Caucasus War 2008

Caucasus War 2008

Part of: Georgian-Ossetian Conflict

Course of the Caucasus War in 2008

date	August 7, 2008 to August 16, 2008
place	Georgia
Casus Belli	Georgian troops march into South Ossetia
output	Georgian defeat
consequences	Russia recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states on August 26, 2008 .

Parties to the conflict
Russia South Ossetia Abkhazia	Georgia
Commander
Lieutenant General Anatoly Barankewitsch Colonel Alexander Melnik Lieutenant General Anatoly Khrulyov Lieutenant General Vladimir Shamanov GenMaj Murat Kulachmetov V. Adm. Alexander Klezkow Lieutenant General Igor Mirozhnichenko	BrigGen Sasa Gogawa BrigGen Mamuka Kurashvili Sea captain Bessik Schengelia Colonel Dawit Nairashvili
losses
Russia: 67 dead, 3 missing and 283 wounded (Russian information) ~ 400 dead (Georgian information) ~ 12 prisoners South Ossetia: ~ 360 dead in total, 162 civilians. Abkhazia: In total 1 dead and 2 wounded	Armed forces: 171 dead, 13 missing and 1,174 wounded (11/3/227 of them police) (Georgian data) 170 dead and 1,964 wounded soldiers. 14 police officers killed and 227 wounded (Russian data) 42 civilians captured : 228 dead and 547 wounded (Georgian data) and 3 journalists killed.

According to the UNHCR , 20,000 civilians in Georgia were on the run. According to HRW , 24,000 civilians from South Ossetia (30,000 according to Russian data) fled to Russia.
There are no accurate and independently verified reports on the strength of the troops involved.

The 2008 Caucasus War (also known as the August War , the Georgian War or the Caucasian Five-Day War ) was a military conflict in the Transcaucasus between Georgia on the one hand and Russia and the internationally unrecognized republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, supported by Russia, on the other. The conflict took place on Georgian territory. Open fighting between soldiers of the Georgian army and South Ossetian militia units began as early as July 2008 and escalated on the night of August 8, when Georgian forces launched an offensive to regain control of the entire region. As a result, Russian troops attacked from the North Caucasus , pushed the Georgian army back and advanced into the Georgian heartland. By the ceasefire on August 12, a total of around 850 people had been killed and between 2,500 and 3,000 people wounded.

background

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Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Mikheil Saakashvili

→ Main article : History of South Ossetia

The ethnic groups in the Caucasus differ greatly in terms of their social-cultural and social-structural aspects . While some ethnic groups formed states early on, others never had their own statehood. Again and again there were migrations caused by wars or forced by warring parties.

In 1918, when Georgia broke away from the Russian Empire , the South Ossetians attempted to break with Tbilisi during the October Revolution . The Georgian-South Ossetian conflict broke out from 1918 to 1920 , in which South Ossetian rebels, supported by Bolshevik troops, wanted to force a violent separation from Georgia. The Ossetians and Bolsheviks attacked the local Georgian administration and population, killing anyone who stood in their way, including politicians and members of the public. Hundreds of Georgian National Guardsmen were captured and Tskhinvali set on fire. Before Georgia was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1921 , the Georgian army beat the rebellion and marched into Tskhinvali. The Ossetian uprising was suppressed, up to or more than 5000 Ossetians were killed, about 4143 of them fleeing from hunger and disease. Many Ossetians see these events as the genocide perpetrated by Georgians against their people, which by definition does not apply and is not recognized as such by the UN. The Georgian side rejects such claims and regards them as a distortion of events which were already instigated by the Bolsheviks. Georgia was attacked and completely annexed by Soviet Russia in 1921 shortly after the rebellion was crushed. After the annexation of Georgia by the Soviet Union, the formerly historical part of Kartliens became an autonomous oblast of the Georgian Soviet Republic in 1922 by order of the Soviet government and was given the corresponding designation of South Ossetian Autonomous Region . Since the 1920s, the Ossetian population in the region has decreased, while the number of Georgians has steadily increased. In 1989 only two thirds of the population were Ossetians, while Georgians made up about 29%. The remaining five percent consisted mainly of Russians and Armenians. During the Soviet Union, relations between Ossetians and Georgians were largely peaceful.

In 1985 Gorbachev began glasnost and perestroika and declared the Brezhnev Doctrine to be over. From 1989, South Ossetia sought to expand its autonomous status to become an Autonomous Republic; In 1990 it broke away from Georgia. In the course of the collapse of the Soviet Union , some Soviet republics broke away from the union.

In the autumn of 1991, the South Ossetian Soviet Democratic Republic was proclaimed, which sought Russian recognition. Georgia continued to claim the area; In response to the declaration of independence, it abolished all the region's autonomy rights and tried to militaryly recapture South Ossetia. An estimated 1,500 people died in the civil war that followed. 100,000 South Ossetians fled Georgia and South Ossetia to Russia, 20,000 Georgians fled to Georgia ( ethnic segregation ). Russia intervened in these disputes; it separated the adversaries. In June 1992 Russia and Georgia signed a ceasefire agreement to set up a CIS peacekeeping force for South Ossetia, for which Russian, Ossetian and Georgian soldiers were seconded. Russia and Georgia then withdrew their regular troops from South Ossetia. From then on, South Ossetia remained for a long time in a status of de facto independence.

In September 2004, the new Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili presented a plan to the UN General Assembly to reintegrate South Ossetia and Abkhazia into Georgia. The two breakaway areas rejected the plan. After the establishment of a checkpoint on the Transcaucasian Highway through Georgia, relations deteriorated significantly. There were repeated exchanges of fire between Georgian and South Ossetian units. A ceasefire agreement signed in Moscow in July 2004 failed to bring lasting peace to the region.

There have been skirmishes between Georgia and the separatists for years. Former Georgian Defense Minister Irakli Okruashvili said in September 2008 that Georgia had planned a military operation to retake South Ossetia and Abkhazia in 2005. At the end of 2006, both sides held competing referendums and presidential elections, in which the opposite side was unable to participate. While the Ossetians almost unanimously voted for independence, the South Ossetian Georgians were just as unanimous in favor of reunification. The Council of Europe called the South Ossetian referendum "unfair, unnecessary and unhelpful", while the Russian Foreign Ministry declared that it was about "free expression of the people" of South Ossetia, which was achieved through "democratic procedures".

On January 22, 2006, during the heating season , two explosions interrupted the natural gas pipeline from North Ossetia to Tbilisi; At the same time, sabotage of electricity lines in the same area also led to blackouts in Georgia. On September 27, 2006, Georgia arrested four Russian GRU officers and eleven Georgian nationals on suspicion of espionage. The next day, Russia recalled its ambassador Vyacheslav Kovalenko and other employees from Tbilisi. President Putin described the arrest as hostage-taking and state terrorism. On October 2, Georgia handed over the Russian intelligence officers to the OSCE; they traveled to Moscow on the same day. The next day Moscow cut off all connections with Georgia; The EU and USA pleaded in vain against the sanctions.

Geopolitical background

The republics of the Caucasus

For Russia, the Caucasus region is considered to be a “ near foreign country ”, where it claims security interests for itself. While it has rejected the partly armed independence movements in Chechnya , Ingushetia and Dagestan for years , it supported the secessionists in South Ossetia and Abkhazia early on financially, militarily and personally, even though formal recognition as independent states with a view to their own minorities was initially avoided. Russia offered the South Ossetians free medical care and schooling, and residents could also use Russian cellular networks.

South Ossetia and Abkhazia have been de facto independent since the early 1990s, even if this was not recognized by any sovereign state worldwide until 2008.

The majority of the South Ossetians (85%) and Abkhazians took advantage of the option of facilitating the naturalization of former citizens of the Soviet Union and adopted Russian citizenship. Moscow felt confirmed in its view that it must protect its citizens in the Caucasus. Simplified naturalization was temporarily suspended and became possible again in 2005, after some observers voiced massive criticism of the Russian Naturalization Act of 2002. The granting of citizenship in disputed areas by one of the conflicting parties is considered controversial under international law. Furthermore, between September 2006 and January 2007, Russia expelled at least 4600 Georgians from Russia in violation of human rights.

The United States sees Georgia and Azerbaijan , both members of the coalition of the willing , as an important bridgehead in the region that borders as far as Central Asia and Iran. In recent years the United States has provided Georgia with modern military equipment and invested in training Georgian soldiers. In the period from 2003 to 2008, Georgia had also increased its defense budget from 18 to 900 million dollars. In addition, several NATO countries wished to upgrade Georgia from the IPAP (Individual Partnership Action Plan) standard to MAP (Membership Action Plan), the direct preliminary stage of joining NATO. This was rejected on April 3, 2008 at the NATO summit in Bucharest , but Georgia was basically given the opportunity to join NATO. The discussions about South Ossetia led - among other reasons - to the fact that the NATO member states did not ratify the amendment of the CFE Treaty (AKSE). Russia then suspended the CFE treaty on July 14, 2007. Shortly after the NATO summit, Russia continued to develop relations with South Ossetia.

