lectures the evocation Gusle, made from maple wood ( gusle moje, drvo javorovo ) , often appears. In its function as tonewood, the maple also has ritual symbolism, as it is still used as coffin material in burial rites. Pine, oak, walnut and mulberry can also be used.
In contrast to violins, the cast body is made from one piece by applying the contours of the gusle to a 10 cm thick piece of wood using a template and carving out the shape of the instrument with carpentry tools. At the depth of the resonance body, about 8 cm is desired in order to obtain the preferred sound. Classically, the length of the resonance body is equal to the length of the distance from the neck to the vertebra, i.e. about 30 cm to 30 cm. The width of the resonance body is usually a little over 20 cm and the length of the bow should be around 40 cm. Depending on the decorations on the head, Guslen usually reach overall lengths of between 65 and 90 cm.
The skin cover is stretched out at the edges of the resonance box and mostly contains a few resonance holes. Goat, sheep, rabbit and donkey fur are used as a blanket, the skin of goats is generally considered to be the best. In the classic Guslen construction, the ceiling is tensioned by wooden rivets that have been worked out in the resonance body. Nails are also used less often.
Greek and sycamore maples
In cult and custom
In the folk culture of the southern Slavs, the maple generally has a higher cultic significance and sacred veneration than is the case in Central Europe. Maple trees are the bearers of pagan and animistic ideas of the tree cult among the southern Slavs , which stand out so conspicuously in the folk culture of the southern Slavs. The southern Slavs believe that the maple tree, as an emblem of the ancestor cult, is also the temporary home of the soul. Just as it is a widespread custom in many cultures to cut religious symbols into the bark of a tree, cutting cultic ornamentation into the gusle also has a spiritual function that distinguishes it as an object of cultic veneration.
Another point of importance arises from the popular belief in the forest spirits of the Vilen, who are born on trees, and are also most often seen on trees or in their vicinity, also being the souls of trees. According to popular belief, the life of the Vilen is inextricably linked to the tree in which they inhabit. If you destroy the tree, the vila loses its life. The rhetorical figure “gusle moje, drvo javorove” (“Oh my Gusle, wood of the maple tree”) serves as an idea of the “tree soul”, often sung as a mantra by the Guslaren in the first line of the song, it underlines the connection between the spiritual function of the Gusle who determined Guslar to mediate with the cult of ancestors.
The sacred character is often found in songs of the ten-syllable Serbo-Croatian folk epic , such as in the chant "Ženidba voivoda Pavla" . Here the story of a tragic honeymoon is told through images of symbolic actions and places, in which six forests have to be crossed: "three fir forests and three maple forests". In the patriarchal ten-syllable Serbo-Croatian folk epic, the evergreen firs have a sacred character as trees of life and sometimes as tragic connections to youth and especially as a symbol of a beautiful young woman; on the other hand, the maple, when used as a coffin and as a gusle, also suggests an ambiguous suggestion as an emblem of death. This ambiguity is fulfilled in the story in the journey under the trees of life and death, when the bride dies on the way to her bridegroom in one of the maple forests and proclaims in death that the bridegroom was not intended for her by fate.
The significance of animistic images of maple trees in the restoration of a patriarchal order emerges, for example, in the feudal long-lined Bugarštica Sultana Grozdana i Vlašić Mlađenj written in the Bay of Kotor in the 18th century . Here the unrealistic love affair of a Christian knight and a Turkish sultana is told in a rose garden in Constantinople, in which the janissaries hang him on a maple tree after the affair is discovered. The story culminates in the last few lines when the sultan's daughter cuts her hair in mourning and, to protect him from the sun, covers his face with it before she hangs herself on the same maple tree:
Sultana Prezdana i Vlašić Mlađenj
Brzo meni ufatite Mlađenja, mlada Vlašića,
I njega mi objesite o javoru zelenomu,
Mladoga Mlađenja!
BRZE sluge ošetaše po bijelu Carigradu,
I oni mu ufitiše Mlađenja, mlada Vlašića,
Te Careve sluge,
I Njega mi objesiše o javoru zelenomu,
A to ti mi začula Prezdana, lijepa sultana,
Lepa gospoda,
U ruke mi dofatila svilena lijepa pasa,
Ter mi brže ošetala put javora zelenoga,
Prezdana gospođa.
Tu mi bješe ugledala Mlađenja, mlada Vlašića,
A Dje mi on visi o javoru zelenomu,
Vlasicu junaku,
Ona bješe obrrezala sve svoje lijepe us kose,
Ter h bješe Stavila Mlađenju na bijelo lice,
junaku Vlasicu,
Da mu ne bi Zarko sunce bijelo lice pogdilo.
Pak se bješe uspela na javoru zelenomu,
Prezadana gospođa,
Tu se bješe zamaknula zu Mlađenja, mlada Vlašića,
Prezadana gospođa.
Tuj mlađahni visahu o javoru zelenomu.
Prezdan the Sultan's Daughter and Vlašić Mlađenj
Young Vlašić Mlađenj swiftly seize,
And hang him from the maple green
Young Mlađenj!
So swift they walked through the Imperial City,
Young Mlađenj Vlašić they did seize,
Those Sultan's vassals,
And from the maple green they hanged him,
When Prezdana fair had heard of this,
Fair Lady,
She took a lovely, silken sash,
And walked so swift toward the maple green,
The Lady Prezdana.
And Vlašić Mlađenj saw she there,
As from the maple green he hung,
Vlašić, the fine hero.
And off she cut her fine, fair hair,
And placed it over Mlađenj's face,
Heroic Vlašić's
Lest burning sun disfigure it.
And she climbed up the maple green,
The Lady Prezdana,
And there fell limp beside Young Mlađenj,
The Lady Prezdana.
So Young from maple green they hung.
Another element of the epic use of this maple emblem is found as a frequent formulaic element of a dried up maple tree ( javor suhi ) that bears yellow flowers. In the epic tradition, accusations of death by a miracle are fended off in the motif of the miracle sign of a blooming, dried up maple. With the embodiment of the maple in the ancestral cult and its use as a guslen material, this epic context of wondrous blossoming has the power to save human lives in extreme situations.
In craft and the forest industry
The wood of Greek and sycamore maple is by far the most important in Guslenbau. For example, the currently best-known Guslen instrument maker Slobodan Benderać Guslen only uses maple wood, whereby he particularly prefers high mountain origins from the Volujak Mountains on the border between Montenegro and Bosnia. As reported by the Montenegrin newspaper Vijesti, the felling of Greek maples for their own guslen needs, as well as for export to foreign sawmills that purchase tonewood for violin making, is of particular interest to the logging companies and loggers in the Kolašin region, which is due to the high prices that are sometimes paid for it, explained. As the daily reported, the police themselves had thwarted an attempt to illegally cut Greek maples in the jungle of the Biogradska gora National Park. A saber-growing trunk, known as the so-called džever javor = bar maple (or džever stablo = bar log ), is most valued. As the newspaper reported in another article, these bar maples were so popular because of their grain and suitability for musical instruments that even locations that were difficult to reach, such as in the high alpine Durmitor, were massively overused before the Second World War . Since Greek maples and mountain maples supply the most highly valued woods of the Dinarides as well as some of the most expensive European woods, the local legends say that up to 60,000 euros / m³ should be paid. Since real prices for bar maple wood are between 7,000 and 11,000 euros / m³, this is accompanied by overexploitation of the natural stocks by the local and often unemployed mountain population in Montenegro, Serbia and Bosnia.
variants
Walther Wünsch has distinguished a Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin Guslen type on the variants of the shape of the resonance body and the size of the Guslen. He also assigned the variants of the Dalmatian and Herzegovinian gusle to the latter.
There is no such thing as a pure type, as all forms are mixed together.
The differences between the three types can be found in the shape of the sound box, tone and type of playing:
- Serbian type - from the vicinity of Kruševc, to Kraljevo, Čаčak, to Užice and Bajina Bašta; Sound box with rhombic shape; rather small. Is played with crossed lower legs, sitting low and held between the knees. It is more of a more simply designed instrument that only produces a comparatively weak, rough, unkempt sound with little changeability.
- Bosnian type - from Višegrad to Sarajevo; similar to the Serbian type, especially in size; Sound box of deltoid shape. The main difference is the depth of the resonance body, which is mostly covered with numerous allegorical carvings due to the extremely high body.
- Montenegrin-Herzegovinian type - from Herzegovina, Bay of Kotor, Dalmatia and Montenegro; Sound box slightly rounded, pear-shaped and only flat sound box; big. Considered the best and most beautiful guy. Found in most professional guslars today. Is played in a higher sitting position with knees crossed and leaning against them. The Montenegrin type has a thinly scraped resonance box, in which a sound hole is often incorporated on the back. As a sonically best type with a bright, neat and sustaining sound.
Two-string guslen are rarely used in northwestern Bosnia, northern Dalmatia and the Lika . They were described by Matia Murko, later in western Dalmatia, as well as in Serbia in Ćuprija , in the area of Niš and Pirot , where he stated that beggars play the instrument. They are said to have been widespread in Syrmia , the Slavonska Krajina and the Batschka as Gege . The names and areas of the latter are assigned to the transition types between Gusle and Lirica . The second string produces a drone tone, the melody is played on the first string , which produces a higher tone. The two-string gusle is in principle the same as the one-string; but it is only played when lyrical songs are sung that are cheerful and danced to.
Functionality and types of play
The functioning of the gusle is a simple and natural one that adapts to the physiological structure of the human body. The bow technique of the right hand is not for dynamics, but balanced, the bow strokes the gusle in a less balanced non legato. When playing, the gusle is held between the knees while sitting or placed on the thighs. Often the lower part of the shins is also crossed, so that the sound body is held between the lower legs and one has a very comfortable playing posture.
The individual fingers of the left hand snap from the flank against the fretboard-free gusle and shorten the gusle string only in the air without pressing the string down. The grip technique thus preserves an old Slavonic-West Asian technique. Since the individual fingers are not trained, a series of tones arise that arise from the natural course of the striking fingers. The individual tone is not sharply outlined, clearly and unambiguously localized, but irrational, undetectable, an immaterial component of larger units. For the Guslaren, the individual tone is not important as an independent element in the classical musical sense, but he grasps it in its functional meaning within the melody line. Therefore an exact intonation does not play a role, as does the intonation fluctuations in the voice. Both are not based on lack of music, but are in the interest of the epic characteristics.
The singer only switches on independent instrument play during the prelude, after-play and interlude. The prelude also includes tuning the string to the pitch of the singing voice, followed by playing the fingers freely. This instrumental introduction serves to make the player's fingers supple and to put the singer and the listener in a heroic mood through figurative increases and faster play. Usually the singer does not start with his epic straight away, but introduces his story with a short narrative formula.
Sound system
The tone system of the Gusle was first noted by Gustav Becking in 1933 and Walther Wünsch in 1937.
Later, Béla Bartók also made a note of the sound recordings from the Perry Lord collection at Harvard.
Becking and Wünsch set up a system of five pitches that are functionally related to one another within the range of a fourth . The first level is the rest or exit tone, after which the gusle is tuned, but which is rarely used. The second stage, the finalis , corresponds to the first stage, the lowest note, in the interval of a major second . The third stage, the secondary finals, which is a small second apart from the final, leads from quiet recitation to emphasis or vice versa. The highest note, called "heroic" by Becking, forms a fourth with the first degree. In addition to these five levels, the Guslar uses various intermediate levels that cannot be precisely noted and serve to achieve different effects. Only in rare cases does the singer raise his voice to a height above the tone of the heroic level; likewise it seldom falls under the initial tone.
The five notes of the gusle are played with four finger grips without the thumb. The grips of the fingers on the string are not changed during the entire game and singing (at least in the classical technique), the tones generated with the fingers thus always remain the same during the game. The hand always holds the gusle below the vertebra, the fingers grip the string from this position, which is the most natural and comfortable position during the performance. The placement of the finger stops on the string are not marked, nor do the tones show rational whole and semitones.
All notes are used during the recitation, but only four of them are main notes, while the ring finger always has a subordinate function. The effect of irrational tones in Guslenspiel appears to listeners trained in European music as the effect of a detuned musical instrument; These irrational tones, on the other hand, are closely coordinated with the epic lecture and necessarily belong to the epic style of the Guslar. Any adaptation of the scales of irrational tones that have emerged from folk tradition by replacing intervals with diatonic scales degrades the character of the instrument performance. Only in the classical lecture does it remain a recitation of heroic content ( Robert Lachmann described such a diatonic modification as a degradation of the epic singer to a “village oratory”).
The tone system is thus fundamentally different from that of classical European music; all four intervals and five tones used for singing do not appear in European music. However, only minor shifts in the boundary are required to transform them into a series of whole and semitones and thereby align them with the modern system. Today, musically trained guslars also use chromatic scales individually.
The different physiological conditions of grasping for the individual fingers have an effect on the uneven arrangement of the tones. The singing adapts to the sound system, which is completely irrational from the standpoint of acoustics, the number of vibrations and string lengths. Overall, a pre-medieval system has been preserved in practice, especially with the Montenegrin Guslaren, whose playing style is assumed to be identical to today's practice by Gustav Becking and a thousand years ago.
The mood of the Montenegrin gusle is relatively high. The open string corresponds to a bowed c that is too high. The tone picked by the index finger is about 3/4 tone higher on d. The middle finger lies directly next to the first, which means that the next tone is an it that is too low. The ring finger, according to its different gripping movement, leaves a small space between the second and the fourth finger. He divides an e too low. The little finger touches the string approximately on the tone f.
This results in the ladder c - d - es - e - f. The spaces in whole tones are 3/4 - 1/3 - 1/2 - 2/3. Because it is grasped by the awkward ring finger, e has particularly fluctuating intonation. The important intervals are df and es-f, which correspond to a fairly pure minor third and too large a whole tone.
The musical function of the tones is irreversible in the Guslen system. The open string (c) is important in the instrumental preludes, interludes and re-enactments. In singing, however, it is only occasionally used as the lower level of the Fianlis, and without any particular characteristics. The next higher tone, d, as the second tone of the ladder picked up by the index finger, is the most common and the actual fundamental tone. It forms the finalis of by far most of the cadences, is the tone of the simple narrative, of calm, from which the large-scale increases begin and to which even the most excited parts always return. If d is played as the character tone in the verse, then this verse is played piano.
Individual cadences are ended on the es above (middle finger), the secondary finals. Becking calls this tone the cant tone. What D presents with calm expression is more emphatically, more excited, in any case louder, and consistently comparatively in mezzo forte. Verses that are determined with es are often alternated with d-verse, which often results in long series of pairs of opposites of normal tone and exaggerated tone.
e the tone of the ring finger is a dependent fill tone between the neighboring fingers that has no face of its own and never appears in the final. In contrast, f is the target and jump tone of all increases that culminate in it. The persistence and sustainability of the excitement depend on the duration of how long f the determining tone remains. However, he does not form cadences, they always fade away. f is the loudest, the Forteton in Guslenspiel. Piano never appears with an f. As a so-called “heroic tone”, all heroic passages are represented by f.
Musical use and singing
The function of the gusle is not only to support the singing, but also to deliver a prelude and interludes. The short overture is known to all oriental music, which adjusts both the audience and the singer to the spirit of the coming epic-recitative lecture. The interludes are usually short and are intended to emphasize the metric separations, mostly between two verses and give the singer time to breathe. During the lecture, the singing voice is highly tense and adjusted (“voice adjustment”). It is a feature of magical evocation that has found its way into church services as well as secular songs. In this as in other relationships, the epic recitation as performed by Balkan guslaren goes back to ritual chanting (or teamim ). Other common elements are the close connection of the musical structure to the text, the strict limitation to a few melodic turns and cadences, and in particular that only one presenter, epic singer or priest enchants a large group of listeners (Walther Wünsch speaks of "the audience in to influence the heroic sense of education "). The basic and original situation of the orally transmitted South Slavic epic are the unity of singing and at the same time making music Guslar and his respective audience, whose people are connected to him through inner participation. The Guslar has largely improvisational freedom in the form of reporting and narration, in the conduct of the action. At the same time, he adapts the respective design of the epic material to the preferred areas of interest of his audience and thus enriches their imagination. He often lingers on details, spins out parables, inserts thoughts, episodes, descriptions and reflections in order to delay the solution of the story for hours for the audience listening intently. For example, former guslars interrupted the song performance themselves at a special climax, which was then resumed the next day (e.g. with Avdo Medjedović). The traditional illiterate Guslar did not know songs, but only materials, stylistic tricks, standard expressions and typical formulas, which he arranges and rearranges as required and as a memory aid are elementary aids of epic song. This classical basic form of the Balkan hero song is best preserved in the Dinaric-Montenegrin hero song. It is a recitative singing of a very limited range, in which singing and declamation form an artistic unit and both are subordinate to the actual purpose of the hero song.