The European Union signed a Neighborhood Agreement with Georgia in 2006, similar to those with Armenia and Azerbaijan . This should make it easier for the country to access the European internal market.

Russia sees the American engagement in Georgia as an attempt to build a unipolar world under the leadership of the USA. Russia considers such a world unstable and prone to conflict.

A risk analysis by the Georgian Defense Ministry presented to the Georgian Parliament in November 2007 showed the probability of a large-scale invasion of Georgia by other states as “extremely low” with a “downward trend” in the future.

Course of war

Way to war

Initial situation in Georgia before the war

Parts of South Ossetia controlled by Georgia before August 8, 2008

US Ambassador John F. Tefft addresses Georgian graduates of the Georgia II SSOP program

There were sources that postulated years of preparations for the war on the part of Russia; in the spring of 2008 these indications condensed. One of the preparations that had been going on for years was the granting of Russian citizenships. Even before Kosovo was recognized internationally in February 2008, Russia had announced that after such a step, South Ossetia and Abkhazia would also declare their independence. The EU, on the other hand, declared its support for the territorial integrity of Georgia and emphasized the individual character of Kosovo, just as the Georgian President told Putin in a personal conversation on February 22 that he could not see any connection with Kosovo. According to a leaked diplomatic cable, the US diplomat Kurt Volker also took the position of Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Alexander Gruschko in 2006 as to why the split of Kosovo should be viewed as an isolated case and should not be transferred to other conflicts. Grushko, on the other hand, made clear the position of Putin, who sees Kosovo as a precedent, as a model for the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia.

On March 1, 2008, the Russian General Vasily Lunew was appointed Minister of Defense of South Ossetia. On March 6, 2008, Russia lifted the sanctions that the Commonwealth of Independent States had imposed on Abkhazia in 1996. European foreign ministers like Dimitrij Rupel and Carl Bildt then warned against an annexation.

On April 21, 2008, a Georgian reconnaissance drone penetrated the airspace over Abkhazia and was shot down by a Russian fighter plane over the Black Sea. Russia initially denied this. The UN Security Council , which confirmed the Russian downing on May 26, stressed that the downing of the drone by a Russian fighter jet, as well as the use of drones by the Georgian side, violated the Moscow Agreement of 1994, which only allowed the presence of peacekeeping forces Commonwealth of Independent States in Abkhazia allowed.

In May 2008, Russia sent railroad troops to renew the railway road to Abkhazia . These troops were not approved peacekeeping forces. Georgia took this as an opportunity to put its armed forces in increased combat readiness .

In June 2008 the OSCE reported almost daily military clashes in the conflict areas. The head of the OSCE Mission to Georgia, Terhi Hakala, reported that OSCE observers were being attacked and that the conflicting parties did not speak to each other. The Russian army is training South Ossetian militias: These militias accelerated the escalation towards the summer of 2008 more and more openly with “shootings and attacks”, the EU report spoke of “provocations and incidents”.

The killing of a South Ossetian militia leader and an attack on Dimitri Sanakoyev , head of the “counter-government” in South Ossetia loyal to Georgia, on July 3, 2008 led to shell fights for two days. The South Ossetian government accused Georgia of expanding its positions. US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice called on both sides to refrain from provocative acts. On July 9th, the Russian Air Force entered Georgian airspace several times, according to a Russian statement, "to cool the heat in Tbilisi". Despite diplomatic efforts, Georgia could not achieve more than a “disapproval” from Javier Solana as High Representative for the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy in this case; the Jamestown Foundation had determined for several years that skirmishes in Georgia took place during EU officials' holidays in August.

On July 15, 2008, Russian troops of the 58th Army and 4th Air Army with around 8,000 soldiers and 700 vehicles began military maneuvers in the territories of North Ossetia , Chechnya , Ingushetia , Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia .

On the same day, US troops, along with Georgian, Armenian , Azerbaijani and Ukrainian troops, began military maneuvers at Vaziani.

On July 27, 2008, OSCE observers were prevented by South Ossetian troops from checking reports of fortifications near Chorbauli.

On July 31, six Georgian police officers were injured in a bomb attack in Eredvi on the Ossetian border. Here the strait leads from Georgia to the part of South Ossetia controlled by Tbilisi. The next day, fierce fighting broke out between Georgian troops and paramilitary units of the South Ossetian government of Eduard Kokoity . There were dead and injured on both sides. South Ossetia announced the loss of three of its own soldiers to Georgian sniper fire. The Georgian side exposed Tskhinvali with artillery fire, killing three civilians. Both sides accused each other of having started the fighting. In addition, the Kokoity government announced the arrival of 300 fighters from North Ossetia who wanted to support their own militias.

According to the President of South Ossetia, 5,000 reservists were called up in Georgia on August 1 and a general mobilization began. The Russian government allowed the evacuation of South Ossetian civilians to North Ossetia from August 3. Allegations by Georgia that Russian peacekeepers had supported the South Ossetians in the fighting the previous days were rejected by Moscow. The Russian news agency Interfax reported that Russian airborne troops were ready for a mission in South Ossetia. South Ossetian government officials refused a Georgian negotiation request. According to Prime Minister Gurgenidze at the press conference on August 14, the Russian media started a massive propaganda campaign on August 3, which "bombed" its own population to an extent that was "astonishing even by Soviet standards."

According to press reports, on August 4, five battalions of the Russian 58th Army were relocated near the Roki Tunnel , which connects North Ossetia with South Ossetia.

On August 5, 2008, the South Ossetian envoy, Dmitri Medojew, announced in Moscow that Russian volunteers, mostly from North Ossetia, had already reached South Ossetia. Russian regions in the North Caucasus and representatives of the Cossacks have expressed their willingness to support South Ossetia. Also on August 5, eleven 2S1 self-propelled howitzers arrived in the area from Russia. On August 6th, all offices and shops in Tskhinvali were closed; the evacuation of the population was carried out in a hurry, while additional militants and Russian journalists arrived: 50 Russian journalists present turned to international institutions on August 8th.

Sporadic fighting and artillery duels continued for the next few days. On August 7, Georgia moved tanks, artillery and troops to the border. The Georgian Interior Ministry announced that by August 7, ten Georgian soldiers had been killed in the fighting.

On August 7, according to Georgian sources, South Ossetian units attacked Georgian soldiers and villages in South Ossetia. The Georgian side claimed the loss of an infantry fighting vehicle near Avnevi. In the afternoon (around 4 p.m. local time) the (in itself illegal) South Ossetian "Ministry of Defense" spoke of a shelling of the city "by strangers" from the direction of Georgian villages. According to Georgian negotiator Temur Iakobashvili, the peace talks scheduled in Tskhinvali did not take place because the South Ossetian delegation and the Russian envoy Yuri Popov did not appear. On August 7th, Iakobashvili experienced the city as irritatingly deserted. Since the South Ossetians did not show up, he spoke to the commander of the peacekeeping forces, Marat Kulachmetov. He admitted that the irregulars operated the fire from their own positions, so the peacekeepers needed as protective shields. Iakobashvili had to interpret Kulachmetov's statements in such a way that the latter would probably have lost control of the irregulars, or that they were being ordered by "higher authorities".

On the basis of this information, the Georgian President announced in a televised address at around 7:10 p.m. local time that his government was ready for a unilateral ceasefire, peace talks of all kinds, for full autonomy of South Ossetia and a general amnesty. He also announced a unilateral ceasefire for the Georgian armed forces in South Ossetia.

Georgian authorities reported increased shelling of Georgian villages in South Ossetia around 10:30 p.m. local time as the only response to the president's offer. OSCE observers were unable to record artillery firing from positions of the South Ossetian militia in Tskhinvali. That same late evening, Georgian government websites were victim of cyber attacks that lasted until August 13th. The government said it was forced to take "appropriate action". The American security expert Richard Clarke also reported on cyber attacks against Georgia, which were coordinated with the advance of Russian troops.

The Georgian President later stated that at that time Russian armored personnel carriers were traveling through the Roki tunnel from North to South Ossetia. He saw only one way to stop the convoy, namely through artillery fire. The sequence of events and the official statements is contradictory.

According to Georgian reports, South Ossetian troops began an attack on Georgian soldiers stationed near Tskhinvali around midnight local time. Ten Georgians are said to have been killed. Artillery, tanks and RPGs were also illegally brought into South Ossetia during the night . According to the South Ossetians, the night before the Georgian attack was quiet. The South Ossetian and Russian sides have argued that Saakashvili only called a unilateral ceasefire to lull the enemy into security. According to Georgian sources, however, the Ossetian side fired at villages that were predominantly inhabited by Georgians after they had evacuated their Ossetian civilians.