When the hero song is performed, the instrument melody coincides with the singing throughout. Voice and gusle therefore make music in unison. The function of the accompanying gusle is to hold the pitch; therefore the instrumental part is in principle identical with the singing. The tone system itself results from the natural fingering technique of the left hand. An exact intonation is not aimed for; Like the text design, the musical form also leaves room for creative improvisation. The special playing technique results in slight deviations. The epic, which can have a duration of up to two hours or more, is made up of ten-syllable non-rhyming verses. Each syllable corresponds to an embellished or non-embellished single tone on the gusle.
A few verses from the epic "Mijat, der Hajduke" can serve as an example of the theme of the songs:
The mountains who pulled Hajduk Mijat ,
after the green mountains he departed,
he seeks protection from Ljubović, the Beg .
Black earth saturates his hunger
And he quenches his thirst with ripe flowers,
Until the hero has gathered the crowd.
Epic talk
In the tradition handed down
The Guslen lecture has not changed over the centuries. For the Guslar, the tenor register is practically always required in the performance of the epic oratorio (to this day only a few women have become known as Guslars). Great oral poets like Filip Višnjić or Tešan Podrugović were able to move their listeners to tears with their special talent, as Leopold Ranke noted. This was mainly achieved through the ability to convey the national feel and spirit of the epics. The coordination of communication between Guslar and the audience is achieved in the Guslen lecture through the narration of a historical highlight in the collective use of epic language, in which well-known formulas from a wide range of simple elements of the genetic history are mixed with several moral concepts of biblical, feudal or patriarchal origin be achieved.
To this day it is customary for the audience to accompany certain lines or melodies by acclamation. A typical symbolic act in the Guslen lecture is that the Guslar before and often after his game, the Gusle reaches the audience like a sacred object and bows to them. The audience tries at concerts also often by a shouting addition of a certain Epic or Epic to a particular shape.
Observations by modern, Western European listeners also prove that the Guslaren's lecture creates and should create a special impression. Gabriella Schubert reports that she often observed how tears in the audience were in their eyes and that she left a lasting impression.
According to Schubert, the mode of action is controlled by several factors:
- Epic forms convey monumentality in themselves. With a raised voice, in festive clothing and in a solemn, ritualized attitude and mood, the epic singer addresses his audience.
- In the hero song, memories of fateful historical events and historical personalities are deepened into a prototypical heroic image of man.
- The suggestiveness of the presentation results from the combination of spoken song and accompaniment. Chanting and the content presented as well as the associated mood of the presentation, between solemn and melancholy as well as dramatic and charged with tension, resembles the declamatory prayer of clergy of the Orthodox Church.
- The singer sits upright with his head raised and his gaze directed into the distance or above. In this context, Walter Wünsch speaks of the "Montenegrin-Dinaric Herrenguslar" .
Schubert reports that she was told in 1988 by the fifty-year-old Guslaren Vojislav Janković from Drušići near Cetinje in Montenegro that a Guslar can only report impressively on heroes and heroic deeds if he himself assumes a proud, heroic stance. He mentally penetrates the world of the heroes he sung about and makes contact with them in order to draw inspiration for his lecture. He experienced the heroic deeds sung about by him and suffered the tragic fates associated with them.
Modern development
To this day the gusle dominates as a solo instrument, which is cultivated in numerous folklore clubs and is often only learned by self-taught people. Guslen are also taught in music schools in Serbia. There have been seldom attempts to combine the gusle with classical music such as the string quartet . Most successful was the work … hold me, neighbor, in this Storm… by Aleksandra Vrebalov with the Kronos Quartet , which was commissioned by Carnegie Hall . Other young musicians are also trying to establish the gusle in the world music scene. Including the multi-instrumentalist Slobodan Trkulja who, for example, integrated the gusle into an arrangement in the piece Svadbarska (German wedding song), as it was performed live with the band Balkanopolis at the 2010 EXPO in Shanghai.
After Bojana Peković won the Serbian version of Who's got Talent as a female guslar in 2012 , in which she continued to incorporate her instrument into modern arrangements in addition to classic Serbian epic Guslen songs, as a young woman she was able to meet the neo-traditional currents in Guslen folklore with Gusle , as well as the supposedly nationalist-minded folklore rejecting pro-western urban population groups to wrest a discourse in the gender context of traditional music. A further development in Bojana Peković's Guslenspiel took place through the integration of the Gusle into chamber music arrangements with the cellist Aleksandar Jakovljevic and the harmonist Nikola Peković. In this combination, they achieved second place in the world music category at the annual Castelfidardo Accordion Festival . At the end of October 2015, Bojana and her brother Nikola released their first CD with a modern recording of Gusle on the Serbian major label PGP-RTS. In addition to the setting of a poem by Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, there is also a poem written by Matija Bećković for the occasion.
Ivana Žigon as a dramaturge and director at the National Theater in Belgrade, used the Gusle in an exposed musical and scenic work on the big stage. In doing so, she probably combined the gusle with ballet for the first time in the repertoire, with Guslarin Bojana Peković in Njegoš nebom osijan , Žigon's musical and scenic work on the occasion of the bicentenary of the birth of Petar II. Petrović-Njegoš , not only the ballet pieces of the oratorio, but also accompanied the intermediate scenes in an untypically lyrical way. With the traditionally patriotic intonation of the oratorio, in which the gusle also accompanied little innovative choreographic ideas, the feature section of the performance denied artistic relevance.
In Stojite Galije Carske, another dramaturgical work by Ivana Žigon on the occasion of the centenary of the beginning of the First World War , Bojana Peković again embodied the national figure of Serbia as Guslarin. More than the previous work on Njegoš nebom osijan , Stojite Galije Carske became a great success for Žigon, which both the audience and the feature pages were inclined and in which Bojana Peković in the role of the national figure of Serbia was given a large part of the attention. Žigon received for this direction at the Moscow film and theater festival "Золотой витязь" (Golden Knight) in the presence of the Moscow Patriarch Kyrill I by the director Nikita Michalkow (who as Tsar Nicholas II was involved in the work as an actor) Direction award presented. From this work by Žigon, an interlude was dedicated to the memory of the Russian nurse Darja Aleksandrovna Korobkina and published as a separate musical and scenic interpretation by the soprano Marijana Šovran and the Guslarin Bojana Peković.
The American Graecist Milman Parry and other literary and ancient scholars as well as ethnologists of the twentieth century owed a large part of the research results on oral poetry theory to this typical lecture of epic art of singing as part of historical awareness, including on events in modern history . For example, the events of the Sarajevo assassination attempt in 1961 were presented to ethnological field researchers by young Yugoslavs in rural areas of Bosnia, and even recordings of the Sarajevski atentat recorded by Radoman Zarubica from the Zagreb label Jugoton were still popular in 1961.
In socialist Yugoslavia, the Guslaren leaned thematically on the guidelines of the real socialist “class society”, in that the leading nomenclature, such as the then communist president Josip Broz Tito, was celebrated in a striking way (including Titov put u Indiju dt. Tito's trip to India ). There were also incidents from the partisan war ( Ranjenik na Sutjesci or Po Stazama Krvavijem - Sutjeska - Guslar Branko Perović), or for a Yugoslav Guslar such an unusual topoi as the Kennedy assassination in Dallas ( Smrt u Dalasu ), which only passed on in the meantime Issues of the Turkish wars could "displace".
history
Origin and Distribution
Byzantine-Islamic mediation
Like the lutes Kopuz and Barbat , the gusle belongs to the instruments of the 1st millennium AD, whose home is Central Asia , and comes from the large mass of the older Near Eastern neck lutes, which are also common in Persian and Indian musical culture . At the time of the Slavs' invasion of the Balkan Peninsula and under the influence of Islamic culture in the 10th century AD, the gusle came to Europe as one of the exported cultural assets of the Orient . The horsehair playing string and the primitive bow , which conserves the second stage of development of the bow, speak for the oriental-Asian origin . The covering of the bowl-shaped body with animal skin also corresponds to Asian custom. Another mediation about Byzantium and the Byzantine Lyra led to the emergence of the Gusle, which was spread to all countries of the Balkan Peninsula.
According to Walter Wünsche , the Gusle emerged from the medieval Byzantine instrumentation. As an old form of European string instruments, which applies to both the way of playing and the shape of the instrument, there are no literary and iconographic sources that could tell more about the origin of the instrument. As an instrument, the gusle is not versatile and its direct function in the accompaniment of the epic song has hardly given rise to the notationless tradition in the field of the farmers and shepherds of Montenegro in an epic world that was alive in a special social and historical situation to put the musical instrument in the foreground or to report on its origin. It is only a symbol for a small area in south-east Europe, where it is considered an old, but not primitive, instrument. According to Wünsch, based on the results of Alois Schmaus , and thus also identical to Svetozar Koljević's theory on the origin of epic folk poetry in Deseterac, the Guslenepik is younger than medieval court art, for which Wünsch sees the possibility of medieval epic art being scaled down World of the Peasants and Shepherds (Albert Bates Lord sees this contrary and assumes that the Deseterac poetry of the Guslen bards and the fifteen-line long poem of the Bugarštice were cultivated in parallel). Wünsch also assumes that the medieval minstrel taught the shepherds and peasants his art and also gave them the gusle. In particular, this suitability of the Gusle for the epic accompaniment can be derived from their construction material and shape. The sound quality of stroking the horsehair cover of the bow over the playing string of the gusle made of the same material is particularly suitable for undertoning long recitations. Together with its own voice, a homogeneous sound is created.
Both the design and the playing tradition refer to their origins in the "poet's fiddle" of the Arab Bedouin Rabābah , from which the Tuareg Imzad and the Ethiopian Masinko are believed to have descended. The Arabic and Balkan practice of recitative singing is linked in a striking similarity in the form and use of the respective instruments Rabābah and Gusle . The fiddle was therefore probably originally worn by migrating peoples from Central Asia to the Balkans and has been handed down in its original game practice, while the Arabs modified it for their own needs.
From the lyrical character of the poetry that is recited for the Rabābah , its use differs from the epic chants that are accompanied by the gusle . In today's typical urban playing practice of the Rabābah, the use of the middle finger, which, in contrast, forms one of the main tones in Guslen playing, is dispensed with in playing instruments . Due to the urban adaptation of the instrument, which originated from a former village milieu, the use of the middle finger in the Rabābah was eliminated before the 10th century, which, according to Robert Lachmann , can be assumed to be the last point in time for complete agreement between Rabābah and Gusle.
Literary and pictorial traditions
Although there were reports of musicians among the Southern Slavs by the Byzantines from the first half of the 7th century, the first written evidence of the use of the gusle is only available from the early 14th century. In the reign of Stefan Uroš III. Milutins reported to Teodosije about epic chants of classical ancient materials and the use of drums and guslen at the court of the Serbian king.
In the centuries that followed, the ten-syllable Serbian epic folk chants essentially integrated the stories about the battle of Kosovo into a practically coherent folk epic . With Serbian bards, this genre spread across the Central Dinaric countries to Hungary and Poland. Serbian gusla players themselves became known by name in the early modern period. The Hungarian lute player Tinódi reported that Dimitrije Karaman was the best among them. This form of instrument playing was then commonly referred to as “Serbian style” (in the 17th century as modi et styli Sarbaci .) Also the most important epic work of the Bugarštice genre, the forerunner of the ten-syllable folk epic, Makro Kraljević and his brother Andrijaš. which appears in a story by the Croatian poet Petar Hektorović in 1555 , this rhapsody by the fisherman Paskoje Debelja is referred to as a song in the so-called “Serbian manner”.
The first pictorial representations of the Gusle and the Guslenspiel can be recorded at the beginning of the 15th century. In the Kalenić monastery , in the lunette of the biforium on the northern outer conche of the monastery church, there is a bas-relief depicting the centaur Cheiron , who instead of a lyre plays either the gusle or the rebec . A human figure of a seated cast iron player can be found as a woodcut on the door of the Slepče monastery near Bitola in Macedonia. It is also dated to the 15th century.
A representation of a guslar playing a gusle is depicted on the icon of the life of St. Luke in the Morača monastery . Its creation dates from 1672–1673.
Regions of the Balkan heroic epic
The possibility of a common historical basis for the epic of south-eastern European Slavicism is conceivable, but the individual epics of the various Slavic peoples differ significantly. In addition to the significance of the historical experience in the Balkans, the hero song is bound to the landscape. The epic landscape forces people in the mountain forests or plateaus to form a union in the sense of a clan or a family status. The landscape forms the epic man and his ethnic life. According to Walter Wünsch, the need or the justification of a heroic song is necessary as a national and communal educational tool for people who, under certain conditions, live within a particularly creative environment. This means that the epic in the Balkans has been alive the longest where the building battle - either against economic interests outside the power or against the forces of nature - forces a common defense. This determines the sociological and economic shape of the people in the epic landscape. As a characteristic of the preservation instinct and close blood relationship, they form an essential marker for the ethnic affiliation in which the epic song not only takes on aesthetic purposes, but primarily an educational and ethical task in the preservation of tradition and ethnicity, as well as the individual tribes in the fight against a hostile one Encourage the environment. The epic tradition was only able to assert itself for a long time in a pastoral culture of the clans of the mountainous countries, since state order in peasant cultures in fertile lowlands replaced the clan with village peasantry and the epic did not survive there as part of the folk tradition. For Montenegro, Wünsch emphasized the unity of the landscape and the lifestyle of the people as the reason for the continued existence of the art of hero song at Gusle up to the present day.
In general, the gusle is played from its center in the Montenegrin-Dinaric area in northern Albania , Kosovo , south-west Serbia , south-central Dalmatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina as well as occasionally in central - west Bulgaria . The heartland of the Gusle game like the trochaic ten-syllable folk epic ( deseterac ) were the former patriarchal tribal areas of the Dinaric highlands of Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania. This folk epic experienced its heyday in the illiterate world of the shepherds as well as the outlaws between the 16th and 19th centuries. Even until the first half of the 20th century, illiterate Guslen players found themselves in authentic form in the more backward regions of the Hochkarst.
Montenegro as the heartland of archaic song traditions
Specific natural conditions such as the historical circumstances had caused the isolation of the Montenegrin highlands for centuries and the slow evolution of the local culture. The clan formed the basic cell of society, which Vuk Karadžić illustrated: no city, no market, there is nothing in the whole country . Traces of feudalism had persisted in this region until the middle of the 19th century, until the end of the herd animal husbandry continued to be the general economic basis of the population. In addition to the natural spatial foundations, this was a direct function of the never-ending wars and was reflected as an ethnological manifestation in the heroic image of the Montenegrins . Oral transmission was linked to the fixed canon of tradition, which favored its long continuation and minimal change. Findings about the ancestors were imprinted in the memory over several generations. Montenegro developed into a "treasure trove" of very archaic folkloric forms.