The analysts Pawel Felgenhauer and Andrei Illarionov declared that the Russian side had long been prepared for military intervention in Georgia; the Russian analyst Alexandr Golts believed that the war was not planned by Russia at precisely that point in time, but that the conflict was the result of the Russian strategy of the past few years. How the war started, according to Brian Ellison, lies in Russia's strategy. In the course of events, according to Fawn in 2012, it was not possible in any case to identify a single event as the beginning of the war. Armin Huttenlocher paints "the picture of a carefully thought out, meticulously orchestrated escalation" through Russia, which provoked the Georgian leadership to attack, which in turn could be used as a legitimation for the Russian defensive war.

Georgian Offensive - Start of the Five Day War

Destruction in Tskhinvali after the Georgian artillery fire

Barracks attacked by Russian peacekeepers in Tskhinvali

On August 8 at 0:53 a.m. local time (on August 7 at 8:53 p.m. UTC ), a Russian agency reported that Georgian forces from the border settlements of Nikosi and Ergneti fired mortars on the city of Tskhinvali, including the refugee route serving road towards Russia in their sights.

After the nightly bombardment of the capital of South Ossetia with howitzers , BM-21 Grad and LAR-160 multiple rocket launchers and mortars, the Georgian army advanced towards Tskhinvali with battle tanks and transport tanks . The Georgian forces advanced in an inverted triangle formation on Tskhinvali, with the 3rd and 4th Brigades on both ends and the artillery in the background. The 2nd Brigade remained in reserve. Despite the South Ossetian resistance, the Georgian army controlled a large part of the city at the end of the day. In the early morning the Georgian reunification minister Temur Jakobashvili had declared that the city was almost enclosed and two thirds of South Ossetia was controlled by Georgia. According to Georgian sources, the city was "100 percent under Georgian control" by 2:30 p.m. After that, a three-hour ceasefire was declared so that the wounded could be cared for and refugees could leave the city. According to South Ossetian and Russian sources, 30,000 civilians were displaced by the Georgian offensive, but that would have been the entire population of the city, which had already been largely evacuated. The number of South Ossetian civilians killed was initially put by Russia at over 2,000, then corrected to 1,400 and finally to 162 in December.

A short time later, Georgia announced that it had also gained control of the villages of Snauri , Sarabuk, Chetagurow, Atoci, Kwemo Okona, Dmenisi, Muguti and Didmucha. The South Ossetian troops have fled.

During the Georgian offensive, Russian peacekeeping forces stationed in Tskhinvali since 1992 with a CIS mandate together with Georgian troops were also attacked. 15 Russian peacekeepers were killed on the first day. The peacekeeping garrison came under fire after an Ossetian officer from the roof of the base, from an observation post, coordinated artillery fire against the advancing Georgian troops. From the Georgian point of view, it was a matter of self-defense. The peacekeeping forces had been notified of the upcoming operation and had been told to stay out of fighting.

Russian and Abkhazian intervention

Burned out building in Gori

Parts of a Russian 9M723 missile in a living room in Gori

At 5:30 a.m. local time, according to Georgian information, a Russian convoy with 150 tanks crossed the Roki tunnel and advanced on the Transcaucasian highway towards Tskhinvali. Georgian units then tried to blow up the Kurta Bridge a few kilometers north of the South Ossetian capital, but according to Georgian information this was prevented by the attack by Russian troops at 6:00 a.m., so that the strategically important bridge was only damaged and the Georgian troops separated had to withdraw. Other eyewitnesses reported that the Russians did not attack until a few hours after 6:00 a.m. Observers from the Institute for War and Peace Reporting could not find any broken bridges in the Kurta area. It seems that the Russian troops were well informed about the strong Georgian troop movements before and when the war broke out and were able to react very quickly.

Russia requested a UN Security Council meeting involving Georgia at 8:00 a.m., which was held two hours later. However, the participants could not agree on a joint call to end hostilities.

Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin was in Beijing on August 8 for the opening ceremony of the Summer Olympics and made a stopover in the Caucasus on his return. Putin condemned the Georgian crackdown as an aggressive measure that is causing Russia to retaliate.

The Russian government justified the official intervention of Russia in the war over the breakaway Georgian region with the protection of the local population and those living in Abkhazia from the violence of the Georgian troops. Prime Minister Putin accused Georgia of committing genocide against the Ossetians , but this claim, which Russia Today ran non-stop as crawl text at the bottom of the screen, was refuted by the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia ( IIFFMCG ). According to Georgian information, Russian bombing began in the Georgian heartland at 16:30 on Friday, which the Russian side denied for that time.

The Abkhazian President Sergei Bagapsch convened a special session of the National Security Council, which decided to transfer troops to the Georgian border and to send 1,000 volunteers to South Ossetia.

Just a few hours after the Georgian report about the capture of the South Ossetian capital Tskhinvali, mobile Russian artillery from the area around the city of Java began to fire heavily at suspected Georgian positions in the Georgian enclave of Kurta and at Georgian positions in Tskhinvali.

The 58th Russian Army occupied northern parts of Tskhinvali at around 18:20 local time. Around 200 war volunteers from North Ossetia also arrived in South Ossetia.

On August 9, the Georgian government declared martial law . Georgia reported attacks by the Russian Air Force on a total of 15 Georgian cities, including Poti and various communities in the upper Kodori Valley . According to the Georgian Prime Minister Lado Gurgenidze , the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline is also said to have been bombed, if not hit. The majority owner of the pipeline consortium BP did not confirm these attacks. In addition, at 10:00 local time, four Tupolev Tu-22M 3 bombed Kopitnari airport . The bombers had previously taken off from the Mosdok Air Force Base and carried 27 FAB-250 bombs each.

Soldiers of the Russian 234th Airborne Regiment from Pskov marched into Tskhinvali around noon on August 9. In addition, Russia moved units of the 98th Airborne Division (217th or 229th Airborne Regiment) from Ivanovo and special units of the 45th Reconnaissance Regiment to South Ossetia. Around twelve Georgian tanks are said to have been destroyed on the southern edge of Tskhinvali. The fiercest fighting took place on the afternoon of August 9, when the command battalion of Russia's 58th Army came under tank or artillery fire and then ambushed by the Georgian Special Forces. The Russian troops suffered heavy losses and lost almost all vehicles. General Khrulyov and two accompanying journalists were wounded in the attack. Russian paratroopers arrived in Abkhazia on August 11th.

Around 2,000 Georgian soldiers who were stationed as part of the coalition forces in the Iraqi province of Diyala and in Baghdad were flown back to Georgia on August 11 by a US airlift .

In an attack on Gori on the morning of August 12, the Dutch cameraman Stan Storimans was killed and another colleague was injured; a total of five people are said to have died. According to various reports, Russian warplanes bombed the city. Satellite photos evaluated by UN experts , however, found only minor damage in Gori.

On August 12, Abkhazian and Russian troops penetrated the Georgian administrative district of Upper Abkhazia in the upper Kodori Valley and occupied the administrative capital of Chchalta .

Georgian troops withdraw

Georgian tank wreck in Tskhinvali

Destroyed Georgian military base near the city of Gori

Georgia announced on August 10, 2008 that it had withdrawn its troops from South Ossetia.

President Saakashvili had to cancel a visit to the city of Gori with French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner , who had traveled to Georgia as a mediator, because of a feared Russian air strike on the evening of August 11th. With the offensive in the area of ​​Gori, the Russian leadership achieved an interruption of the main connection from Tbilisi to the west of the country, which encircled Georgian troops in Abkhazia and the city of Senaki and practically divided the country in half.

According to eyewitness reports and recordings, the withdrawal of the Georgian troops was more of an escape leaving behind en masse military equipment. Gori, Senaki, Poti and other Georgian cities were left to the Russian armed forces without resistance . According to newspaper reports, the escape from Gori on the evening of August 11th was panic and disorder.

On the evening of August 11th, the Russian troops withdrew from the city of Senaki, in which they were supposed to prevent the offensive of a Georgian infantry brigade. On August 12, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev ordered the fighting in Georgia to cease. The operation in the South Caucasus has been completed, he said, according to the Interfax agency.

On August 13, despite announcements to the contrary, Russian forces still controlled the city of Gori. The Georgian port city of Poti and other places outside the disputed republics also remained occupied by Russians until September 13, including the Kolchi military airfield near Senaki . President Saakashvili has meanwhile announced that Georgia will leave the CIS.

As a result of the fighting, the 1st and 2nd Georgian Infantry Brigades, the independent Georgian tank battalion with headquarters in Gori and a large part of the Georgian artillery were no longer operational. According to the FAZ, the twelve Georgian fighter-bombers were devastated as well as all eight ships of the Georgian Navy. However, some of this information, including the loss of all twelve fighter-bombers, was later found to be incorrect. In some cases, Russian planes were shot down by self-fire because they were mistaken for Georgian. In total, the Georgian Air Force lost three transport planes and four helicopters. Russian troops lost three tanks, over 20 armored and 32 non-armored vehicles, and six or seven fighter jets, including a Tu-22M3 supersonic bomber.