The first major modernization took place in the 1870s after the Berlin Congress, but the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society took place until the Second World War. Schools were first introduced at that time, and free schooling began in 1907. At the beginning of the 20th century, only 15% of the Montenegrins were added to the urban population, whereby the term city is to be seen with strong reservations. The predominant part of the isolated mountainous country adhered to its archaic social order until well over the middle of the 20th century, when large sections of the population remained illiterate. The gusle not only had an elevated symbolic position in the patriarchal Montenegrin village society, it was, in addition to the rifle, its cultural characteristic, which was practically not missing in any house:
"Đe se gusle u kuću je čuju, tu je mrtva i kuća i ljudi"
"Where the gusle cannot be heard in a house, the house and the person are dead."
First Petar Perunović Perun , who like many other well-known Guslaren of Yugoslavia came from the Nahija Banjani or the Katunska Nahija (like Branko Perović ), in the old Herzegovina ( Stara Hercegovina ) and the old Montenegro ( Stara Crna Gora ), who was the first Montenegrin Guslar had a formal school education and was also a primary school teacher, modernized the traditional epic lecture through his classical music education acquired at a music school, in which he used modern elements of Western European musical voice training for the first time.
After Alberto Fortis from the Dalmatian hinterland published Guslen chants by the Morlaken , an exonym for the Slavic population of the Dinaric High Karst in Venetian Dalmatia, in his Viaggio in Dalmazia , these chants soon became an intellectual sensation in enlightened Europe, which had a romantic weakness for such popular poetry. Goethe got to know Forti's version of Hasanaginica in 1774/75 as a song from Morlackic and his own translation became anonymous as the lamentation of the women of Hasan Aga. Published in 1778 in Herder's Volkslieder as originating from Morlackian. Traces of this “sentimental Morlackism” intellectuals towards the epic poetry of the Southern Slavs were found in Rebecca West ( Black Lamb and Gray Falcon ) and especially in Milman Parry's Homer research in the twentieth century . The ethnologist and geographer Jovan Cvijić devoted a detailed profile study that has become an ethnological standard to the psychological dimension of the pagan ideals of life among the mountain dwellers of the Dinarides, which was also determined by the epic tradition , which since its first French edition (1917) to this day also the humanities debate in the The problem area of the Western Balkan willingness to use violence. The poetic idealization of the Dinaric folk epic experienced a late political idealization in which Cvijić defined the "Yugoslav ideal man" in the so-called Dinaric type ( Dinarski tip ) as a particularly well-fortified, freedom-loving mountain dweller who existed in his unadulterated tradition as the bearer of the Yugoslav ideology. In the inner workings and the psychological characterization of the heroes in the particularly extensive epics of Starac Milija and their portrayal of impulsiveness, Cvijić found a suitable illustration of the theory in the epic Milijas Ženidba Maksima Crnojevića .
"Epic laboratory" of Homer research
Musicological and literary-historical branches of knowledge were sustainably enriched through the investigation of both the musical function of the gusle in the narration of epics and the type and development of orally handed down verses in the genre of Serbo-Croatian epics. The Guslaren were also at the beginning, which led to the realization that the medieval development of European literature arose from the legacy of the literature of classical antiquity and the oral literary currents of the Middle Ages. The orally traditional heroic epic is a common literary heritage that is spread over large regions from Europe to Asia Minor and the Middle East to Central Asia and China
While the musicological investigation was long overshadowed by the literary historical preoccupation with the South Slavic heroic epic, current references focus on the musicological direction, especially with regard to music-pedagogical and folklore-preserving orientations of cultural and educational institutions in the respective countries.
In the 20th century, the South Slavic epic became a central study object for oral poetry, especially at the research institutions in Berlin, Prague and especially at Harvard, but also in the musicological sense and the function of the gusle as one of the oldest string instruments still in use. In 1912 and 1913, when researching the Guslars' songs, Matija Murko began recording the Guslars on the gramophone in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1928, Gerhard Gesemann recorded the Guslaren Tanasije Vučić in the sound cabinet of the Prussian State Library, who had become famous for his victory at the second Guslaren singing competition in Yugoslavia. These recordings were deciphered phonologically in 1933 by Roman Ossipowitsch Jakobson in the verse of Desterac in the Serbo-Croatian hero song, and musically by Gustav Becking.
From views on the stylistic methodology and formulaic language technique of the orally transmitted Serbian-Croatian hero epic accompanied with the Gusle, essential conclusions in the literary history research on the Homeric question were gained. In particular, Milman Parry and Albert Lord collected the last original evidence of mostly illiterate Gusla players in Yugoslavia in the 1930s. The “Millman Parry Archive” was created from the sound recordings of these research trips at Harvard University , the most important sound recordings collection of South Slavic heroic songs, which Béla Bartók transcribed for the first time in 1940–1942 .
While the discovery of the Guslaren was one of the great unanswered riddles in literary history for the European literary and antiquity scene of the 19th century, the observation and analysis of their recitation and language technique was an essential aid in clarifying the authorship of ancient epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey . The English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans also observed the Guslaren during the Herzegovinian uprising in 1875.
Folk history and language testimony
As an accompanying instrument for epic singing, the gusle has an essential meaning in the tradition of oral literature , the beginnings of which on the Balkan Peninsula go back to Homer's epics. The oral poetry of the Southern Slavs existed in three different literary contexts, in predominantly rural regions of the Balkans: in littoral Dalmatia with its rich Renaissance literature , with a strong Italian influence; in Serbia, where medieval literature continued into the eighteenth century; in Montenegro, where Russian literature, specifically that of the Russian monasteries, was influential, at least in a small circle of the elite. Even the earliest written versions of the epic song in the sixteenth century, however, show an already developed stylistic form that suggests that oral poetry was written earlier. Albert Bates Lord hypothetically names as early an origin as the time of the differentiation of the southern Slavs from eastern and western Slavs. While the renaissance literature in Dalmatia in its elitist form as an extension of the Italian Renaissance had no influence on the tradition of oral poetry, on the other hand the Dalmatian poets showed their knowledge of traditional folk poetry, as in Ivan Gundulić's Osman , without, however, the meter of the epics or to imitate the language. In the eighteenth century, art and folk poetry began to influence and flow into one another. In contrast, folk poetry practiced by illiterate singers in Montenegro survived into the twentieth century, with the remoteness of the Montenegrin highlands preserving such oral literary and song traditions until the early 1960s.
"Преживели после Косовског боја, повлачећи се у природне тврђаве Херцеговачко - Црногорске планине, понели су са собом ову кодирану поруку а гусле су биле и остале тај спајајући елемент, који је поруку сачувао, пренео и окупио ... У недостатку споменика од гвожђа и камена, гусле су те које преносе јединствено укрштање елемената словенске митологије, хришологије, хришигигиг ј "
“The survivors after the battle on the Blackbird Field, when they withdrew into the natural fortress of the Herzegovinian-Montenegrin mountains, took a coded message with them and the Gusle was and is this connecting element that kept, transmitted and collected this message ... in the absence of monuments made of iron and stone, the Gusle was and is the one that transmits the unique combination of elements of Slavic mythology, Christian belief and historical events. "
In the tradition of the epics, according to the historian Milorad Ekmečić, in a culture like the Serbian, which existed for a long time as an occupied society without schools and books, the most essential element of a national historical consciousness can be found: They are the most successful artistic achievement of their time, a The source of the clearest expression of the vernacular, and above all they are the oral tradition of the history of a people with a society scattered over various hostile empires ...
The Australian historian Christopher Clark , who on the occasion of the 100th outbreak of the First World War, published a widely acclaimed publication on the causes of the war in Die Schlafwandler , emphasizes the Guslen songs in the context of the meaning of tradition within Serbian folk history: These songs created an amazingly close bond between poetry, history and identity in the villages, towns and markets. Clark notes that the songs that ... were sung to the single-stringed Gusla, in which singers and listeners of new experienced the great archetypal moments of Serbian history, a typical phenomenon of Serbian culture and mark of the struggle for freedom from any foreign rule, in which a fictional one Serbia projected into a mythical past ... to be brought back to life.
A literary illustration can be found in Ivo Andric's novel The Bridge over the Drina , in which a Guslar, symbol of resistance, keeps memories alive. Even modern authors have emphasized this immediate effect of historical retrospect in the peculiar encounter in the Guslenspiel, such as the American poeta laureatus Charles Simic : After a while the poem and the archaic instrument from another world began to reach me and everyone else. Our anonymous poetic ancestor knew exactly what he was doing. This stubborn roar with the sublime lyrics of the poem touched the most primal point of our psyche. The old wounds were open again.
In the sociocultural context, the gusle and the epics presented with it, especially among the Serbs, assumed the function of a cultural weapon that had been filtered out as an essential part of their culture since the national rebirth of slavery by Islam in the 19th century. The importance of the writing of the orally transmitted poetry by Vuk Karađić into the recently reformed Cyrillic alphabet lay in the monumentalization of folk literature, which, according to Tomislav Longinović, constantly overwhelms the present as a vision of the past and directs the future backwards.
Even after the liberation from the Ottoman yoke (1816), the discourse about foreign rule and the ruled remained a fundamental motivation for the Guslar people. As an agnostic vision, the Guslarians in the epics combined a ritual catharsis of the collective burden, in which the injured but at the same time heroic people continued to sing. Thus, the endless repetition of the ritual sacrifice of the dead in the battle on the blackbird field was born into these epics , which, even after redemption from Islamic dominance, prepared the male population precisely to continue realizing this death in life for the country. Basically, this version of the narrative of patriarchal notions of dominance and submission persisted in rural patriarchal layers of the Dinaric Highlands, while more educated urban layers saw the epics as a source of pride and identity.
The Slav peasant population, who remained on the verge of national developments, continued to see hope in the epics to free themselves from their backwardness.
With the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, many of the soldiers of the Serbian army, who came from the rural milieu, took their Gusle with them to the battlefields against the Ottomans. The Gusle thus returned to the context of historical events. During the First World War, not only later well-known Guslars like Petar Perunović Perun played as soldiers in the breaks in the fighting for the soldiers in the trenches during the Battle of Cer , Battle of the Kolubara , Battle of Kajmakčalan , Veternik in the Battle of Dobro Polje , accompanied Guslen players even the withdrawal of the Serbian army via Albania to Greece. Petar Perunović Perun, who was still playing for the soldiers on the Salonika Front, was summoned to the United States for the recruitment of Serbs abroad, where he was among others in front of the physicists Nikola Tesla and Mihailo Pupin with the Gusle for supporting the Entente in Macedonia advertised. The soldiers led the Guslen to war and brought them back home with the wounded after the expulsion. In the Ethnographic Museum Belgrade you can find guslen that were worn by the Serbian troops in the Balkan Wars and World War I. A special historical instrument is the gusle of an invalid, which he had made from a soldier's helmet in the French military base Bizerta in Algeria and which can be found today in the Belgrade Ethnographic Museum as a special historical exhibit from the First World War. The gusle was supposed to strengthen the soldiers' morale. Guslaren like Petar Perunović played on the front lines themselves. Even Tesla, who heard Perunović in New York in 1916, was emotionally moved by the epic lecture Stari Vujadin by Perun and, after the latter had finished the lecture, said: The gusle is the greatest power to conquer the soul of a Serb . Another important Serbian emigrant, Pupin, cultivated his memories of the epic power of the Guslen lectures and ordered a bas-relief with the subject of Guslar Filip Višnjić, a replica of which he later bequeathed to the grammar school in Bijelina to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Višnjić's death.
In Montenegro, epic creativity also experienced multiple echoes within Guslen's art through the historical events of the First World War and in particular through the events of the Battle of Mojkovac . Hadži Radovan Bečirović Trebješki, who volunteered to take part in the Battle of Mojkovac fought between the Montenegrins and the Austro-Hungarian army in the snow-covered valley of the Tara on Christmas Day 1916, also created the main dramaturgical and expressive work in the modern Guslen epic in the theme of the First World War forms the Serbian-Montenegrin national epic in the 20th century ( Bitka na Mojkovcu , 1927). Bečirović had started his epic-poetic confrontation as an Austro-Hungarian prisoner in 1917 in the Nađmeđer camp in what is now Slovakia, but was already familiar with the Gusle in his earliest biography. Through Bečirović, the epic ten silver of the Southern Slavs experienced a change in the form of a rhyme addition, which all predecessors had avoided.
The epics on Gusle also shaped leading political and social classes in Montenegro and Serbia after the Second World War: Milovan Djilas , Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić also publicly showed their affinity for the Guslenspiel. Prince Njegoš, who wrote poetry in the Serbian vernacular in Desterac, described in the national epic Bergkranz (1847) in the words of Bishop Stefan a function of the Gusle as the "bearer" of historical messages, which can still be found in later generations; the chants of the Guslaren should stimulate action to be immortalized in the "immortality" of an epic:
If man attains an honest name on earth,
his being born then wasn't at all in vain.
But without his honest name - what is he?
Generation which was made to be sung,
muses will vie for many centuries
to weave for you garlands worthy of you.
Your example will teach gusle singers
how one should speak of immortality!
Social function
It serves primarily as an accompaniment to the epic song of the South Slavic Guslaren and, along with the rifle, was a sacred symbol of all freedom fighters in the Dinaric mountains .
Before the liberation of the southern Slavs and Bulgarians from Ottoman rule, the gusle had two main functions:
- Glorification, reinforcement and preservation of the traditional “epic type of human being” in an environment alien and hostile to this type
- Keeping the thought of the necessary liberation struggle alive.
Today, after the liberation, the hero song no longer has to call for the struggle for freedom. The modernization of the traditional, strongly patriarchal society also led to a different attitude to the song and its performance. So it is no longer played in front of relatives, which means that the art of performing has to be completely adjusted to the impression of a general listener and has to adapt to their aesthetic views and artistic demands. Because of this, today's heroic songs often deal with national themes.
The gusle had a prominent function in the social environment of the Balkan pasture farming . Especially in the most backward high regions of the southeast Dinarides between the Maglić, Durmitor and the Prokletije / Bjeshket e Nemuna, d. H. from eastern Herzegovina via Montenegro to northern Albania. In the strictly patriarchal societies of the highland inhabitants, the gusle was exclusively a men's instrument, young women were urged to kiss a guslar's hand when a guslar appeared in the house and it has been reported many times that women in Montenegro used to sing about a (male) Heroes had to stand. Compared to Zorka Milich, who interviewed 100-year-old women in Montenegro, Ljubica, a Montenegrin who was estimated to be between 112 and 115 years old, told how common the game of guslens once was in the deprived mountains: We always had a lot of guests, men who were sitting around eating and drank. They played the gusle and sang. We loved to listen to them. I can still remember some of the songs. The young people don't care about these old things. I'm sorry It is important to maintain our traditions. Too much blood was shed for it. Suffered too much. The country wouldn't be called the Black Mountain if it wasn't black. It is soaked in blood, in poverty in death. We don't know anything about comfortable living. We never had one .
Due to the similar socio-cultural context is the ratio of the Albanians in northern Albania the circulation area of the rhapsodists (rapsode) of Lahuta. Mostly they were given within the family environment for visitors or for family celebrations as a tribute to the guests. We sang these songs mostly in the winter nights when we gathered in the guest rooms where the "burrat kreshnjake" (brave men) stayed and gathered, but also in the mountain pastures and in the mountains where we wandered with the herds that were in the Shadows from oaks or near springs of mountain pastures of Daberdol, Kushetice and others .
The main themes of the various epics known as kange te mocme (old songs), kange trimash (heroic songs ), kange kreshnikesh (songs of the border warriors ), kange te Mujit e Halilit (songs of Muji and Halili), are battles for pasture land and its defense, battles with Monsters, theft from young women of the enemy. A pre-Ottoman origin from the choice of topic has been suggested. Gjergj Fishta's (1871–1940) famous work Lahuta e Malcís , which is about the Albanians' struggle for freedom, is in the tradition of heroic songs .
At the beginning of the 1980s, the number of epic singers (rapsode) has decreased drastically, at the same time the number of mastered song texts has thinned out significantly. The main reason emphasized is the competition of new song types, with radio and television stations removing Lahuta lectures from their programs.
Religious message
In its older forms, the ornamentation of the gusle was entrusted to it as a carrier of messages that were important for the collective, regardless of the songs that were played. The original Guslen are characterized by pagan symbols, the newer ones by a mixture of pagan symbols that are often rooted in national history.
The gusle should not only be heard, it should also be seen through its elaborate decorations. Guslar events are still offered today as visual art, with great attention being paid to the external design of the lecture.
The pagan ideas use the register of animal representations as well as mythological beings. Here it is the decorations of the head with horse, ibex, ram, snake, falcon, eagle and horse. In the magical and mythical way of thinking of the southern Slavs, these animals are chthonic marks and in the imagination they are filled with the realm of the dead and contact between this world and the next. From the representation of the chthonic animals as ornaments, it is assumed that the songs that are sung with the accompaniment of the Gusle relate to life after death and are intended to establish ritual connections to the dead ancestors. At the beginning of the 20th century, the image program was expanded to include the figures of national history, and Matija Murko mentioned depictions of Serbian kings and emperors such as Tsar Dušan, King Peter I of Yugoslavia, Miloš Obilić or Kraljević Marko during his research trips from 1930–1932.
Political history
As a symbolic instrument, the gusle assumed an increasing political function, especially during nationalist movements in the 19th and 20th centuries. This statement was already valid in Serbia for the wars of liberation under Karađorđe and for the government of Miloš Obrenović, who played gusle himself. This becomes clear in the revolutionary national movements in the age of Serbian Romanticism, especially in the poems of Prince-Bishop Petar II. Petrović Njegoš. In the early epic poem Njegoš, "Nova pjesna crnogorska o vojni Rusah i Turaka, početoj u 1828 godu" ( "New Montenegrin song of the War between the Russians and the Turks, Begun in 1828" ), which is already linked to the world of literature , the romantic cult of Gusle in association with Serbian nationalism in the wars of liberation from the Turks by invoking Gusle and Vila emphasized in the first lines :.
Nova pjesna crnogorska
B'jelo vilo, moja divno drugo,
svedi, drugo, sve u Gusli glase,
tvoje glase au Gusli jasne,
da ih čuje bunk razumije,
razumije drago aku mu je.
Srbalj brate, ova pjesna za te,
ti češ čuti, ti je razumjeti
ponajprije od ostalih svije.
New Montenegrin song
White vila, my wondrous comrade,
bring together, comrade, all voices into the gusle,
your clear voices into the gusle,
that he who understands may listen,
understands if it pleases him.
Brother Serbs, this song is for you,
you will listen, you will understand
first of all others.
The political design concerned both the appearance of the gusle and the content of the songs performed at the gusle. The Guslen ornaments also increased in type and extent, and additional medallions and heraldic symbols mean that some Guslen soon look like mobile " iconostases ". After the Second World War, Guslen were decorated with decorations of the Yugoslav Partisans and the coat of arms of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1961, for example, Tito received a stone gusle depicting the events of the Battle of the Sutjeska . This still represents one of the special exhibits in the Museum of the History of Yugoslavia . The exhibition site in the Old Museum is in the immediate vicinity of Tito's mausoleum in the House of Flowers ( Kuća cveča ).
As a symbol of legitimation for power in the name of the people, the gusle became important among leading rulers in socialist Yugoslavia and Albania. Milovan Djilas , once the third man in the cadre of officials of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, used to play Gusle and Tito, as President, not only liked to listen to Guslen players, he also invited them, for example, to the state visit of Egyptian President Nasser to a lecture at the Tjentište Memorial Complex on the Sutjeska one where he had asked for a song to Bajo Plivljanin.
The former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha also used Albanian folklore to demonstrate closeness to the people. Several Lahuta songs were also dedicated to Hoxha, such as in the anthology Gesund may you be, Enver Hoxha (Enver Hoxha tungjatjeta) the Guslen songs Enver Hoxha led us (Enver Hoxha na ka pri), and about Enver is also talked about above (Per Enverin malet kuvendjne).
Song corpus
Writing
The writing of the South Slavic Epic Chants can be set for the end of the 15th century at the earliest. A fragment of a Bugarštice was noted in 1497 in the Italian city of Giaoia del Colle on the occasion of the visit of the Queen of Naples Isabella Del Balzo on May 31, 1497 by the Italian court poet Rogeri di Pacienzia in the epic court poem Lo Balzino . It was performed there by a colony of Slavic emigrants to dance and music on the occasion of the Queen's visit and is part of the group of the so-called despot epics, a corpus of the post-Kosovo cycles, in which the historical event of Janos Hunyadi's capture by Đurađ Branković was thematized:
Fifty years later, in 1555, the Croatian poet Petar Hektorović made the most important epic work of the Bugarštice genre with an inscription in the so-called "Serbian manner" by the fisherman Paskoje Debelja during a boat trip on the island of Hvar . Makro Kraljević and his brother Andrijaš is the classic tale of fratricide .
A compatriot of Hektorovićs, Andrija Kačić Miošić (1704–1760), a Franciscan, published a history book in Venice in 1756 in Venice under the title Razgovor ugodni naroda slovinskoga , which was disguised as a collection of epics. The book became so popular that a second edition followed in 1759 and Kačić himself planned a third. After Kačić's book was distributed in all Croatian countries including the western regions of Slovenia, it soon reached Bohemia and Slovakia. It was spread over Serbia and Macedonia only two years after the publication of the second edition to the Holy Mount Athos.
Kačić's idea was to use ten-syllable verses for the simple Slavic rural population, who otherwise had no access to scholarly books due to their lack of education, for the first time a book about history written in a Slavic language in its own idiom as a hymn book with songs written in ten-syllable verses to write. Kačić saw himself as a historian, but his work is now generally seen as that of a poet. However, of the 100+ just published in the second edition in Kačić's book, only three were folk epics, while some of the songs contained parts of folk epics such as the Hasanaginice, a Muslim family drama from the Imotski area .
A German became the first to write down a large collection of Bugarštice, which was already widespread in the 18th century. In elaborate Cyrillic Habsburg script he had written down ten-syllable epic and heroic folk songs in Slavonia in the so-called "Erlanger Manuscript" around 1720, but was only able to do so without distinguishing between stressed and unstressed consonants and often without individual words in Serbo-Croatian to be able to distinguish correctly. The first well-known ten-syllable poem of the southern Slavs that was received internationally was Die Frau des Hasan Aga ( Hasanaginica ), which in a German translation of "Asan-Aginice" recorded in Italian by Alberto Fortis in Dalmatia in 1774 by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1775 in Johann Gottfried Herder's Volkslieder was published. The Goethe translation was soon translated into English by Walter Scott , Prosper Mérimée into French and Alexander Pushkin into Russian.
In the enthusiasm for folk songwriting at the time, which saw Ossian significance in the Serbo-Croatian epics , with an often associated romantic enthusiasm for the ethnographic and political conditions of the Balkans, it is also understandable that the European literary scene appeared on the first publications by Vuk Stefanović Karađić's collection of Serbian-Croatian oral epic poetry from 1814 reacted so extremely benevolently.
Andrija Kačić Miošić (1704–1760)
Vuk Karđžić (1787–1864)
Therese von Jacob (1797–1870)
Matija Murko (1861–1952)
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Vuk Karađić's collection
When Karađić's collection was first published in print, Jakob Grimm , the most important German comparative folk song researcher at the time , compared Serbian and German heroic songs and emphasized the pure and noble language for the former, recommending Serbo-Croatian to German students of Slavic languages for reading to learn the "excellent songs". He convinced Therese Albertine Louise von Jacob, a young woman who spoke a little Russian and was a great admirer of Goethe, to translate some of the songs into German. Their translation, Folk Songs of the Serbs (1825) immediately became a minor literary classic. In addition to Germany, the Serbian folk songs were received intensively in France and England, in France by Prosper Mérimée, in England by journalism that dealt with the embodiment of the national character of the songs in the context of political and military questions of the Middle East and in particular with the Homeric meaning of the Serbian-Croatian Oral Poetry as a Subject of International Scholarship. To this day, this collection represents the main part of the South Slav epic epic and the largest collection of folk songs in European literature. For Geoffrey NW Locke, The Epic Poetry of Serbia is the richest oral epic material in any single European language . Peter Levi , poet, literary historian, critic and former professor of poetry at Oxford University confirms that:
“They are one of the most powerful and unrecognized verse rivers in Europe. They carry their own taste in their native mountains, the strength of their troubled times and the moral greatness of an orally conveyed type of poetry that is justifiably called heroic. "
structure
Vuk Karadzić divided the corpus of the oldest Serbian folk songs into three periods:
- the corpus of epics that were written before the Blackbird Field Battle (epics relating to events in the time of Tsar Stefan Uroš IV. Dušan and in particular the non-historical Marko Kraljević cycle)
- the historical epics of the Amselfeldschlacht , which make up the central part of the epic folk songs (Lazar cycle)
- the epics that were written shortly after the Battle of the Blackbird and deal with the despots.
With the liberation struggle from Ottoman rule, epics on outlaws ( Hajduken and Uskoken cycle) as well as descriptions of battles emerged ( Mali Radojica - Little Radojica, Mijat Tomić , Boj na Mišaru - Battle of the Mišar, etc.)
Well-known epic songs are, for example, the heroic songs:
- from the pre-Kosovo cycle: ( Zidanje Skadra - the building of Skadar / Shkodra, Ženidba Dušanova - Dušan's wedding, etc.)
- to prince Marko ( Prince Marko and Falke , Prince Marko and Mina of Kostur , Prince Marko and Musa Kesedžija et al.)
- on Prince Lazar and the Blackbird Field Battle : ( Banović Strahinja , Kosovka devojka - The Girl from the Blackbird Field : Car Lazar i carica Milica - Tsar Lazar and Tsarina Milica: Propast carstva srpskog - Decline of the Serbian Empire: Smrt majke Jugovića - Death of the mother of Jugović, among others)
- from the post-Kosovo cycle: ( Đurđeva Jerina - Đurads Jerina, Ženidba Đurđa Smederevca - The marriage of Đurad from Smederevo and others)
The non-historical epics are dedicated to the social environment of people and the social order:
- Bog nikom dužan ne ostaje - God owes nothing to anyone: Hasanaginica - Lamentation of the women of Hasan Aga and others
Tsar Stefan Dušan , (Lesnovo Monastery, around 1350)
King Vukašin Mrnjavčević (Psača Monastery, around 1365), antihero of the epics and father Kraljević Markos
Prince Lazar and Princess Milica (Ljubostinja Monastery, 1410)
Kraljević Marko, Ivan Meštrović , 1908
Miloš Obilić, Ivan Meštrović 1908
Singer
The first Guslaren was reported at the Polish court in 1415, from where a Serbian Guslenspiel was mentioned. Important historical Guslaren are Tešan Podrugović (1783–1815), Filip Višnjić (1767–1834) and Ćor-Huso Husović (Ćor means one-eyed), Janko Milić, Ivo Bojčin Jovičević, Petar Perunović , Tansijećijumli Vučić (1883–1937) Hadži Radovan Bećirović Trebješki (1897–1986) and Branko Perović (1944-200?).
20th century
Petar Perunović was the first Guslar to become known to a wider world audience. When Guslar was in the service of the Serbian Army in World War I, who accompanied the withdrawal of the Serbs via Albania to Corfu to the Salonika Front, he became a local celebrity among the Entente soldiers. That is why he traveled to the USA during the war to recruit emigrants in 1916 and played in America for Nikola Tesla and Mihajlo Pupin . As Guslar he traveled to Alaska himself and was also the first Guslar whose recitals were recorded on record.
After the First World War, the semi-illiterate Hadži Radovan Bećirović Trebješki emerged from the upper Morača and the Moračka Planina. His epics became the most played of the new generation and are generally considered to be the most poetically significant in Serbian folk poetry in the 20th century. With the epic poem "Mojkovačka bitka" (1927) he gave the last battle of the Montenegrins in the battle of Mojkovac, which was fought on January 7, 1916 against the invasion of the Austro-Hungarian army, its epic form, which is still valid today. Guslar Boško Vujačić became one of the outstanding guslars with his interpretation of Bećirović's "Mojkovačka bitka" . At the central devotional event on January 18, 2016 for the centenary of the Battle of Mojkovac, he presented excerpts from Bečirović's epic to the ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Serbian Orthodox Church and the political and military representatives of Serbia in the Great Hall in the Sava Congress Center in Belgrade.
The artistically most important Guslar in the period after the Second World War was Branko Perović. In 1971 he also won the first nationwide singing contest among 143 participating Guslaren Yugoslavia in Sarajevo (and a second time in 1974) after the last possible such manifestation before the war in 1933 by the jury of I. King Aleksandar had taken place. Branko Perović, whose origins from the barren Karstland of the Montenegrin High Karst, determined him to perform traditional heroic epics in particular, but as a professional Guslar he also recorded a wide repertoire of newer, partly less artistic works on record. His vocal quality, rarely found among the Guslaren, and a subtle and expressive interpretation, especially of the classic Amselfeld epics such as Smrt majke Jugovića ( Death of the Jugovići's mother ), determined Perović as the guide of the subsequent Guslaren generations. Perović's recording of the more modern piece "Сватовски вијенaц" is described by Danka Lajić-Mihajlović as a milestone in the interpretation of the singer, who was at the height of his work.
Historical personalities who played the Gusle were Prince Petar II. Petrović-Njegoš , Prince Miloš Obrenović , Milovan Djilas and Ivan Meštrović . As the national poet of the Serbian language, Prince Njegoš marks the transition between folk and art poetry in the profession of epic poetry through the chants of the mountain wreath , The False Tsar, Šćepan the Little and The Torch of the Microcosm written in the Deseterac . The mountain wreath itself is the main work of South Slavic epic poetry.
Karadžić's singer
Karadžić wrote the oral poetry of the Serbo-Croatian heroic epics at a time of social and historical upheaval among the revolutionary-minded Serbian agricultural population, who had to suffer from the high taxes and reprisals of the Ottoman administration . In the historical turning point of the Karađorđes uprising in 1804, the social order of the Ottomans, who maintained a medieval feudal society in large parts of the Balkan Peninsula until the end of the 18th century, was called into question. In the epics, the sociological breakdown of the rule of the Janissaries exercised by Dahijas was found in the change in traditional themes. Especially since the Serbian Orthodox Church was revived at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, Orthodox church legends were now part of the chants. The social upheavals of the "Serbian Revolution", which also affected the patriarchal order , are exemplified in Banović Strahinja , one of the masterpieces of the epics of the blackbird field legend. When Banović Strahinja pardoned the unfaithful wife, the epic became part of critical controversy.
The classic Serbian folk songs recorded and published by the folk song collector Vuk Karadžić (from 1814) came from two social groups: on the one hand, these were outlaws who belonged to the rebels against the Ottomans and mostly came from Herzegovina, and on the other hand from blind women who eke out their existence on the fringes of society through the singing of epics.
Hajduken
A major contribution of the epic songs came from the Hajduks , outlaws the environment village were uprooted by biographical events from their social and led a hidden life in the forests and mountains. The biographical paths of the Haiduken are often traced in their songs to the Gusle.
- Starac Milija
Vuk Karađić also wrote down the epic Banović Strahinja from a Hajduken, the ' Starac Milija ' ( sage Milija , Starac is the honorary title of a wise man), who was terribly disfigured on the head and forced to flee from Kolašin in the Herzegovinian homeland as a decrepit man and because of his own misery he was unable and unwilling to present himself to the gusle without plenty of slivovitz . The personal misfortune of the sage Milija is due to the motives of destruction, homelessness and the broader concepts from the village patriarchal way of life of the lost homeland. In the behavior of the heroes in the epics of the sage Milija, the changes in a certain decline in the patriarchal morals that characterized his time are manifested.