Despite the ceasefire, the Georgian Air Force continued unmanned reconnaissance flights over South Ossetia, according to Russian sources. According to the Russian General Staff, a Georgian unmanned reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over South Ossetia on August 27.

Sea blockade against Georgia

The Russian Black Sea Fleet built Russian media reported on August 9 with seven warships a naval blockade against Georgia. This should prevent deliveries of weapons and other war material, reported the Russian news agency Interfax, citing the Russian naval command. According to the RIA Novosti news agency , warships reached the border of Georgian waters in the Black Sea . Russian ships called at Abkhazian ports. According to Russian sources, a Georgian speedboat that is said to have opened fire earlier was sunk.

On August 14, advanced units of the Russian army with tanks and infantry penetrated the Georgian port city of Poti and destroyed several ships of the Georgian Navy and Coast Guard at their berths.

War on the internet

As early as August 8, 2008, when war broke out, the de facto South Ossetian government's websites were no longer accessible, and the Georgian government blocked all Russian websites with the extension .ru, which was only temporarily successful, and made reception of all Russian television channels in Georgia impossible. Suspected Russian hackers shut down the web servers of some Georgian government agencies for a few days, but the Georgian Foreign Ministry was not affected.

Consequences of war

EU peace plan and reactions from abroad

Condoleezza Rice on a solidarity visit with Mikheil Saakashvili

Georgia and Russia signed a peace plan, the so-called six-point plan , for Transcaucasia on August 15 and 16, 2008 . He was brokered by the Chairman of the European Council , the French President Nicolas Sarkozy . Among other things, the plan stipulated that the Russian peacekeeping forces would take additional security measures until international mechanisms were agreed. This was the reason for Russia to leave soldiers in so-called "buffer zones" in the Georgian heartland until an international mission occupies this area and thus separates the conflicting parties. From this perspective, Russia should have strictly adhered to the six-point plan and declared that it would also see it as the basis for a future UN Security Council resolution.

On August 19, 2008, the member states of NATO and the European Union again urged Russia to withdraw immediately from Georgia. NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said at a crisis meeting in Brussels: "The future of our relations will depend on the steps Russia takes to honor the withdrawal promise made by President Medvedev". Previously, direct contacts in the NATO-Russia Council were suspended until further notice. In addition, it was decided to set up a NATO Georgia Commission (“NATO Georgia Commission”) to help prepare Georgia for joining NATO. Russian President Dmitri Medvedev has meanwhile announced that the troops will be withdrawn by August 22nd.

Before joining NATO, Sweden had already ceased military cooperation with Russia. The Liberal People's Party is calling for the country to join NATO and for the Swedish Air Force to participate in NATO flight patrols over the Baltic states . Also, Finland's Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb asked to think about joining NATO.

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) plans to increase the number of observers by 100 with the approval of Russia and Georgia. Around 200 OSCE staff are currently stationed in Georgia.

On September 8, 2008, after negotiations with the incumbent President of the European Union Sarkozy, President Medvedev signed additional agreements to the six-point plan. These regulated the withdrawal of the Russian peacekeeping forces from the core area of ​​Georgia by mid-October, international control mechanisms as well as the beginning and content of international talks on ensuring security and stability in the region.

The European Union guaranteed that the Georgian sides would renounce violence against Abkhazia and South Ossetia. She should station around 300 observers in the region. The first patrols of the EU mission began on October 1, 2008, but problems arose with the control of the security zone around South Ossetia. Russia had previously promised to withdraw all soldiers from the security zone by October 10. On October 8, the Georgian side confirmed that Russia had withdrawn all troops from the buffer zones around South Ossetia and Abkhazia.

Refugee flows from South Ossetia

The acts of war led to flows of refugees from South Ossetia.

The UNHCR estimates that 158,000 civilians were displaced in Georgia and South Ossetia. Of these, 30,000 civilians from South Ossetia fled to Russia.

The expulsion of the Georgian population from South Ossetia and the destruction of villages previously inhabited by Georgians is classified as ethnic cleansing by the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia (IIFFMCG) . German reporters confirmed the destruction of Georgian villages in South Ossetia. The destruction was mapped by UNOSAT on behalf of the United Nations . The area between Kechwi and Tskhinvali was hardest hit.

War crimes related to the Caucasus War

Georgian refugees ask for help in front of the parliament in Tbilisi

The report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia (IIFFMCG), prepared under the direction of the Swiss diplomat Heidi Tagliavini , attributed violations of international law to both sides during the Caucasus conflict. The assignment to the conflicting parties was often impossible due to the partly identical equipment.

In October 2008, the BBC reported allegations that Georgian soldiers accepted the deaths of civilians in the artillery bombardment of Tskhinvali and shot indiscriminately at homes and civilian cars as they stormed the city. Allegations that grenades were thrown into basements where civilians were hiding could not be independently confirmed.

The settlements of the Georgian inhabitants of South Ossetia were plundered and arson, the exact extent of which is not clear. Satellite photos published by the UN , however, show the flare-up of numerous fires in the villages of the Georgian enclaves around Tskhinvali between August 12 and 19, 2008 - at a time when no Georgian troops had been in the area for at least two days . A final assessment of the events was not possible at the time without a comprehensive investigation on the ground.

South Ossetian President Eduard Kokoity told the Russian press on August 15 that Georgian civilians who had fled would not be allowed to return to their settlements in South Ossetia. The Georgians who were still in South Ossetia could leave the area at any time through a "humanitarian corridor".

On August 26, the Secretary General of the United Nations announced that there were increasing reports of looting, robbery, murders and evictions on Georgian territory. This is a consequence of a lack of prosecution in the area between the border of South Ossetia and the external border of the Russian-occupied security zone in Georgia. South Ossetia's President also reported on " brigandism " in this " no man's land ".

Military consequences

Loading of a US transport plane in Ramstein on August 13th, which was transporting relief supplies to Georgia

The US Coast Guard Cutter Dallas and the USS McFaul en route to Georgia in the Black Sea

Georgian Inner Kartli Region (Shida Kartli) with Russian military bases, dashed borders of South Ossetia.

Russian military bases in Abkhazia

During the longstanding conflict in South Ossetia before the war broke out in August 2008, numerous landmines were laid. In South Ossetia and Abkhazia, according to research by the ICBL , 383 injuries and deaths from landmines occurred between 2001 and 2007 for all parties involved. According to Georgian sources, an oil-laden train exploded near Gori on August 24, 2008 and hit a mine. Human rights organizations, especially Human Rights Watch , also accused the Russian side of using cluster bombs , but later withdrew it after Georgia's Defense Ministry officially admitted the use of its own cluster bombs against several targets in South Ossetia.

Russia kept its troops in the "core Georgia" territory until October 2008. They formed a 20 km wide Russian buffer zone around South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The railway ran through the buffer zone from east to west Georgia and north of Gori, the most important road connecting Georgia to the port city of Poti. There and on this road in Teklati and Senaki , Russia had established checkpoints and bases. Russia initially announced that it would station 2,600 soldiers in the zone; 2142 off Abkhazia and 452 off South Ossetia. The reason given was that they wanted to prevent Georgian arms transports and acts of sabotage. In addition, the Russian Deputy Chief of Staff Anatoly Nogowitsyn threatened that if the United States should arm Georgia again, the Russian peacekeeping forces would be further strengthened. Thousands of Poti residents demonstrated against the presence of Russian soldiers in the city.

In Operation Assured Delivery , aid supplies were flown from the American Ramstein Air Base in Germany to Tbilisi with transport aircraft from August 13th . On August 25, the American destroyer USS McFaul reached the Georgian port of Batumi . Together with other American warships, such as the command ship USS Mount Whitney (LCC-20) , he brought relief supplies to Georgia.

Russia described this as an attempt by NATO to expand its position in Georgia. and criticized the increasing number of NATO ships in the Black Sea from his point of view. This meant four frigates of the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 , which, according to NATO, were taking part in a long-planned maneuver near Romania and Bulgaria.

In Sukhumi, Abkhazia, the guided missile cruiser Moskva and the missile corvette Ivanovets (954) of the Russian Navy docked at the end of August . On August 29, Moscow also announced that Russia would set up military bases in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. According to the South Ossetian government, corresponding contracts are in preparation.

When the European Union-commissioned report on the 2008 Caucasus War was published in 2009, it refuted most of the Georgian claims. This led to a loss of image for the Georgian government. Der Spiegel spoke of the fact that Saakashvili, once the bearer of hope, was now publicly presented as a “liar and arsonist”. The Peace Research Group of the University of Kassel wrote on its website that Georgia had been identified as the aggressor. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said, however, that the question of guilt in the conflict does not play a role in Georgia's prospects for joining NATO.