- Starac Raško
Hajduke Weiser Rashko also came from Kolašin in Old Herzegovina , from whom the epic Zidanje Skadra ( The Building of Skutari ), which was controversially criticized by Jakob Grimm and Johann Wolfgang Goethe, about the depiction of terrible human sacrifices, based on ancient stories and biblical connections major construction project. Goethe was shocked about the content of the epic: by superstitious-barbaric attitudes in the description of a human sacrifice and of the most disgusting kind. A young woman is walled up so that the fortress of Scutari could be built , but without analyzing the tragic overtones of the plot to have. In this story, the ambiguous mythological figure of Vila, a nature spirit, appears and demands a pair of twins to be found as human sacrifices for the completion of the city of Scutari, but the pathos of the moving plot is determined by the patriarchal views of family ties of village life, in the magical and pathetic forms are related to a tragic human position in the story. Even Ivo Andrić later used the motif of the malicious plan of the Vila in Zidanje Skadra for the plot of the mythological creation of the Višegrad Drina Bridge in the novel The Bridge over the Drina .
- Stojan the Hajduke
The copy of the medieval epic in the pre-Kosovo cycle Ženidba kralja Vukšin ( Wedding of King Vukašin ) comes from the Herzegovinian Stojan der Hajduke . Stojan was in jail for killing a woman who was an alleged witch and who he was certain had eaten his child. His concept about witches and women can be found in the epic in the figure of Vidosava in the wedding of King Vukašin. one of the most negative figures in Serbian hero poetry.
- Tešan Podrugović
Karadžić's greatest poet was Tešan Podrugović (1783–1815), who played the gusle very well, but did not sing along with it. He recited the epics with great care. Podrugović came from Kolašin in old Herzegovina ( Stara Herzegovina ) in present-day Montenegro and, especially as the epic of the songs to Kraljević Marko, gave this part of its own distinctive features.
Fled to Syrmia in 1813 after the suppression of the Serbian uprising and in 1815, following the call to fight for freedom, was ultimately killed after various skirmishes between Bosnia and Serbia;
Blind people
In addition to Filip Višnjić, who was also blind, Vuk Karadžić owed some of his most famous epics to numerous blind women: Živana from Zemun (d. 1828), the blind Jeca from Zemun (born as Jelisaveta Marković, d. Zemun 1828), the blind Stepanija from Jadar, as well the blind from Grgurevci (from Kosovo). That epic songs in particular were found so numerous among blind women had to do with their social position, which was based on superstition in their visionary abilities. In the superstition, blind people could come into contact with the past as well as predict future events; in epic research they represent a group of people that is difficult to categorize.
The blind were the only group of people for whom an "academic" Guslen training is historically proven. In the small Syrian town of Irig near Ruma there was a so-called "Blind Academy " ( Slepačka akademija ) from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century as a religious institution and musicological institution for professional guslen education . The blind were trained there as begging wandering singers in the Gusle repertoire and performed in various genres from the classic hero epic, ballads to religious chants around the monasteries of the Fruška Gora , at markets, during monastery celebrations and at agricultural fairs. This special folkloric manifestation of the blind beggar wandering singers has been proven for many Slavic settlement areas. Blind beggar-wandering singers appeared as professional singers in a religious capacity as mediators of a vertical and horizontal plane of heaven and earth. They weren't downright beggars either, but owned a house and family. In 1780 the work of the academy was stopped by decree of the Habsburg Empire and the intervention of Catholic clergy Iloks . Nevertheless, Irig remained a center in the Guslenspiel. Not far from Irig, a private school later settled in Slankamen on the Danube as its successor, the last representative of which was the blind Pera Dmitrov (1852–1926). Dmitrov's gusle was kept in Irig's reading room, but burned together with the book fund during the pillage by the German occupation in World War II. Similar facilities existed in other Slavic countries, but the gusle was only used by Serbs and Croats, while Bulgarians, for example, used the gadulka . The blind mendicant wanderers were therefore called slepi-guslari (blind guslari) in the former , slepi-gadulari (blind gadular) in the latter . In addition to their mobility, the most important point in the semantic characterization of blind guslars is the blindness they suffer from ordinary poor people who are disabled due to disabled people, e. B. in the case of lame people, as beggars, remained tied to their place and had no special "holiness". Blind Guslaren were practicing singers, whose form of employment has been preserved in Serbian idioms (here in Russian translation): Without copper, a blind man does not paint the Gusle ("Слиjепац не гуде без мjеди"), without copper a blind man does not play the Gusle (Слепой Слепой Слепой) играет на гуслях без меди), The Blind Guslaren - plow and hoe ("Гуслеслепцу - плуг и мотика"), The Gusle the blind - у ги гы мот гу пли слемт.
- Filip Višnjić
The classic time of epic song in the time of social upheaval and the struggle for freedom in the context of the Serbian uprising and "Serbian revolution" was shaped by the blind seer Filip Višnjić (1767–1834), with which also the swan song of the entire genre of the Serbian-Croatian heroic epic was initiated. With his mastery of epic language, his visionary talent and his own historical experience, he was able to move his listeners deeply.
Višnjić, born in Gornja Trnovo in Bosnia, contracted variola vera when he was eight . Blinded by the smallpox disease, he later witnessed the general oppression by the Ottomans. When he was twenty, a family member in his uncle's household was raped by a group of Turks where he lived after his father's death. In revenge, the family killed two Turks, one of whom was hung from a plum tree by his own bridle. As a result, all members of the family were tortured and most were murdered. What survived was the story of his heroic uncle Marko, how he was brought to the gallows by Zvornik while singing . He then wandered homeless for many years in the Ottoman Empire and lived on the Gusle. He played for the Christian "Rajah" in many Bosnian villages and during monastery celebrations, but Višnjić also cultivated a repertoire for the feudal Turkish lords when he stayed in the cities. In 1809 he followed the Serb rebels that invaded Bosnia and joined them. In 1810 Višnjić sang in Loznica in front of Karađorđe , the leader of the uprising, who went to Višnjić to talk to him. In 1813 Višnjić fled to Syrmia, where he remained until his death in the village of Grk on the Bosut near Sremska Mitrovica .
Višnjić delivered a testimony to the events in the center of one of the most important historical national rebellions, which with the deep knowledge in epic song, which he was able to acquire in the years of wandering in the heartland of epic creation, which in the traditional mythological and historical stories, visionary and supernatural, highlights of history and immediate events also encompassed the entire framework in the expression of the Serbo-Croatian epic. According to Svetozar Koljević , Višnjić ruled from the chants of medieval epics to the immanent events of the Serbian revolution, from Ottoman sultans and Muslim heroes: ... an epic vocabulary in which human fate found recognition in the tragedy of history .
Milman Parrys singer
The American Homer researcher Milman Parry and his assistant Albert Bates Lord traveled to Dubrovnik in 1933 on the recommendation of the Slovenian folk song researcher Matija Murko to record the epics of the South Slavic bards in what was then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia using the most modern recording methods of the time. They were accompanied by Guslaren Nikola Vojnović who conducted the interviews. The aim was to make comparisons on the Homeric question in situ. Parry's original plan to conduct this field research in the Soviet Union failed because of the objective difficulties that an American research team would have expected there at the time.
Parry found two programmatic singers in Ćor-Huso Husović and Avdo Međedović, who, by being labeled as modern equivalents of Homer, soon achieved exemplary status, especially in American Homer research. Similar to Homer and other bards, these were given a special heroization, which they were also given due to the attribution as "last of their kind".
- Ćor-Huso Husović
Ćor-Huso, also Hasan Ćoso or Isaak from Kolašin, is valued in the tradition as a legendary figure as well as a real person and, due to his enigmatic appearance, is the paratype of the "legendary singer" who can be compared to in various references from the legendary tradition Homer allowed. In his time he was considered the best singer in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia, who is said to have performed even before Emperor Franz Josef II. Ćor-Huso has been described as the most important teacher of all Guslaren at the time and was probably born around the middle of the 19th century. In addition to traveling to Montenegro and Serbia, he wandered through Bosnia for nineteen years. Ćor-Huso's striking appearance is legendary: especially plump, he is said to have weighed 120 kg, he is said to have had a huge mustache, was fully armed, rode in a red silk coat with gold-knitted sleeves in Croatian folklore, with green trousers and black boots , a fez, a turban, a long knife that hung on his belt and two sterling pistols, he is described in the tradition in the appearance of a hero, as that of a Guslen player. The legend also tells that Ćor-Huso received 100 gold Napoleon and a hundred sheep as wages from Franz Josef after performing in front of the emperor. Despite these legends, all Guslaren Milman Parrys have always claimed to have been taught by Ćor-Huso without actually having any personal contact with him. Despite these many legendary decorations and although none of the numerous folk song researchers in the first half of the 20th century, even after great efforts, was able to make the acquaintance of Ćor-Huso (among others, Alois Schmaus searched for him for years, Schmaus succeeded) not even acquiring certain biographical details), closely linked to the Milman Parry collection of South Slavic heroic songs at Harvard. Ćor-Huso's influence on all the singers that Parry and Lord recorded in Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro is seen as exemplary for the epic tradition in gusle play, just as the different legendary traditions and the exaggerations in the medium of epic tradition are functional components .
- Avdo Međedović
Of the singers who could record Milman Parry in 1935 and Albert Lord in 1950 and 1951, Avdo Međedović (1875–1953) from Bijelo Polje was by far the most talented. The epic Ženidba Smailagić Meha. (12,323 lines), which Avdo Međedović was able to recite by heart, almost reached the length of the Iliad (15,690 lines). The longest sound recording of a single epic by Avdo Međedović is 16 hours and took up 199 pages. The song material recorded in Harvard for Avdo Međedović amounts to 53 hours. Although Avdo had once learned Turkish in the Ottoman army, he nonetheless remained illiterate and did not learn to read or write in any language. However, he was able to keep a 2194-line song that he had heard and remembered it 16 years later without ever having performed it again in the meantime. Because of this exceptional talent, as well as his epic creativity, Parry and Albert Lord awarded him the honorary title "Yugoslav Homer". He was also the last actual creator and epic in the tradition.
In contrast to Christian guslar singers, who recited the epics in the family and at home, Muslim guslars like Avdo Međedović performed mainly in city cafés during Ramadan during Lent. Since owners of cafés used to hire a Guslar specifically for the 30-day festival, the Bosniak epics were comparatively much larger.
reception
In the ancient world, the gusle is the only instrument that has survived to this day and is used to accompany epic chants, the musical style and notation of which has remained known. Unlike Beowulf , the Roland saga or the Homeric sagas, in which only the texts have been passed on, epic poetry and the associated music can be assigned to one another in the South Slavic heroic epics from the work of Vuk Karadzic, Millman Parry and Béla Bartók.
When Vuk Karadžić's German translation of the South Slavic Heldenlieder (from 1814) increased the public interest of the European literary and readership in the poetry of the Balkan Peninsula, in addition to the more or less faithful translations, literary-critical treatises and historical discourses by Johann Wolfgang Goethe , Jacob Grimm , Alexander Puschkin , Walter Scott and Leopold Ranke , the South Slavic song poetry also taken as a source of inspiration as in Prosper Mérimées La Guzla , which is an alleged transmission of alleged Illyrian folk songs a deliberate forgery of a fictitious Guslar, Hyacinthe Maglanovich poetic participation in the soft spot for folk poetry at the time.
Naturally, the style and corpus of the epic songs had the greatest influence on modern art poetry in the Balkan countries, the predominant modern classical work of which in Serbian and Montenegrin literature was Der Bergkranz ( Gorski vijenac ) by Petar II. Petrović-Njegoš.
Contemporary culture
In Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia, the Gusle is always considered a political medium and, as an instrument that is also primarily misused to transport political-national content, had a prominent position in the commentary on the Yugoslav wars, as well as the glorification of potential war heroes last Balkan Wars. Newly composed propaganda texts were created on a nationalist basis during the armed conflict. In the Guslenspiel, the symbolic meaning was preserved in the archaic form of presentation. Unlike other typically Balkan instruments, the Guslen game was and is not alienated by electronic means or other modern electrical instruments. The fact that in Serbia the Guslen music has a special following, especially in circles of war expellees from the Central Dinaric former home areas, as well as in the more patriarchal rural strata of the population, tendencies to epically emphasize the recent war history, is also in the more important concerts such as in the Belgrade Philharmonic in "Kolarac" noticeable. Even epics singing about the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 are given as minor historical curiosities , when Montenegro, as Russia's loyal ally, sent Japan a declaration of war, for which 110 years after the war between Montenegro and Japan still no formal peace treaty was signed. The cult that the former Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić cultivated around the Gusle, however, generated great media coverage . During the Bosnian War he appeared as a guslen player and while he later went into hiding with a false identity in Belgrade, he was a frequent regular in a bar in New Belgrade frequented by the right-wing public , where the guslen game was played alongside other national devotional objects. Above all, the media intensively illustrated how Karadžić is said to have resorted to Gusle under his own portrait.
The mantra of the Gusle as an anachronistic medium in the use of nationalistic appropriation, not only with the Serbs, but also with Croats, Montenegrins, Albanians and Bosniaks, today supplies the essential problem of seeing this as a value-free element of the tradition of the culture of the Balkan peoples. The anthropologist Ivan Čolović has in an essay in the daily newspaper Danas ( Sveto ili Krivo gudalo - Holy or guilty string instrument ), as well as from later in the book publishing culture terror Balkans as essay ( Sve te gusle - Prilog proučavanju Politické istorije jednog muzičkog instrumenta - All the Guslen - Contribution to the study of the political history of a musical instrument ) with the polemic of "killing Guslen", with Čolović in the weekly magazine Vreme in the weekly magazine Vreme describing the context of the entire antagonistic folk cultures in the Balkans as their primary problem area: I share this argument. And add: not only does the Gusle kill, it kills language, poetry, history, mythology, religion, it kills the so-called national folk culture in its entirety .
The harsh modern criticism and the intellectual rejection that stems from the perception of the connection between nationalism and Gusle were at times exposed to even the most exposed "Guslen advocates" among the poets and especially in the Orthodox Church. With these, the gusle is seen as an essential part of the national cultural-historical career:
"И не знамо ко је кога довде довео: гусле нас или ми њих. Ни ко је постао споран: ми, гусле или оно што гусле памте и говоре. Немогуће је да ми ваљамо, a гусле не ваљају. Можда би требало да ми останемо y 20. вијеку, a оне нека прођу даље да причају нашу погибију ”.
“And we don't know who brought whom here: the Gusle us, or we them. And also not who is in question: we, the Gusle or what the Gusle remembers and speaks. It is not possible that we are good, but the gusle are not. Maybe we should stay in the 20th century and they should move on to tell of our death. "
As a symbol of national identification and an integral part of the folk culture of the Gusle among Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and Serbs, each stratum of the people tried to win identity-creating features for themselves from the pool of cultural heritage with the warlike collapse of Yugoslavia. In the delimitation, however, even irrational patterns were used, so for the important epics Avdo Međedović, which comes from an Albanian origin, a Bosniak affiliation was assumed in certain layers.
The gusle as an emblem of nationalist tendencies in popular culture in the 1980s and 1990s was and is commented on in a satirical way. So had Rambo Amadeus 1989 album Hoćemo gusle called whose satirical cover Rambo armed with a gusle, a kite above the Lovćen is riding. Named after one of the bizarre events during the anti-bureaucratic revolution in Montenegro, when the protesting exponents of the slogan Hoćemo Ruse (Bring us the Russians) rowed back after a public media criticism and claimed that they had in truth called Hoćemo Gusle (Bring us Guslen), it makes use of it the general parody of the new "folk culture" with the characteristic forms in the neo- and turbo-folk genre, in which Rambo Amadeus ridiculed the gusle in video clips, as well as their meter and the style of heroic epic poetry in riffs of rap songs. However, the artist always has a real concern and respect for folk poetry. From Rambo Amadeus' striking use of the gusle in the function of the identifying feature of folklore and folk poetry, as well as in the simultaneous parodistic mocking of the turbo-folk scene, the idea condenses according to Marko Živković, in the negative attitude towards the modernist urban elite in the new Serbia In the “traditional scene”, the irony of the genre was often not perceived.