Economic consequences

While the EU sought to rebuild and stabilize Georgia with money, the Russian ruble briefly lost its value. Some investors lost confidence in Russia due to the Caucasus conflict and withdrew their capital. However, the economic development of Russia was only marginally influenced by the conflict; the international financial crisis played a much larger role .

Russia has provided generous financial aid to both Abkhazia and South Ossetia since 2008, which has contributed significantly to the region's economic recovery. In Abkhazia, the recognition of independence led to a strong revival of tourism.

Further incidents in 2015

The agreed border lines were moved in 2015 at the expense of Georgian territory . Troops assigned to observers from the Russian Federation advanced into Georgia at night on July 10 and moved border markings. Observers from the European Union confirmed a shift of two border markings by 300 and 1000 meters. The Georgian farmers affected have reportedly been driven from their fields by Russian troops. The Georgian Foreign Ministry said that the Federation soldiers had brought under control a section of the Baku- Supsa pipeline, which runs underground there . The spokesman for British Petroleum in Georgia said that maintenance work on the pipeline can still be carried out. Russian authorities said they had nothing to do with the operation and they advised the government of South Ossetia to be contacted.

Murder of Ukrainian Citizen in 2016

In the spring of 2019, the New York Times published research by journalist Michael Schwirtz into the murder of an electrician in Ukraine in 2016. A list of the names of six Ukrainian men, including the victim, apparently believed by the Russian media or authorities the confessed killer found that they had helped to operate the Georgian air defense in the Caucasus War. He was hired by Russian intelligence officers in Moscow to track down the men and later murder.

Positions of the conflicting parties

Georgian protests against the war, in front of the Russian embassy in Tbilisi

In the words of Georgian General Mamuka Kurashvili, Georgia wanted to restore the "constitutional order" in the breakaway region with its military advance. The aim of the Georgian troops is not to occupy Tskhinvali, but rather they want to " destroy the positions of the separatists ". In the meantime, the Georgian side claimed that the offensive was being used to repel a Russian invasion, but this was quickly questioned.

Celebrations in Tskhinvali after the fighting ended

Russian President Dmitri Medvedev justified the intervention with the protection of Russian civilians in South Ossetia. In the first two days of the conflict alone, 12 members of the Russian troops are said to have died and more than 50 were injured.

The South Ossetian government said the Georgian army had started a brutal bombing and invasion of the country while Russian troops had finally arrived in support of South Ossetia. South Ossetia's government also rejected the term “separatism” for its own intentions, as it said it refused to be part of independent Georgia from the start. So one was never a part of Georgia.

Eduard Kokoity , the South Ossetian President, said in September 2008 that his country was interested in joining the Russian Federation. In Russia , almost half a million Ossetians live in the autonomous republic of North Ossetia-Alania , which borders South Ossetia.

Investigations into the Caucasus War

South Ossetian protesters in The Hague

On September 9, Georgia appealed to the International Court of Justice in The Hague (ICJ) that Russia had violated the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination in South Ossetia and Abkhazia . The allegations go back to the displacement of Georgians from Abkhazia and South Ossetia in the 1990s. Russia argues that any violations were only committed by Georgians, Abkhazians and Ossetians. In addition, the convention does not apply extra-territorially, but only to persecutions within a country.

Russia, for its part, has announced several times to refer to the International Court of Justice . In mid-August, a Russian investigative committee gathered evidence in South Ossetia. On September 10th, the Investigative Committee in Moscow presented its report. It interviewed 2,500 people to gather evidence of the alleged genocide in South Ossetia. The Süddeutsche Zeitung reports that instead of the previously reported 2,000 dead, the committee now reports 134 civilian victims.

The International Court of Justice in The Hague issued a ruling in the context of interim legal protection on October 15, 2008 in the conflict to admonish both sides to comply with the contractual obligations under the Anti-Racial Discrimination Convention. Because of its provisional security character, the decision did nothing to clarify the question of guilt; it was highly controversial because of a special vote by seven of the 15 judges. On the one hand, the decision did not impose any measures on either party to which they were not already directly obliged under the Anti-Racial Discrimination Convention; on the other hand, the dissenting judges did not consider the issue to be a question of racial discrimination, but a territorial dispute. They also denied the urgency necessary for a provisional security order, since at this point in time the situation had already been adequately secured through the deployment of EU, UN and OSCE observers.

On April 1, 2011, the ICJ decided that it was not competent in the dispute because Russia and Georgia had not attempted to negotiate a solution to their dispute before the lawsuit was filed.

European Union report

The Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia (IIFFMCG), acting on behalf of the European Union, presented its report on the Caucasus conflict in September 2009. The report is there to describe facts, but not to "find a culprit."

The report spoke of "large scale" fighting by Georgian forces on the night of August 7-8, but this was only the culmination of an extended period of mounting tensions, provocations and incidents. (“ The shelling of Tskhinvali by the Georgian armed forces during the night of 7 to 8 August 2008 marked the beginning of the large-scale armed conflict in Georgia, yet it was only the culminating point of a long period of increasing tensions, provocations and incidents. ”) The commission was unable to confirm the Georgian account of a Russian invasion of South Ossetia before August 8, 2008 (“ The Mission is not in a position to consider as sufficiently substantiated the Georgian claims ”) however, stated that training and war material had been provided by Russia. In addition, irregulars had entered the area at the beginning of August and other than the Russian peacekeepers had been present before 2:30 p.m. on August 8 (“as well as the presence of some Russian forces in South Ossetia, other than the Russian JPKF battalion, prior to 14.30 hours on August 8, 2008 ”). The Georgian attack on South Ossetia and the Russian peacekeeping forces stationed there was classified as a violation of international law. An initial Russian intervention to defend the peacekeeping forces in South Ossetian territory was covered by international law . On the other hand, the entry of Russian troops into Georgian territory outside South Ossetia was judged to be not covered by international law and was described as very disproportionate, as were the operations of South Ossetian troops and militants after the armistice on August 12. In addition, the occupation of Upper Abkhazia by Russian and Abkhaz troops is expressly included.

Russia's veto in 2009 on the continuation of the UN observer mission UNOMIG

The six-point plan for the settlement of the Caucasus conflict in 2008 provided for the UNOMIG's mandate to be continued in full. At the beginning of October 2008, the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the observer mission to February 15, 2009 and for the last time on February 13, 2009 to June 15, 2009. On June 15, 2009 Russia vetoed the extension. That ended UNOMIG.

Russia's recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia

President Medvedev at a meeting with Sergei Bagapsch and Eduard Kokoity on August 14, 2008

Abkhazian and South Ossetian representation in Tiraspol, Transnistria

For years, South Ossetia and Abkhazia first only from them in were not recognized Community states federated de facto regimes Transnistria and Nagorno Karabakh been recognized.

On August 25, 2008, the Russian Federation Council and the Duma voted unanimously in favor of recognizing the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. President Medvedev complied with this request the next day and signed the recognition of independence for both republics. Russia referred to parallels with Kosovo.

On August 27, 2008, the G-7 states condemned the recognition of the conflict regions and declared that Russia had thereby "questioned its commitment to peace and security in the Caucasus" ().

Georgia broke off diplomatic relations with Russia on August 29 and ordered its embassy staff back from Moscow. On the same day, an EU delegation led by Belgian Senator Anne-Marie Lizin confirmed the buffer zone set up by the Russian armed forces of at least 18 kilometers outside Abkhazia and South Ossetia in the core area of ​​Georgia. At a special summit in Brussels on September 1, the heads of state and government of the European Union condemned the Russian recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The EU also called on other states to refuse to recognize these Georgian territories.

On September 5, the second recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by Nicaragua followed . A few days earlier, several Central Asian countries and the People's Republic of China announced at the conference of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in Dushanbe that they did not want to support Russia's recognition policy. However, the SCO supports “Russia's active role in peace operations” and the six-point plan mediated by the French EU Council Presidency. In the Russian press, Medvedev's appearance in Dushanbe was noted as a diplomatic failure. Belarus has not yet recognized the two breakaway republics, despite statements to the contrary by its president.

At a meeting of the Valdai Club on September 11, 2008, the South Ossetian President Eduard Kokoity declared that South Ossetia would not remain independent but would rather join the Russian Federation. Kokoity had previously requested membership. In May 2008, he declared: "Our greatest goal is unification with Russia." On August 12, Kokoity repeated the wish to join. Georgia had previously expressed fears that Russia's recognition of the two republics would only be a first step towards annexation. After this statement had spread via news agencies, Russian Foreign Minister Lavrov was forced to deny it. Kokoity said his remarks had been "obviously misunderstood".

So far, apart from Russia and Nicaragua, Abkhazia and South Ossetia have been recognized by Venezuela on September 10, 2009 and Nauru on December 15, 2009, while Syria announced the establishment of diplomatic relations in May 2018 and signed the recognition in July.

Abkhazia was initially recognized by Tuvalu and Vanuatu in 2011 , but they withdrew their recognition in 2013 and 2014, respectively.

See also

• Georgian-Abkhazian War
• Abkhazia in the Caucasus War 2008
• South Ossetia in the Caucasus War 2008
• European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia

literature

• Ronald D. Asmus: A Little War that Shock the World. Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-61773-5 .
• Svante E. Cornell, S. Frederick Starr (Eds.): The Guns of August 2008 - Russia's War in Georgia. ME Sharpe, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-7656-2508-3 .
• Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia Report . Vol. I-III. Council of the European Union , 2009 (English, mpil.de [accessed on January 24, 2019]).
• Erich Reiter (Ed.): The secession conflicts in Georgia. (Series of publications on international politics, Volume 1) Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2009, ISBN 978-3-205-78325-1 .
• Thomas De Waal: The Caucasus: An Introduction. University Press, Oxford 2018, ISBN 978-0-19-068309-2 .
• Heinz Fähnrich: History of Georgia. BRILL, 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-18450-3
• Stephen F. Jones: The Making of Modern Georgia, 1918–2012: The First Georgian Republic and its Successors (Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series) Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-59238-3

Movies

In 2009, the film Olympus Inferno was broadcast in Russia . In 2011 an American feature film was released called 5 Days of War . In February 2012, the film Awgust Vosmowo ("August of the year '08") was released in Russia, which combines real background with fantasy elements. The producer was Fyodor Bondarchuk.

Web links

Commons : Caucasus Conflict 2008  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• Analyzes, chronicles, tables and graphics on the Kauskasus war. (PDF; 457 kB) In: Analyzes of Russia No. 169. Research Center for Eastern Europe at the University of Bremen, September 19, 2008, pp. 2-19 . 
• Wolfgang Richter: Initial military operations during the Georgian War in August 2008. (PDF; 691 kB) In: Russia Analysis No. 193. Research Center Eastern Europe at the University of Bremen, December 4, 2009, pp. 26–31 , accessed on July 2, 2014 ( Military Analysis of the War of Kauskasus). 
• Civilians in the aftermath of war - The Georgia-Russia conflict one year on. (PDF; 3.44 MB) Amnesty International, June 8, 2009(English). 