In his ambiguous reading of folklore and folk culture, Rambo Amadeus also had the narration of epic poetry in the genre of Deseterac Smrt Popa Mila Jovovića by Božo Đuranović (1975), which quickly became a Montenegrin standard piece in the gusle repertoire, in the anti-war album Psihološko propagandni kompletni kompletni M-91 (1991) used for his eponymous piece in the hip-hop genre. Rambo Amadeus had prominently incorporated the gusle in Đuranović's Montenegrin poetry on the death of Pope Jovović in the Turkish wars in a modern song medium that offers an impressive expression of the pre-war mood in Yugoslavia in 1991. In the accompanying video clip, which is characterized by scenes from Sergei Eisenstein's film epic Alexander Newski , an ambiguous message that is difficult to interpret is stored about the actual propagandistic effect of Eisenstein's pictures in the intensive visual allusion of National Socialist emblematic.
Parodic performances by alleged guslars and ironically performed “epic” text poems, for example for the celebration of the 89th anniversary of the Belgrade Philharmonic, are now part of everyday culture in Serbia.
Walther Wünsch pointed out a special problem with the further development of epic singing. The ancestral epic song that is accompanied by the gusle can be expanded with new motifs or histories, but the traditional technique of the lecture cannot. This also limits the use of the gusle as a gestalt factor for epic singing. Linked to this is the shape of the gusle, whose materials wood, horsehair and animal skin, as well as the stylized animal head at the end of the neck, come from the pastoral culture.
An expansion of the range of decorations to include valuable furnishings points to folk history in recent times. Portraits of regional rulers or mythological figures from the heroes of the Middle Ages to the princes of the 19th century to the communist leaders of the 20th century can be found on Guslen alongside insignia of state and popular symbols. Linked to this is the echo of the function of the epic, in which the gusle is symbolically the guardian of folk history and vernacular.
At the beginning of the Croatia war material and metal badges worn on which one - was of Croatian soldiers - above and parallel to the introduction of uniform military insignia eagle was depicted with a gusle in the clutches. This symbol of freedom was often combined with the Croatian national colors and the words CRO ARMY .
Music education training
In Serbia, separate departments of the Stevan Mokranjac music academy in Belgrade and the Stevan Mokrajnac music academy in Kraljevo are dedicated to the music-pedagogical training of folk instrument performances in guslen playing . From the youth work of the music academies established u. a. the young Guslarin Bojana Peković (born 1998), who, after winning the Serbian version of X-Factor , also proved herself as a professional Guslarin in the country's state cultural institutions through her subsequent work with the director Ivana Žigon.
Folklore and club activities, Guslen in mass culture
Guslenlieder and Guslaren are today a mass phenomenon in the musical culture of the Serbo-Croatian language region. In addition to the Guslenkonzerten and Guslaren competitions, the publication of songs on audio and video carriers reaches broad sections of the population. According to D. Golemović, the Guslen phenomenon itself “endangers” neo-folk music. This phenomenon is illustrated by the Guslen associations that exist in 37 Serbia, 22 in Bosnia in the Republika Srpska and 19 in Montenegro, whose main association also publishes the magazine <Gusle> and has close to 4,000 members. After the first Guslen Association was founded in Sarajevo in 1961, this practice spread to all Yugoslav republics.
Since the 1980s, records and cassette recordings have hit 100,000 or even 500,000 editions. From the beginning, a core of Guslaren from the Montenegrin-Herzegovinian area dominated, who remained dominant both stylistically and quantitatively. As a result, today's contemporary Guslen performance presents itself as a mass phenomenon from the hybridization of village and urban tradition, which essentially stems from the Herzegovinian-Montenegrin practice. Older Guslen recordings, on the other hand, show a less conspicuous virtuoso singing and more text-related, narrative-oriented style of presentation devices.
In 1928 the first nationwide Guslaren competition was held in what was then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. This was reintroduced in 1971 after a long break. Since 2006 the competitions have also been sponsored by the Ministry of Culture of Serbia.
Museum collections
Guslen can be found in numerous ethnological and musicological collections, both in the actual countries of distribution and in important collections around the world, such as the Germanic National Museum in Nuremberg, the Metropolitan Museum in New York or the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade . A gusle made entirely of stone by Pero Zečević and made entirely of stone is exhibited in the military museum in Belgrade, with a particularly lavishly designed gusle with the socialist symbols of the former Yugoslavia and motifs from the battle of the Sutjeska in the liberation struggle from the occupation in World War II.
On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the First World War and the multiple use of the Gusle by soldiers within the Serbian Army in the Balkan Wars and the First World War, the Ethnographic Museum Belgrade placed its Guslen collection from September 20 to November 16, 2014 the title: Где сви ћуте оне говоре: гусле Етнографског музеја у Београду ( where everyone is silent, there they utter: the castles of the Ethnographic Museum ). After the first exhibition held at the same place in Belgrade in 1904, it was only the second such exhibition that the Guslen were considered to be folk musical instruments of the Balkan Peninsula. The author of the exhibition was the curator of the museum, Miroslav Mitrović. In addition to the presentation of the development of Guslen between 1850 and the interwar period of the 20th century, the traditional technique of Guslen production and playing style, as well as an appointment at the end of the exhibition Meaning, Corpus and Character of Epic Art in the company of Gusle von of the University of Belgrade. There were also performances in the Guslenspiel in the museum.
In the museum itself, a workshop was set up in which the production of a gusle could be "learned" by the well-known guslen instrument maker Slobodan Benderać, as well as a "school" of guslen play. Benderać himself presented 25 Guslen from his oeuvre; A virtual tour through the exhibition with all exhibited Guslen has also been made possible via the web.
Guslen made by Slobodan Benderać are, in addition to their quality craftsmanship, sought-after instruments made by professional guslars. Among other things, the instrument by Bojana Peković comes from Benderać's workshop.
heritage Site
According to Darko Tanasković, the inscription of the Gusle in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by the Representation of Serbia to UNESCO is being discussed intensively on February 25, 2017. Gusle was included in the national register of the intangible cultural heritage of Serbia in 2012. On November 29, 2018, Singing to Gusle was included in the intangible cultural heritage of humanity by the representation of Serbia at UNESCO.
literature
- Non-fiction
- Svetozar Koljević : The Epic in the Making . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, ISBN 0-19-815759-2 .
- Albert Bates Lord : The Singer of Tales . Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts 1960.
- Austrian Museum of Folklore - Musical Instruments / 2 - chordophaone 2012: Guslen / Lirice / Lahute bowl-neck lute . Publications of the Austrian Museum of Folklore, XXIX, Vienna, ISBN 978-3-902381-20-0 , pp. 103–155.
- Specialist publications
- Béla Bartók to Albert B. Lord: Serbo-Croation Folk Songs: Texts and Transcriptions of Seventy-Five Folk Songs from the Milman Parry Collection and a Morphology of Serbo-Croatian Folk Melodies . New York, Columbia University Press.
- Gustav Becking : The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic . Archives néerlandaises des phonétique expérimentale, 1933, 8–9, 144–153.
- Ivan Ćolović: All the Guslen. A contribution to researching the political history of a musical instrument. In: Ivan Ćolović: Cultural Terror in the Balkans - Essays on Political Anthropology . fiber Verlag, Osnabrück 2011, ISBN 978-3-938400-71-5 , pp. 157-206.
- Robert Crawshaw: The file on H. - Metahistory, Literature, Ethnography, Cultural Borders and the Balkan Borders. In: Reginald Byron, Ullrich Kockel (Eds.): Negotiating Culture: Moving, Mixing and Memory in Contemporary Europe. ISBN 3-8258-8410-4 , pp. 54-74.
- Dragoslav Dević: Gusle and Lirica - Two chordophonic bow instruments in Yugoslavia. In: Walter Deutsch, Gerlinde Haid (Ed.): The violin in European folk music . (Writings on folk music, 3). Schedel, Vienna 1975, ISBN 3-85268-047-6 , pp. 38-47.
- Andrej Fajgelj 2008: Phraséologie et idéologie comparées dans l'art de l'épopée: Homère, chansons de geste, gouslé . Doctorat de lÚniversité Paul Valéry - Montpellier III. (PDF)
- Gerhard Gesemann : Heroic way of life. On the literature and essence of the Balkan patriarchy . Berlin. 1943.
- Johann Wolfgang Goethe : Serbian songs. In: About art and antiquity . 2, XV, 1825. (online at: zeno.org )
- Roman Ossipowitsch Jakobson : About the Versbau der Serbo-Croatischen Volksepen . Archives néerlandaises des phonétique expérimentale, 1933, 8–9, 135–144.
- GA Küppers-Sonnenberg: Ornaments and symbols of South Slavic peasant sounds (Guslen). In: Journal of Ethnology. Volume 84, H. 1 (1959), pp. 88-109, Dietrich Reimer Verlag. (online at: jstor.org )
- Harry Levin : From Gusle to Tape recorder . Comparative Literature Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3, Special Issue on the Art of Narrative (1969), Pennsylvania, 262-273. 1969. (online at: jstor.org )
- Hans Schwabel: What does oral epic learn for Homer . Wolfgang Kullmann, Michael Reichel: The transition from orality to literature among the Greeks . (ScriptOralia 30), Tübingen, Narr Verlag. 1990, ISBN 3-8233-4479-X , pp. 65-110.
- Beatrice L. Stevenson: The Gusle Singer and his Songs . American Anthropologist, 17, 58-68, New York. 1915. (JSTOR: PDF)
- Walther Wünsch : The violin technique of the South Slavic Guslaren. (Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague, Volume 5). 1934.
- Walter Wünsch: hero singer in Southeast Europe . Work from the Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin 4, Harrassowitz in Komm., Leipzig. 1937.
- Tanja Zimmermann: The Voice of Gusle and its resistence against electrification. In: Dmitri Zakharine, Nils Meise (Ed.): Electrified Voices: Medial, Socio-Historical and Cultural Aspects of Voice Transfer. V & R Unipress, Göttingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8471-0024-9 , pp. 403-410. 2012.
- Epics and translations
- Erika Beerman (ed.): Serbian hero songs . (Marburg treatises on the history and culture of Eastern Europe, Volume 37; Eastern European Studies of the Universities of the State of Hesse, Series II). Stefan Schlotzer (translator). Otto Sagner, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-87690-627-X , S. V: Hans-Bernd Härder: Foreword.
- Ludwig August Frankl : Gusle. Serbian national songs. Wenedikt, Vienna 1852 ( digitized from Google Books).
- Anne Pennington , Peter Levi : Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs . (Unesco collection of representative works - European Series). Duckworth, London 1984, ISBN 0-7156-1715-X .
- Milne Holton, Vasa D. Mihailovich 1997: Songs of the Serbian People - From the Collections of Vuk Karadžić, translated and edited by Milne Holton and Vasa D. Mihailovich . Jonathan Harris (edt.) Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, ISBN 0-8229-3952-5 .
- Geoffrey NW Locke 2011: The Serbian Epic Ballads - an Anthology - translated into English verse by Goeffrey NW Locke . Tanesi, Belgrade, ISBN 978-86-81567-45-6 .
- John Mathias, Vladeta Vučković 1987: The Battle of Kosovo - translated from the Serbian by John Mathias and Vladeta Vučković - preface by Charles Simic . Ohio University Press, Athens Ohio, ISBN 0-8040-0897-3 .
- Fiction
- Mile Budak : Grgicas Gusla. ("Grgićine gusle", 1930). In: Ders .: Novellas . Hrvatski Izdavalački Bibliografski Zavod, Zagreb 1942, pp. 27–61.
- Ismail Kadare : The File on H. 1981.
- Josef Friedrich Perkonig : The Gusla player. Narrative. (RUB; Volume 7305). Reclam, Leipzig 1943.
Web links
- Virtual tour of the Guslen exhibition in the Belgrade Ethnographic Museum
- Documentation video for the epic singing of the Gusle on the occasion of the inclusion in the UNESCO ICH list
- Interview by TV broadcaster B92 with master builder Slobodan Benderać on the occasion of the exhibition at the Belgrade Ethnographic Museum
- Milman Parry Archive at Harvard University with the most important sound recordings collection on the oral heroic epic of Southeast Europe
- Sound documents of the recordings of Guslaren Tanasije Vučić by Gerhard Gesemann in 1928 in Berlin, sound archive of the Humboldt University in Berlin
- The world's largest database of all known Guslen songs based on Andrej Fajgelj's dissertation at the University of Montpellier
- Gusle from Serbia (1930) in the collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
- Gusle in the Yale collection of musical instruments from 1901
- Susan Karol. in the Weekly Standard on the value of Gusle for the breakthrough in oral poetry theory Milaman Parry for the current state of Homer research in classical philology
Individual evidence
- ↑ Danica Lajić-Mihajlović: Competitions as a form of public gusle playing performance. In: Musicology. 11, 2011, Belgrade, p. 196.
- ↑ Milne Holton, Vasa D. Mihailovic: Serbian Poetry from the Beginnings to the Present. Yale Russian and East European Publications, New Haven, Yale, 1989, ISBN 0-936568-11-7 , p. 81.
- ↑ a b c d Svetozar Koljević : The Epic in the making. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, p. 1.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 106.
- ^ Miles Foley 1986: Oral Tradition in Literature. University of Missouri Press, Columbia, ISBN 0-8262-0490-2 , p. 4.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord 1960: The Singer of Tales. P. 209.
- ^ Miles Foley 1986: Oral Tradition in Literature. P. 4.
- ↑ Klaus von See 1978: What is hero poetry? In Klaus von See (ed.): European hero poetry . (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt), Ways of Research, Volume 500, ISBN 3-534-07142-5 , pp. 19-21.
- ^ Miles Foley 1986: Oral Tradition in Literature. P. 5.
- ↑ Aida Arifagić: gusle. 30 stories about objects from the Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina (online: Kunsthalle Berlin)
- ↑ Portal for Croatian
- ↑ Walther Wünsch: To the Igor song. In: The music research. 17th year, no. 2 (April / June 1964), p. 156 (online: JSTOR)
- ↑ Matija Murko 1951: Tragom srpsko-hrvatske narodne epike / 1 . JAZU, book 41, Zagreb, p. 323.
- ↑ Gabriella Schubert 2005: On the epic tradition in the Serbian-Montenegrin cultural self-image. In: Österreichische Osthefte. Jhrg. 47, Vienna, p. 511.
- ↑ Gusle is grammatically a feminine plural in these languages , Walther Wünsch, 1934: Die Geigentechnik der Südslavischen Guslaren . Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague, Volume 5, p. 1.
- ↑ Andrej Fajgelj 2008: Phraséologie et idéologie comparées dans l'art de l'épopée: Homère, chansons de geste, gouslé. L'Université de Montpellier III, p. 23 tel.archives-ouvertes.fr (PDF).
- ↑ Walther Wünsch: The violin technique of the South Slavic Guslaren . (Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague). Verlag Rudolf M. Rohrer, Brno / Prague / Leipzig / Vienna 1934, pp. 11-13.
- ↑ Al Jazeera Balkans : Ritam Balkana : “6. epizoda: Rambo Amadeus - Hronika Umay ” on YouTube
- ^ Dragoslav Dević: Gusle and Lirica - Two chordophonic bow instruments in Yugoslavia . Walter Deutsch, Gerlinde Haid (Hrsg.): The violin in European folk music . (Writings on folk music, 3). Schendel, Vienna 1975, ISBN 3-85268-047-6 , p. 38.
- ↑ The special sound - from wood by Annette Rauhaus; The violin maker Almut Schubert and the forest scientist and tonewood saw Andreas Pahler explain the specialty of the sycamore maple for musical instrument making; in Holz-Zentralblatt No. 17 of April 24, 2009
- ↑ a b Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 2.
- ^ A b Dragoslav Dević: Gusle and Lirica. 1975, p. 39.
- ^ Dragoslav Dević: Gusle and Lirica. 1975, p. 38.
- ↑ Friedrich Krauss, 1890: Popular belief and religious custom of the southern slaves: mainly based on our own investigations . Münster, p. 36.
- ^ Friedrich Krauss, 1890: Popular belief and religious custom of the southern slaves: mainly based on our own research. P. 74.
- ↑ a b Svetozar Koljević : The Epic in the making. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, p. 78.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević : The Epic in the making. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, p. 117.
- ^ John S. Miletich 1990: The Bugarštica - A Bilingual Anthology of the Earliest Extant Suth Slavic Folk Narrative Song . Illinois Medieval Monographs III, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, ISBN 0-252-01711-0 , pp. 228-233.
- ↑ a b Svetozar Koljević : The Epic in the making. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, p. 61.
- ↑ Vijesti, November 13, 2011 (online: vijesti.me)
- ↑ Vijest, June 12, 2006 (online: vijesti.me)
- ↑ Vecernje novosti, May 23, 2011 (online: Novosti.rs)
- ↑ a b Leksikon Jugoslavenske Muzike. Volume 1: A-Ma. Zagreb 1984.
- ^ A b c Dragoslav Dević: Gusle and Lirica. 1975, p. 43.
- ↑ a b c Enciklopedija Jugoslavije. Volume 4: E-Hrv. Zagreb 1986.
- ^ Curt Sachs : Handbook of musical instrumentation. Breitkopf and Härtel, Leipzig 1920, p. 168.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe . Work from the Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin, 4, p. 23.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe . Work from the Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin, 4, p. 24.
- ^ Gustav Becking 1933: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic. In: Archives Neerlandaises de Phonetique experimentale, VIII – IX, La Hage 1933, 144–153.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe . Work from the Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin, 4.
- ↑ Béla Bartók, and Albert B. Lord (Ed. :) 1951: Serbo-Croatioan Folk Songs: Texts and Transcriptions of Seventy-Five Folk Songs from the Milman Parry Collection, and a Morphology of Serbo-Croatian Fok Melodies . Nex York, Comumbia University Press.
- ↑ Béla Bartók, and Albert B. Lord (Eds.) 1978: Yugoslav Folk Music . Vol. 1: Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs and Instrumental Pieces from the Milman Parry Collection . Albany, State University of New York Press.
- ↑ Gabriella Schubert 2006: On the epic tradition in the Serbian-Montenegrin cultural self-image . Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, Österreichische Osthefte, vol. 47, Vienna, 501–517. ISSN 0029-9375 -5, p. 507.
- ^ Robert Lachmann 1937: Bedouin Sung Poetry Accompanied by the Rababa - January 20, 1937 . Robert Lachmann 2013: The Oriental Music Broadcasts, 1936–1937 . Edited by Ruth F. Davis, Recent Researches in the Oral traditions of Music, 10, AR Editions, Middleton, Wisconsin, ISBN 978-0-89579-776-6 , p. 38.
- ^ Robert Lachmann 1937: Bedouin Sung Poetry Accompanied by the Rababa - 20 January 1937. p. 38.
- ^ Robert Lachmann 1937: Bedouin Sung Poetry Accompanied by the Rababa - 20 January 1937. p. 38.
- ^ Gustav Becking 1933: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic . Archives Néerlandaises de Phonétiyue Expérimentale, Tome VIII-IX, La Haye 1933, p. 144153.
- ^ Gustav Becking 1933: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic. P. 146.
- ^ Gustav Becking 1933: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic. P. 146.
- ^ Gustav Becking 1933: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic. P. 147.
- ↑ Politika, August 30, 2013 Remek-dela jugoslovenskog područja
- ^ Lachmann, Robert 2013: The oriental music broadcasts, 1936–1937: a musical ethnography of Mandatory Palestine . Middleton, Wisconsin, AR Editions, XLIII, [9], p. 38.
- ^ Lachmann, Robert 2013: The oriental music broadcasts, 1936–1937: a musical ethnography of Mandatory Palestine. P. 38.
- ^ Lachmann, Robert 2013: The oriental music broadcasts, 1936–1937: a musical ethnography of Mandatory Palestine. P. 38.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch: The violin technique of the South Slavic Guslaren . (Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague). Verlag Rudolf M. Rohrer, Brno / Prague / Leipzig / Vienna 1934, p. 11.
- ^ S. Singer: The Hajdukenthum among the southern slaves . In: The Salon for Literature, Art and Society. Vol. II (1885). Publisher by AH Payne, Leipzig 1885, p. 446.
- ^ Vreme, March 28, 2013 Vreme uhvaćeno u objective
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 322.
- ^ Leopold Ranke: A History of Servia and the Servian Revolution . London 1847, p. 74.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 323.
- ↑ a b Vreme, April 18, 2002 Hoćemo li, moj đetiću, zapjevati Karadžiću
- ↑ Gabriella Schubert 2005: On the epic tradition in the Serbian-Montenegrin cultural self-image . Österreichische Osthefte, 47, Vienna, p. 506.
- ↑ Gabriella Schubert 2005: On the epic tradition in the Serbian-Montenegrin cultural self-image. P. 509.
- ↑ (PDF) ( Memento from January 13, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ YouTube video ... hold me, neighbor, in this storm ...
- ↑ Iva Nenić: Inner / outer Borderland: contemporary 'reworking' of gusle. In: New Sound: International Magazine for Music. 2012, No. 38, p. 17 (online at: connection.ebscohost.com )
- ^ YouTube, Balkanopolis in Shanghai China for World Expo 2010
- ↑ Iva Nenić: Going public: female instrumental musicians in the contemporary folk and world music scene in Serbia . (PDF)
- ↑ September 21, 2015 International Accordion Prize, a great style final
- ↑ Nebesko per DETEC i doveka - Bojana i Nikola Pekovic
- ↑ Dan online (online: Dan)
- ↑ Youtube: Njegoš nebom osijan (YouTube: Njegoš nebom osijan )
- ↑ Peščanik, November 29, 2013 Nenad Oradovic: Utočište besmisla (Online: Pescanik)
- ↑ RTS, Sep 17. 2014 "Stojte, galije carske" u Centru "Sava"
- ↑ Interview with Ivana Žigon in Story, October 11, 2014 Ivana Žigon: I posle razvoda sačuvali smo porodično gnezdo ( Memento from January 15, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Vesti, November 29, 2014 Glumila i pevala u liku Majke Srbije
- ^ Dan online, January 8, 2015 Spectacle Ivane Žigon prikazan u Podgorici na badnji dan - Kolo svijetlih niti
- ↑ В церемонии закрытия V форума "Золотой витязь" принял участие Святейший Патриарх Кирилл
- ↑ Tanjug, December 9, 2014 Ivani Žigon ruski "Zlatni vitez" za režiju ( Memento from January 19, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Marijana Sovran i Bojana Pekovic
- ↑ Klaus von See: What is hero poetry? In: Klaus von See (Hrsg.): European hero poetry . (= Ways of research. 500). Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1978, ISBN 3-534-07142-5 , p. 15.
- ↑ Klaus von See: What is hero poetry? P. 20.
- ^ Leopold Kretzenbacher: Heldenlied and Sarajewomord. A Serbian epic fragment from the Vrlika (1961). In: Klaus von See (Hrsg.): European hero poetry . (= Ways of research. 500). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1978, ISBN 3-534-07142-5 , pp. 407-415.
- ↑ Radoman Zarubica - Sarajevski atentat
- ↑ Po Stazama Krvavijem - Sutjeska - Guslar Branko Perović
- ↑ Smrt u Dalasu
- ↑ a b Walther Wünsch: The violin technique of the South Slavic Guslaren . (Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague). Verlag Rudolf M. Rohrer, Brno / Prague / Leipzig / Vienna 1934, p. 9.
- ^ Curt Sachs: The musical instruments of India and Indonesia . Berlin 1915, p. 117.
- ^ Curt Sachs: Handbook of musical instrumentation . Breitkopf and Härtel, Leipzig 1920, p. 172.
- ^ Curt Sachs: Handbook of musical instrumentation . Breitkopf and Härtel, Leipzig 1920, pp. 124, 127.
- ↑ Muzicka enciklopedija. Volume 1: A-J. Leksikografski zavod FNRJ, MCMLVIII 1958.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1967: On the history of the string instruments of the southeast. In: Ludwig Finscher and Christoph-Hellmut Mahling 1967: Festschrift for Walter Wiora on December 30, 1966 . Bärenreiter, Kassel, p. 613.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1967: On the history of the string instruments of the southeast. P. 613.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1967: On the history of the string instruments of the southeast. P. 614.
- ^ Anthony Baines: The Oxford Companion to Musical Instruments. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1992, p. 277.
- ^ Robert Lachmann: Program 5: Bedoin Sung Poetry Accompanied by the Rabābah (January 20, 1937). In: Robert Lachmann: The Oriental Music Broadcasts, 1936–1937 . Recent Researches in the Oral Traditions of Music, 10 AR Editions, Middleton, Wisconsin, p. 39.
- ^ Robert Lachmann: Program 5: Bedoin Sung Poetry Accompanied by the Rabābah (January 20, 1937). P. 39.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 11.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 13.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 125.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 25.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 26.
- ↑ Svetozar Koljevic in: Foreword to the translation of Serbian-Croatian heroic songs by Anne Pennington and Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs . Unesco collection of representative works, European Series, Duckworth, London 1984, ISBN 0-7156-1715-X , pp. XIII, pp. 49-57.
- ↑ Nadežda Katanic: Dekorativna kamena plastika moravske škole . Prosveta, Beograd 1988, p. 184.
- ↑ Roksanda Pejović: A Historical Survey of Musical Instruments as Portrayed in Mediaeval Art in Serbia and Macedonia. In: International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music. Vol. 13, No. 2 1982, pp. 177-182.
- ↑ Slide collection Födermayr, Guslespieler (Bitola, 15th century) Kačulev, I., In: Galpin Soc. Journal. (1963), X Gusle player (Bitola, 15th century)
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe . Work from the Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin, 4, Institute for Sound Research at the University of Berlin, Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig, p. 10.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe. P. 10.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe. Pp. 11-12.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe. P. 20.
- ^ Walter Wünsch 1937: Hero singers in Southeast Europe. P. 21.
- ↑ Therese von Jacob : Historical view of the languages and literature of the Slavic nations; with a sketch of their popular poetry. 1850, p. 366 (Rastko: online)
- ↑ "ни града, ни вароши, у цијелој земљи нема нигђе"
- ^ Gorski vijenac.
- ^ Larry Wolff: International Fascination: Morlacci, Morlackisch, Morlaques. In: Larry Wolff 2001: Venice and the Slavs: The Discovery of Dalmatia in the Age of Enlightenment . Stanford University Press, Stanford, ISBN 0-8047-3945-5 , pp. 189-196.
- ↑ Marko Živković, Feuilton in Danas, May 28, 2013 Homeri u dinarskim brdima
- ↑ Bojan Janković, Interview Politika, May 10, 2009 Inat kao srpski brend
- ↑ Andrej Fajgelj 2008: Phraséologie et idéologie comparées dans l'art de l'épopée: Homère, chansons de geste, gouslé . L'Université de Montpellier III, pp. 61-62.
- ^ Gregory Nagy preface in Karl Reichel: Singing the Past - Turkic and Medieval Heroic Poetry . Cornell University Press, Ihaca and London, 2000. pp. VII – IX (PDF)
- ↑ Matija Murko: Tragom srpsko-hrvatske narodne epike / 1 . JAZU, Zagreb. 1951, p. 12.
- ↑ uptake of Guslaren Vucic by Gerhard Gesemann 1928in Berlin
- ↑ Roman Ossipowitsch Jakobson: About the Versbau der Serbo-Croatischen Volksepen . Archive néerlandaises des phonétique expérimentale, 1933, 8–9, p. 137.
- ^ Gustav Becking: The musical structure of the Montenegrin folk epic . Archives néerlandaises des phonétique expérimentale, 1933, 8–9, 145.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making. 1980, p. 7.
- ^ Website of the Millman Parry Archives at Harvard University ( Memento of July 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Béla Bartók in a letter to the New York Times (June 28, 1940): Parry Collection of Yugoslav Folk Music - Eminent Composer, Who Is Working on It, Discusses Its Significance - By Béla Bartók ( Memento of October 7, 2013 on the Internet Archives )
- ^ Henry J. Brajkovic: Looking North Of The Greek World: The Slavic Folk Poetry of The Balkans. Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute (online at: yale.edu )
- ↑ Quotation: Tim Judah: The Serbs, History Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord 1986: The Merging of two Worlds: Oral and Written Poetry as Carriers of Ancient Values. In: John Miles Foley (Ed.) 1986: Oral Tradition in Literature - Interpretation in Context . University of Missouri Press, Columbia, ISBN 0-8262-0490-2 , p. 20.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord 1986: The Merging of two Worlds: Oral and Written Poetry as Carriers of Ancient Values. P. 22.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord 1986: The Merging of two Worlds: Oral and Written Poetry as Carriers of Ancient Values. P. 29.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord 1986: The Merging of two Worlds: Oral and Written Poetry as Carriers of Ancient Values. P. 52.
- ↑ Patriarch Pavle, On the occasion of the founding of the Guslen association "Car Lazar" in Prizren in 1984.
- ↑ Milorad Ekmečić : Dugo kretanje između kljanja i oranja - Istorija Srba u Novom veku (1492–1992). (Serbian Дуго Кретање између Клања и Орања; Историја Срба у Новом Веку (1492–1992)). Big Bibliotheka Jazon, 15, zavod za Uđbenike, Belgrade, 2007, ISBN 978-86-17-14514-7 , p. 132 ( de.scribd.com ).
- ↑ Christopher Clark: The Sleepwalkers. How Europe moved into World War I. From the English by Norbert Juraschitz: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Munich 2013, ISBN 978-3-421-04359-7 , p. 48; as audio book: Random House Audio, 2013, ISBN 978-3-8371-2329-6 .
- ↑ Christopher Clark: The Sleepwalkers. How Europe moved into World War I. P. 48.
- ↑ Ivo Andric: The bridge over the Drina . Suhrkamp, 2003, p. 34.
- ↑ John Matthias, Vladeta Vuckovic: The Battle of Kosovo. University Press Athens, Swallow Press, Athens / Ohio 1987, ISBN 0-8040-0896-5 , p. 4. scribd.com ( Memento of October 13, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Tomislav Z. Longinović: Vampire Nation - Violence as cultural Imaginary. Duke University Press, London 2011, ISBN 978-0-8223-5022-4 , p. 4.
- ↑ a b Tomislav Z. Longinović: Vampire Nation - Violence as cultural Imaginary. Duke University Press, London 2011, p. 11.
- ↑ Tomislav Z. Longinović: Vampire Nation - Violence as cultural Imaginary. Duke University Press, London 2011, p. 12.
- ^ Politika, March 13, 2016 Gusle ratnikove
- ↑ Miroslav Mitrović (ed.) 2014: Gde svi ćute one govore - Gusle . Etnografski Muzej u Beogradu, Beograd. ISBN 978-86-7891-074-6 . Here p. 25.
- ↑ Miroslav Mitrović (ed.) 2014: Gde svi ćute one govore - Gusle . P. 25.
- ↑ Novosti, May 3, 2013 Guslar koji je pevao Pupinu i Tesli
- ↑ Miroslav Mitrović (ed.) 2014: Gde svi ćute one govore - Gusle . P. 26.
- ↑ Miroslav Mitrović (ed.) 2014: Gde svi ćute one govore - Gusle . P. 26.
- ↑ Hadži Radovan Becirovic Trebješki (1897-1986): Gorski presto - III. Oktoih, Stampar Makarije, Podgorica, 2011. ISBN 978-86-87019-57-7 .
- ↑ Budimir Dubak, Preface: Hadži Radovan Becirovic Trebješki (1897-1986): Gorski presto - I. Oktoih, Stampar Makarije, Podgorica, 2011. ISBN 978-86-87019-55-3 . Here p. 11.