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Homepage of the Russian President: President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev signed a plan to resolve the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict, based on the six principles previously agreed on ( Memento from September 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), August 16, 2008
2. ↑ Statement by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev. (No longer available online.) In: kremlin.ru. August 26, 2008, archived from the original on October 10, 2008 ; accessed on June 5, 2019 . 
3. ↑ ITAR-TASS: Russia's symbolic move: Vladimir Samanov to lead peace keeping troops in Abkhazia , August 12, 2008
4. ^ Ministry of Defense of Georgia: Chief of Joint Staff of the Armed Forces of Georgia ( December 9, 2011 memento in the Internet Archive ), accessed April 2, 2008.
5. ↑ Medianews: Blasts occur in conflict zone ( Memento from September 11, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ), June 12, 2008
6. ↑ ^{a b c} IIFFMCG Report: Vol. 2, p. 223.
7. ^ Pilar Bonet: Guerra en el Cáucaso Rusia interviene en el Cáucaso para quedarse y controlar su espacio vital . In: El País of August 17, 2008 (accessed March 2, 2011).
8. ^ Consequences of Russian Aggression In Georgia. (No longer available online.) In: mfa.gov.ge. Georgian Foreign Ministry, archived from the original on Aug. 2, 2014 ; accessed on December 7, 2019 . 
9. ^ The Tanks of August . Center for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (CAST). August 2010. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
10. ↑ Associated Press: Georgian army moves to retake South Ossetia (original article no longer available) . The world . August 8, 2008. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
11. ^ Heinz Fähnrich: History of Georgia . 1st edition. BRILL, Leiden 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-18450-3 , pp. 456 .
12. ↑ Stephen F. Jones: The Making of Modern Georgia, 1918–2012: The First Georgian Republic and its Successors . 1st edition. Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-59238-3 .
13. ↑ About 20,000 people are said to have fled to North Ossetia, Russia. The Parliament of South Ossetia gave a political assessment of the events of 1918–1920 , April 27, 2007; "The number of dead Ossetians in 1920 was 6–8% of the population of South Ossetia".
14. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Thomas Kunze: War for South Ossetia. (PDF; 36 kB) NATO and the EU between Russia and Georgia. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung , August 12, 2008, accessed on August 31, 2014 . 
15. ^ On March 11, 1990, first Lithuania , on April 9, 1991 Georgia, and on August 20 and 21, 1991 Estonia and Latvia declared their independence from the USSR. This was followed by Belarus , Ukraine , Moldova and Kyrgyzstan on August 24, 25, 27 and 31, 1991 , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan and Armenia on September 1, 9 and 21, 1991 , and on October 18 and 27, 1991 Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan and, on December 16, 1991, Kazakhstan .
16. ↑ Kathleen H. Hicks, Lisa Sawyer Samp (eds.): Recalibrating US Strategy toward Russia: A New Time for Choosing , CSIS Reports, Rowman & Littlefield, 2017, ISBN 978-1-4422-8006-9 , page 41
17. ^ Brian Rohan: Saakashvili "planned S. Ossetia invasion". Reuters , September 14, 2008, accessed October 9, 2008 . 
18. ^ 4 Russian Officers Arrested, Charged with Espionage
19. ↑ Putin fury at Georgia 'terrorism'
20. ↑ Russian Spy Suspects Released
21. ↑ Russia refuses to lift Georgia ban ( Memento from October 28, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
22. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Süddeutsche Zeitung, August 12, 2008, spiral of escalation
23. ↑ The term of the simplified order of obtaining Russian citizenship has been extended to three years. (No longer available online.) In: translatednews.de. January 5, 2006, archived from the original on October 9, 2008 ; accessed on May 27, 2019 . 
24. ↑ New laws on citizenship and alien status ( Memento from October 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
25. ↑ swissinfo.ch Court condemns Russia for evicting Georgians, Swissinfo, July 3, 2014
26. ↑ Welt online: Russia wants UN arms embargo against Georgia , September 9, 2008
27. ↑ NATO's relations with Georgia ( Memento of May 8, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
28. ^ NATO summit in Bucharest
29. ↑ W. Putin: The unipolar model is unacceptable for today's world. 43rd Munich Security Conference
30. ^ Strategic Defense Review - Final Report 2007 Unclassified . Ministry of Defense of Georgia, 2007, Chapter 5, Table "Threat Category and Risk Assessment", p. 77; PDF page 78 (English, Georgian, digitized version ( memento from January 19, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) [PDF; 14.3 MB ; accessed on August 16, 2018]).
31. ↑ Marcel De Haas: Russia's Foreign Security Policy in the 21st Century: Putin, Medvedev and Beyond , Contemporary Security Studies, Routledge Publishing, 2010, ISBN 978-1-136-99032-8
32. ↑ ^{a b} Ekaterina Svyatets: Energy Security and Cooperation in Eurasia: Power, Profits and Politics , Routledge Studies in Energy Policy Verlag Routledge, 2015, ISBN 978-1-317-44957-7 , page 96
33. ^ Brian J. Ellison: Russian Grand Strategy in the South Ossetia War. Democratizatsiya, Fall 2011, Volume 19, Issue 4, page 354.
34. ↑ ^{a b} EU concerned at Russian moves on Abkhazia. In: reuters.com. March 10, 2008, accessed on August 31, 2020 (English): “ The EU insists Kosovo is a unique case and does not constitute a model for any other territory. " 
35. ↑ Ronald Asmus: A Little War That Shook the World: Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West , St. Martin's Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-230-10228-6 , p. 106
36. ^ Pressing Russia for restraint on Georgia. In: wikileaks.org. Retrieved February 1, 2020 ( leaked email from the US Embassy in Moscow on November 2, 2006). 
37. ↑ Как готовилась война . In: Novaya Gazeta . No. 68 , June 29, 2009 (Russian, novayagazeta.ru [accessed February 4, 2020]).
38. ↑ Russian Federation Withdraws from Regime of Restrictions Established in 1996 for Abkhazia. Russian Foreign Ministry press release. (No longer available online.) In: ln.mid.ru. March 6, 2008, archived from the original on September 1, 2008 ; accessed on August 11, 2020 (English). 
39. ↑ Russia says rebels downed plane. BBC news, April 22, 2008, accessed August 31, 2014 (BBC article with the drone film). 
40. ↑ Russia's Moves Add To Strains With Georgia
41. ↑ UN News Center: Georgia: UN says Russian air force shot down aircraft over Abkhazia , message of May 27, 2008, accessed on May 30, 2008
42. ↑ Pavel Felgenhauer, Eurasia Daily Monitor, August 7, 2008  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
43. ↑ Russia and the “frozen conflicts”. Deutsche Welle, October 15, 2014, accessed on April 14, 2015 : “Putin: There was a plan under which Russia acted. It was drawn up by the General Staff in late 2006 or early 2007; I approved it. As part of this plan, we trained members of the South Ossetian Volkssturm. " 
44. ^ Security policy without consideration - A planned war ( Memento from March 4, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), ARD, March 3, 2014
45. ↑ ^{a b c} IIFFMCG Report, Vol. 1, p. 22f.
46. ^ Three Injured in Attack on Georgian Convoy in S. Ossetia . Civil Georgia . July 3, 2008
47. ↑ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-georgia-usa/rice-urges-russia-and-georgia-to-avoid-provocation-idUSL0841062620080708
48. ^ Georgia looks for strong response to Russian flyover. (No longer available online.) In: Georgiandaily. July 14, 2008, archived from the original on September 1, 2008 ; Retrieved December 19, 2010 . 
49. ↑ ^{a b} jamestown.org THE GOALS BEHIND MOSCOW'S PROXY OFFENSIVE IN SOUTH OSSETIA
50. ↑ Russia begins active stage of Caucasus 2008 military exercise , RIA Novosti , August 15, 2008
51. ^ US Army, Security cooperation exercise Immediate Response 2008. In: army.mil. July 17, 2008, accessed July 1, 2014 . 
52. ↑ Interfax , July 26, 2008: Aircraft Spotted Over Georgian-Ossetian Conflict Zone ( Memento of August 27, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) (“… during the monitoring, the South Ossetian side did not allow a group of military observers to enter the site of alleged fortification work. ")
53. ↑ South Ossetia evacuates children. In: news.bbc.co.uk. August 2, 2008, accessed April 12, 2015 . 
54. ↑ Вывезли из-под огня. В Россию прибывают беженцы из Южной Осетии . Perwy Canal , August 3, 2008.
55. ↑ Rick Fawn (Ed.): Georgia: Revolution and War , Routledge Publishing, 2016, ISBN 978-1-134-93018-0
56. ^ Arkadi Ostrowski The Invention of Russia: The Rise of Putin and the Age of Fake News, Verlag Penguin, 2016, ISBN 978-0-399-56418-5 , pp. 298ff
57. ↑ Talking Through Gritted Teeth ( Memento of May 4, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), BBC Monitoring, August 6, 2008
58. ↑ "В Южную Осетию уже прибывают добровольцы" , Interfax , agency report in Russian
59. ↑ "Volunteers arriving in South Ossetia - president's envoy" ( Memento from August 28, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), Interfax , agency report in English (in Google Cache)
60. ^ Svante E. Cornell, S. Frederick Starr: The Guns of August 2008: Russia's War in Georgia , Studies of Central Asia and the Caucasus, Verlag Routledge, 2015 ISBN 978-1-317-45652-0
61. ↑ Georgia Says its Armored Vehicle Blown Up , Civil Georgia, Aug. 7, 2008.
62. ↑ Georgia reports 'large-scale battles' in rebel region ( English ) Agence France-Presse . August 7, 2008. Archived from the original on August 12, 2008. Retrieved on August 12, 2008.
63. ↑ Heavy fighting in South Ossetia ( English ) British Broadcasting Corporation . August 8, 2008. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
64. ↑ police.ge Georgian Interior Ministry, Today in the village of "Avnevi" the armored vehicle owned by Peacekeeping Forces of Georgia has been exploded by Ossetian separatists in the conflict zone of South Ossetia.
65. ↑ Цхинвали подвергся артобстрелу, заявляет Миноброны Южной Осетии , RIA Novosti , August 7, 2008
66. ↑ ^{a b} telegraph.co.uk How a flat tire took the Caucasus to war
67. ↑ Ronald Asmus: A Little War That Shook the World: Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West , St. Martin's Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-230-10228-6 , page 34
68. ^ Saakashvili Appeals for Peace in Televised Address , Civil Georgia , Aug. 7, 2008; Sakashvili: "The Georgian side has been in constant contact with the Russian leadership of the peacekeepers and several hours ago they said that they had fully lost control over the actions of the separatists"
69. ↑ undemocracy.com ( Memento of September 26, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Minutes of UN Security Council meeting 5951
70. ↑ washingtonpost.com
71. ↑ Christoph Berlich: What is it about cyber warfare? An analysis of modern warfare using the example of the Russian-Georgian war 2008 , Disserta Verlag, 2016 ISBN 978-3-95935-246-8 , page 59
72. ↑ mfa.gov.ge: Statement of the Government of Georgia regarding the situation in the South Ossetia region of Georgia, August 8, 2008, 00:45 ( Memento August 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
73. ↑ Klaus Scherer (journalist) : Attacks from the Internet ( Memento from January 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) - ARD, Jan. 26, 2011.
74. ↑ How the war began - Saakashvili's version. Dossier. In: n-tv.de. August 10, 2008, accessed September 23, 2019 . 
75. ↑ Uwe Klußmann: Georgia's Murky Motives: Saakashvili under Pressure from EU Probe. In: Spiegel Online . March 23, 2009, accessed October 7, 2018 . 
76. ↑ Saakashvili plays with fire in the powder keg. In: Russia News . August 8, 2008, accessed June 30, 2020.
77. ^ ^{A b} Institute for war and peace reporting: How the georgian war began
78. ↑ Did Russia Plan Its War In Georgia? , RFERL, August 15, 2008