- ↑ Deutschlandfunk, broadcast: radio play / background culture Tuesday, June 7, 2011 Editor: Hermann Theißen 7.15 - 8.00 p.m. Renegade and dreamer Milovan Djilas - Wanderer between literature and politics by Klaus Liebe: Djilas' family had four generations of his male ancestors in blood revenge to the victim. The chroniclers of Montenegro, the Guslaren, have always kept the past alive in their monotonous chants performed to the gusle, the one-stringed knee violin. They sing of the heroic Haiducken, the rebels in the mountains and their relentless struggle against the Turks - the young Djilas can not get enough of their lives and fate being sung about and evoked for hours. Their courage and pride, their bravery and cruelty .
- ↑ Gorski vijenac translated by Vasa D. Mihailovich. Balázs Trencsényi, Michal Kopeček (ed.): Discoursess of collective identity in central and soutzeast Europe (1770–1945). texts and commentaries. Central European University Press, Budapest 2007, ISBN 978-963-7326-60-8 , p. 435.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch: The violin technique of the South Slavic Guslaren. (Publications of the Musicological Institute of the German University in Prague). Verlag Rudolf M. Rohrer, Brno / Prague / Leipzig / Vienna 1934, p. 53.
- ^ Zorka Milich: Ljubica and Jelena, Milena, Fatima and Paška . From: A Stranger's Supper, An Oral History of Centenarian Women in Montenegro. Translation Walther Binder. Twayne Publishers, to Imprint of Simon & Scguster Macmillan, New York 1995.
- ↑ Ardian Ahmedaja: Songs with Lahute and Their Music. In: Philip V. Bohlman , Nada Petković (eds.): Balkan Epic - Song, History, Modernity . (Europea: Ehnomusicologies and Modernities, No. 11). The Scarecrow Press, Lanham 2012, p. 101.
- ↑ Ardian Ahmedaja: Songs with Lahute and Their Music . 2012, p. 102.
- ↑ Ardian Ahmedaja: Songs with Lahute and Their Music . 2012, p. 104.
- ↑ Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - contribution to research into the political history of a musical instrument . 2011, p. 159.
- ↑ Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - contribution to research into the political history of a musical instrument . 2011, p. 160.
- ↑ a b Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - Contribution to researching the political history of a musical instrument . 2011, p. 161.
- ↑ Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - contribution to research into the political history of a musical instrument. In: Ivan Ćolović: Cultural Terror in the Balkans - Essays on Political Anthropology . fiber Verlag, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-938400-71-5 , pp. 157-206.
- ^ Albert B. Lord : The Merging of Two Worlds Oral and Written Poetry as Carriers of Ancient Values. In: John Miles Foley (Ed.): Oral Tradition in Literature - Interpretation in Content . University of Missouri Press, Columbia, 1986, ISBN 0-8262-0490-2 , pp. 32-33.
- ↑ a b Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - Contribution to researching the political history of a musical instrument . 2011, p. 162.
- ^ Museum of the History of Yugoslavia , The House of Flowers was built… and a stone gusle (a one-stringed folk fiddle) which has been crafted from a single piece of Stone
- ↑ Ivan Ćolović: All die Guslen - contribution to research into the political history of a musical instrument . 2011, p. 169.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: Preface to the translation of Serbian-Croatian heroic songs by Anne Pennington and Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs . Unesco collection of representative works, European Series, DuckworthX, London 1984, ISBN 0-7156-1715-X , p. XIII.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1980, ISBN 0-19-815759-2 , p. 27.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making . Clarendon, Oxford 1980, pp. 27-28.
- ↑ Svetozar Koljevic in: Marko the Prince. 1984, pp. 49-57.
- ↑ Svetozar Koljevic in: Marko the Prince. 1984, p. 50.
- ^ Bogdan Rakić: Subverted Epic Oral Tradition n South Slavic Written Literatures. In: Philp V. Bohlman & Nada Petković (eds.): Balkan Epic - Song, History, Modernity. Europea: Ethnomusicologies and Modernities, 11, The Scarecrow Press, Lanham, 2012, ISBN 978-0-8108-7799-3 , pp. 31-52.
- ^ Bogdan Rakić: Subverted Epic Oral Tradition n South Slavic Written Literatures. P. 39.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: Preface to the translation of Serbian-Croatian heroic songs by Anne Pennington and Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs. S. XIV.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević, Foreword to Anne Pennington & Peter Levi 1984, p. XV.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. Pp. 5-6.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. Pp. 6-7.
- ^ Geoffrey NW Locke: The Serbian Epic Ballads - An Anthology. Translated into English by Geoffrey NW Locke. Tanesi 2012, ISBN 978-86-81567-45-6 , p. 15.
- ^ Anne Pennington, Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs. Unesco collection of representative works, European Series, Duckworth, London 1984, p. 1.
- ↑ Jovan Deretic: Kratka istorija Srpske Knjizevnosti. Rastko biblioteka srpske kulture (Serbian)
- ↑ Данка Лајић-Михајловић 2007: Гуслар: Индивидуални идентитет и традиција. (Danka Lajić-Mihajlović: The ′ Guslar ′: Individual identity and tradition ) Musicology 2007 vol. 7, 135–156 (abstract: English)
- ↑ (PDF: Serbian)
- ↑ Novosti, May 3, 2013 Guslar koji je pevao Pupinu i Tesli
- ↑ To stogodisnjicu od Mojkovacke bitke - izginuli za spas Srbije
- ↑ Blic, January 18, 2016 Svecana Akademija: U Sava Centru obeleznen vek od Mojkovacke bitke
- ^ Society of the Guslaren of Serbia - History
- ↑ Данка Лајић-Михајловић 2007, p. 146.
- ↑ Smrt majke Jugovića - excerpt from a Soviet documentation about the Guslaren of Montenegro - Iskra ukomu 1980
- ↑ Данка Лајић-Михајловић 2007, p. 146.
- ↑ Данка Лајић-Михајловић 2007, pp. 146–147.
- ↑ Yugoton, April 11, 1978 - Branko Perović and Milorad Mišo Vujović Сватовски вијенац Branko Perović and Milorad Mišo Vujović Сватовски вијенац - Youtube
- ↑ Mary Louise Lord (ed.); Albert Bates Lord: The Singer Resumes the Tale. Cornell University Press, Ithaka / London 1995, ISBN 0-8014-3103-4 , p. 224.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: The Singer Resumes the Tale. 1995, pp. 199-200.
- ^ Anne Pennington, Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat heroic songs. 1984, p. 112.
- ^ A b Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, pp. 319-320.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, pp. 314-318.
- ^ Anne Pennington, Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat heroic songs . Unesco collection of representative works - European collection. Duckworth, London 1984, ISBN 0-7156-1715-X , pp. 112-113.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 316.
- ^ Johann Wolfgang Goethe : Serbian songs. In: About art and antiquity . 2, XV, 1825. (online at: zeno.org )
- ^ A b Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 147.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 127.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the Making. 1980, p. 318.
- ↑ Blic, April 18, 2010: Akademija za slepe guslare (blic: Online)
- ↑ Katya Mihaylova: The Wandering Blind Medicant Singers and the Slavic Ritual Year. In: Traditiones. 41/1, 2012, p. 231. (PDF)
- ↑ Liliana Perkowski: Катя Михайлова. Странстващият сляп певец просяк във фолклорната култура на славяните. (Katya Mihailova: The Wandering Blind Singer-Beggar in Slavic Folk Culture. ) From Publishing House, Sofia 2006, ISBN 954-737-615-2 . (Bulgarian) (Abstract In: Folklorica. 2007, Vol. XII. (PDF, English) )
- ↑ Official website of the city of Irif: Slepacka Akademija (Irig-online: online) ( Memento from February 2, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Katya Mihaylova: The Wandering Blind Medicant Singers and the Slavic Ritual Year. P. 228.
- ↑ Катя Михайлова: О семантике странствующего певца-нищего в славянской народной культуре. Язык культуры: семантика и грамматика. Moscow 2004, p. 143 (online at: ec-dejavu.ru )
- ^ Anne Pennington, Peter Levi: Marko the Prince - Serbo-Croat Heroic Songs . Unesco Collection of Representative Works - European Series. Duckworth, 1984, ISBN 0-7156-1715-X , pp. 152-153.
- ↑ a b Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making . 1980, p. 306.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making . 1980, p. 307.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making . 1980, p. 310.
- ^ Svetozar Koljević: The Epic in the making . 1980, p. 308.
- ↑ Peter McMurray: "Istinski južnoslavenski Homer": Heroizacija pjesnika u Bošnjačkoj epskoj tradiciji. In: Narodna umjetnost: hrvatski časopis za etnologiju i folkloristiku, 43/2, 2006, 115–133 (online: hrcak.srce.hr)
- ↑ Smiljana Đorđević: Епски певаҷ као јунак - механими хероизачије, pp. 57-72 (PDF; Serbian) ( Memento from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ John Miles Foley: Homer's Traditional Art . The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pa 2010, ISBN 978-0-271-02810-0 , p. 38.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: The Singer of Tales . (Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature, vol. 24). Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachuchusetts 1960, p. 19.
- ↑ John Miles Foley: Reading Homer through Oral Tradition. In: Kostas Myrsiades (Ed.): Approaches to Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. (American University Studies, 19; General Literature, vol. 38). 2010, ISBN 978-1-4331-0885-3 , p. 19.
- ↑ John Miles Foley: Reading Homer through Oral Tradition . 2010, p. 20.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: The Singer of Tales . 1960, pp. 19-20.
- ^ John Miles Foley: Editing and translating traditional oral epic: the south slavic Songs and Homer. In: Ian Worthington, John Miles Foley: Epea and Grammata: Oral and Written Communication in Ancient Greece . Mnemosyne - bibliotheca classica Batava, Leiden 2002, ISBN 90-04-12455-1 , p. 9.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: Avdo Međedović, Guslar. In: The Journal of American Folklore. Vol. 69, 1956, No. 273, Slavic Folklore: A Symposium (Jul-Sep, 1956), pp. 320-330.
- ^ John Miles Foley: Immanent Art - from structure to meaning in traditional oral epic. Bloomington / Indianapolis 1991, p. 9.
- ^ Avdo Međedović : The wedding of Smailagić Meho . Translated by Albert Bates Lord ; with a translation of the conversation [with Nikola Vujnović] on the singer's life and time. David E. Bynum. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1935.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: Avdo Međedović, Guslar . 1956, p. 322.
- ^ Albert Bates Lord: Avdo Međedović, Guslar. 1956, p. 320.
- ↑ Albert Lord, caption under the portrait of Avdo Međedović in the Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature and the President and Fellows of Harvard College (picture of 60-year-old Avdo Međedović Harvard.edu) ( Memento from January 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Stephen Ederley: Bartok on Southslavic Songs. In: Elliott Antokoletz, Victoria Fischer, Benjamin Suchhoff (Eds.): Bartok Perspectives - Man, Composer and Ethnomusicologist . Oxford University press, 2000, p. 31.
- ↑ La Guzla by Prosper Mérimée (online at: gutenberg.org )
- ^ Tanja Zimmermann: The Voice of Gusle and its resistence against electrification. In: Dmitri Zakharine, Nils Meise (Ed.): Electrified Voices: Medial, Socio-Historical and Cultural Aspects of Voice Transfer. 2012, pp. 403-410.
- ↑ Aleksandar Hemon: Genocide's Epic Hero. In: The New York Times. July 27, 2009 (NYT: online)
- ^ Tanja Zimmermann: The Voice of Gusle and its resistence against electrification . 2012, p. 409.
- ^ Vreme, April 18, 2002, ibid.
- ↑ Miroslav Lazanski, Politika, December 25, 2013 Baza u Baru
- ^ Tanja Zimmermann: The Voice of Gusle and its resistence against electrification .
- ↑ Time. July 26, 2006 (Die Zeit online - Camouflage a la Karadzic)
- ^ Slavoj Žižek : Living in the End Times . 2010, p. 315.
- ^ Radovan Karadzic's New Age Adventure. In: The New York Times. July 26, 2009. (NYT online)
- ↑ Karadzic pod svojom slikom svirao gusle. on: Radio Televizija Srbije. July 23, 2008. (RTS online)
- ↑ The night Karadzic rocked the madhouse. In: The Guardian. July 24, 2008. (Guardian online)
- ↑ Exclusive: Inside the pub where warlord Radovan Karadzic sang nationalist songs. In: The Mirror. July 24, 2008. (Mirror online)
- ↑ Guslao u Ludoj kuci ispod svoje slike. In: Blic. July 23, 2003 (Blic online)
- ↑ Ivan Čolović: Balkan teror kulture . Beograd 2008.
- ↑ Ivan Čolović: Cultural Terror in the Balkans: Essays on Political Anthropology . Fiber Publishing, 2011.
- ↑ Muharem Bazadulj: Balkan u mome srcu. In: Vreme. December 4th, 2008 (Vreme: online)
- ↑ Vreme, issue 855, May 24, 2007 Kraljevo - Sabor guslara - Srpska crkva i krivo gudalo
- ↑ ( savezguslarasrbije.rs PDF).
- ^ Marko Živković: Serbian Turbo-Epics. In: Philip V. Bohlman, Nada Petković (ed.): Balkan Epic - Song, History, Modernity (= Europea: Ehnomusicologies and Modernities. No. 11). The Scarecrow Press, Lanham 2012, p. 291.
- ^ John Lampe, Mark Mazower (Eds.): Ideologies and National Identities: The Case of Twentieth ‐ Century Southeastern Europe . CEU Press, Budapest 2004, ISBN 963-9241-82-2 , p. 301.
- ^ Marko Živković: Serbian Turbo-Epics. 2012, pp. 286-287.
- ^ Marko Živković: Serbian Turbo-Epics. 2012, p. 288.
- ↑ Smrt Popa Mila Jovovića in Guslen repertoire
- ↑ Andrej Fajgelj 2008, p. 43.
- ↑ Smrt Popa Mila Jovovića , Rambo Amadeus 1991 - album Psihološko propagandni complete M-91
- ^ Marko Živković: Serbian Turbo-Epics. 2012, p. 288.
- ↑ 89-year celebration of the Belgrade Philharmonic - Proslava 89-og rođendana Filharmonije: gusle, Danilo Krstajić
- ↑ a b Walther Wünsch: From symbol to sovereignty, using the example of the Gusle. In: New ethnomusicological research - Festschrift Felix Hoerburger for his 60th birthday. Laaber Verlag, 1977, ISBN 3-921518-02-4 , p. 126.
- ↑ Walther Wünsch: From symbol to sovereignty, using the example of the Gusle. In: New ethnomusicological research - Festschrift Felix Hoerburger for his 60th birthday. Laaber Verlag, 1977, ISBN 3-921518-02-4 , p. 127.
- ↑ Novosti, March 6, 2012 Nikola i Bojana Peković - dar iz srećne kuće
- ^ RTS, March 4, 2012 Bojana i Nikola imaju talenat!
- ↑ RTS, September 17, 2014 "Stojite Galije carske" u Centru "Sava"
- ↑ Jovana Papan: gusle nekad i sad: gusle kao i muzički društveni fenomen . Jovana Papan: Kratka istorija gusala ( Memento from January 25, 2015 in the web archive archive.today )
- ↑ Politika, January 1, 2007 Podmlađivanje gusala u Srbiji - Gudalo u školama
- ↑ Где сви ћуте оне говоре: гусле Етнографског музеја у Београду
- ↑ Vecernje novosti, October 5, 2014 Za gusle potrebne veste ruke
- ↑ http://galerijeimuzeji.com/vr/etnografskimuzej/gdesvicuteonegovore/cir/gdesvicuteonegovore.html (link not available)
- ↑ Book cover of the catalog of the Belgrade Ethnographic Museum with the Guslen from Benderac's workshop from the exhibition
- ↑ Odrzana Izlozba Gusala Slobodana Benderaca
- ↑ gusle Pravio 50,000 časova
- ↑ Interview by Sputnik Serbia with Darko Tanasković, representative of the Republic of Serbia in UNESCO, February 25, 2017
- ↑ Blic, October 5, 2016 Borba za gusle. Sporan zajednički predlog Albanije i Kosova Unesku
- ↑ UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List - Singing to the accompaniment of the Gusle