79. ^ Brian J. Ellison: Russian Grand Strategy in the South Ossetia War. Democratizatsiya, Fall 2011, Volume 19, Issue 4, page 355.
80. ↑ ^{a b} Rick Fawn: The difficulties of knowing the start of war in the information age: Russia, Georgia and the War over South Ossetia, August 2008 , Taylor & Francis, published March 12, 2012, pages 57-89
81. ↑ https://libmod.de/armin-huttenlocher-recherche-putins-schattenmann-mh17/
82. ↑ Грузинская сторона обстреливает дорогу, которая ведет из Цхинвали в РФ , RIA Novosti , August 8, 2008
83. ↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, No. 209 of September 6, 2008, p. 6.
84. ↑ Tskhinvali almost surrounded - Georgian official ( English = ) ITAR-TASS . August 8, 2008. Archived from the original on August 13, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
85. ↑ ^{a b} Timeline by 12th of August 8:30 pm. (No longer available online.) In: mfa.gov.ge. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia, archived from the original on August 12, 2008 ; accessed on January 27, 2019 (English). 
86. ↑ Lenta.ru: У Грузии обнаружили 170 пленных осетин , August 20, 2008
87. ↑ Welt Online: ibid. , December 24, 2008
88. ↑ Lenta.ru: В Цхинвали погибли еще три российских миротворца , August 9, 2008
89. ↑ Олег Галаванов погиб, проявив мужество и героизм на боевом посту ( Memento from June 18, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
90. ↑ “Пока еще ничего не закончилось”. In: mk.ru. August 12, 2008. Retrieved August 22, 2019 (Russian). 
91. ↑ http://www.mpil.de/files/pdf4/IIFFMCG_Volume_III1.pdf
92. ↑ Security Council Report: Council Meetings ( Memento of September 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), August 12, 2008
93. ↑ AFP: Georgia surrounds capital in rebel province ( English ) afp.google.com. Archived from the original on August 13, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
94. ↑ Заявление в связи с ситуацией в Южной Осетии. Statement by the President of the Russian Federation on the situation in South Ossetia. (No longer available online.) In: kremlin.ru. August 8, 2008, archived from the original on August 23, 2008 ; Retrieved April 25, 2019 (Russian). 
95. ^ Mr Putin described the actions of Georgian soldiers as genocide against the South Ossetian people
96. ↑ Peter Pomerantsev: Nothing is true and everything is possible: Adventure in Putin's Russia , Verlag DVA, 2015 ISBN 978-3-641-16573-4 , page 67
97. ↑ ^{a b} Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia ( Memento of October 7, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 3.8 MB) p. 26.
98. ↑ Russia accused Georgia of genocide against the South Ossetian people
99. ↑ Putin announces retaliation for dead Russian soldiers, Spiegel-Online , August 8, 2008
100. ↑ smr.gov.ge
101. ↑ washingtonpost.com washingtonpost.com, "A Two-Sided Descent Into Full-Scale War"
102. ↑ ^{a b} RIA Novosti: Chronicle of the War in South Ossetia , August 10, 2008
103. ^ State of war in Georgia officially in force ( Memento from August 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), Süddeutsche Zeitung , August 9, 2008
104. ↑ Caucasus War: Georgia announces unilateral ceasefire . The time . August 10, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
105. ^ Black Sea port Poti «completely destroyed». In: 20min.ch. August 9, 2008, accessed April 4, 2019 . 
106. ^ Civil Georgia: Upper Kodori Attacked , Aug. 9, 2008
107. ↑ "... we do have the information that the Russian aircraft have bombed our strategic pipelines. The pipelines escaped unharmed but the bomb dropped nearby, which leads us to believe that they have determined to knock out our strategic facilities. “ Meeting of the Government of Georgia ( Memento from February 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) on August 9, 2008
108. ^ FR-online: The Propaganda War ( Memento from August 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
109. ↑ Ataque Aéreo contra el aeropuerto de Kopitnari en Georgia - Análisis Militares, March 2013
110. ↑ http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/articles/here-s-how-nato-can-open-a-path-to-membership-for-georgia
111. ↑ http://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/pub1069.pdf
112. ↑ http://www.apn.ru/publications/article20625.htm
113. ^ Troop transport: USA relocates Georgian troops from Iraq to their homeland . Spiegel Online . August 10, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
114. ^ Blasts rock Georgian town Gori, several dead . Reuters . August 12, 2008. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
115. ^ Georgian journalist, driver killed in Gori - witness . Agence France-Presse . August 12, 2008. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
116. ↑ Dutch journalist killed in Russian bombing of Gori . Associated Press . August 12, 2008. Retrieved September 19, 2008.
117. ^ Georgia: Russian Cluster Bombs Kill Civilians. In: hrw.org. Human Rights Watch , August 15, 2008, accessed June 4, 2019 . 
118. ↑ ^{a b} UNOSAT: Active Fire Locations for Tskhinvali, South Ossetia, Georgia ( Memento of September 3, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), August 20, 2008
119. ↑ alertnet.org REUTERS, Abkhazia president says his troops control Kodori Gorge, AUGUST 13, 2008
120. ^ Civil Georgia: Kodori Under Abkhaz Control , Aug. 12, 2008
121. ↑ ^{a b} Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia ( Memento of October 7, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 3.8 MB) p. 25.
122. ↑ Georgian Army backs away . Focus . August 10, 2008. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
123. ↑ ^{a b} timesonline.co.uk Times: Russian troops invade Georgia and 'take the town of Gori'
124. ↑ usatoday.com
125. ↑ Mail Online: Georgia 'overrun' by Russian troops as full-scale ground invasion begins
126. ↑ Українська правда: Фото брошенной грузинской армией техники при бегстве из Гори , August 13, 2008
127. ↑ ^{a b} Yahoo: Page no longer available
128. ↑ ARD Tagesschau, August 14, 2008, Georgia wants to leave the CIS ( Memento from August 17, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
129. ↑ Video ZDF heute Nachrichten: The situation in the Caucasus continues to be confusing (August 14, 2008)  in the ZDFmediathek , accessed on February 2, 2014. (offline)
130. ↑ INTELLIGENCE BRIEFING UPDATE ARMED FORCES OF GEORGIA - ORBAT on oraclesyndicate.twoday.net
131. ↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , No. 209, September 6, 2008, p. 6.
132. ↑ The Tanks of August / Edited by Ruslan Pukhov Foreword by David Glantz
133. ↑ Moscow Defense Brief 3/2008 ( Memento of March 5, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
134. ^ Georgia Air Force
135. ↑ http://www.cast.ru/files/The_Tanks_of_August_sm_eng.pdf
136. ↑ interfax.ru Georgian UAV conducts reconnaissance flights over Russian troops in South Ossetia on August 26th (ru)
137. ↑ interfax.ru On Wednesday an unmanned reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over the territory of South Ossetia (ru)
138. ↑ Netzzeitung: Russia sets up a sea blockade against Georgia ( Memento of August 10, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), August 10, 2008
139. ↑ Russian Black Sea Fleet lands in Abkhazia . Mirror online. August 10, 2008. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
140. ↑ Warship sunk - USA intervenes. In: n-tv.de. August 10, 2008, accessed September 16, 2019 . 
141. ↑ Russian tanks enter Georgia's Poti. (No longer available online.) In: tvnz.co.nz. August 14, 2008, archived from the original on August 30, 2008 ; accessed on August 18, 2019 . 
142. ↑ Frankfurter Rundschau " The Propaganda War ( Memento from August 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive )", on August 13, 2008
143. ↑ spiegel.de: “ Hackers sweep Georgian government pages off the net ”, on August 11, 2008
144. ^ RIA Novosti: Moscow pushes for UN resolution on the six-point plan , September 5, 2008
145. ↑ Federal Foreign Office: NATO supports resolution of the Caucasus conflict
146. ↑ Süddeutsche: Page no longer available
147. ↑ No longer neutral. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. September 1, 2008.
148. ↑ Tagesschau : EU observers start deployment in Georgia on October 1, 2008.
149. ↑ Russian troops have withdrawn . Daily News. October 8, 2008. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved on October 9, 2008.
150. ^ Caucasus conflict. Help for refugees. August 18, 2008, accessed April 4, 2014 . 
151. ↑ Novosti
152. ↑ Tagesschau from August 13, 2008, 8 p.m. (only table of contents)
153. ↑ UNOSAT: Georgia maps
154. ↑ news.bbc.co.uk BBC Georgia accused of targeting civilians; October 28, 2008>
155. ↑ “Of course we acted within the framework of international law”. (No longer available online.) In: Tagesschau. ARD, August 29, 2008, archived from the original on September 10, 2012 ; Retrieved November 26, 2008 . 
156. ↑ Time: The Ethnic Toll in Georgia , August 20, 2008
157. ↑ RIA Novosti: S. Ossetia says Georgian refugees unable to return to region , August 15 2008
158. ↑ UN: Resolving Georgian crisis may be harder after Russian recognition move - Ban , August 26, 2008
159. ↑ Guy Faulconbridge: South Ossetia seeks permanent Russian base. In: reuters.com . August 18, 2008, accessed May 4, 2020.
160. ↑ ^{a b} Landminemonitor 2007: Georgia (footnote 18)
161. ↑ US warship reaches Georgian port. In: bbc.co.uk. August 24, 2008, accessed April 4, 2014 . 
162. ↑ HRW: Georgia: Civilians Killed by Russian Cluster Bomb 'Duds' , August 21, 2008
163. ^ Clarification Regarding Use of Cluster Munitions in Georgia. In: hrw.org . September 3, 2008, accessed August 4, 2020.
164. ↑ ABCNews: Group: Georgia Admits to Dropping Cluster Bombs , September 1, 2008
165. ↑ Video ZDF heute Nachrichten (23 August 2008, 7:00 p.m.)  in the ZDFmediathek , accessed on February 2, 2014. (offline)
166. ↑ Süddeutsche Zeitung, 23./24. August 2008, Moscow declares withdrawal from Georgia over
167. ^ US military humanitarian efforts dubbed Operation Assured Delivery. (No longer available online.) In: eucom.mil. August 23, 2008, archived from the original on August 28, 2008 ; accessed on August 10, 2019 . 
168. ↑ ^{a b c} Süddeutsche Zeitung, August 25, 2008, Moscow's understanding of withdrawal; in parts online at Jetzt.de.
169. ^ Spiegel online: Russia accuses the West of gunboat show , August 28, 2008
170. ↑ NATO ships visit new NATO member. NATO, accessed on April 4, 2014 (the ships participating in the NATO maneuver were the Almirante Juan de Borbon (F-102) ( Spain ), the Lübeck (F 214) (Germany), the General Kazimierz Pulaski - Oliver-Hazard- Perry class ( Poland ) and the US USS Taylor (FFG-50) .). 
171. ^ Deutsche Welle: Germany sends military observers to Georgia , August 27, 2008
172. ↑ Video ZDF today (August 29, 2008, 7:00 p.m.)  in the ZDFmediathek , accessed on February 2, 2014. (offline)
173. ^ RIA Novosti: Russia is setting up a military base in South Ossetia , August 29, 2008
174. ↑ Uwe Klußmann im Spiegel : Forgotten Crises: Cold War in the Caucasus , July 9, 2011
175. ^ WG Peace Research : Georgia identified as the aggressor
176. ↑ RIA Novosti : NATO chief: South Ossetia report without consequences for Georgia's accession prospects
177. ^ Charles Grant, Mark Leonard: Georgia and the EU: Can Europe's neighborhood policy deliver? In: cer.eu. Center for European Reform , October 3, 2005, accessed on January 14, 2018 . 
178. ^ Spiegel Online: Russia threatens a new ruble crisis , September 5, 2008
179. ↑ Bloomberg: Russia Ruble's 'Georgia' Drop Offers Value, Morgan Stanley Says , September 5, 2008
180. ↑ Bloomberg: Ruble Falls to Lowest in Year Against Dollar, Drops Versus Euro , September 4, 2008
181. ↑ Russia's GDP grew 5.6% in 2008 - statistics
182. ↑ Gocha Gvaramia: Tourist season in Abkhazia: so who is lying? (No longer available online.) In: eng.expertclub.ge. July 22, 2010, archived from the original on July 21, 2011 ; accessed on August 13, 2018 . 
183. ↑ Kawkaski Usel: В 2009 году туристический поток в Абхазии увеличился на 20% (Russian)
184. ↑ Andrew North: Georgia accuses Russia of viola ting international law over South Ossetia In: The Guardian of 14 July, 2015.
185. ↑ Reuters: Russia Denies It Violates Georgian Sovereignty With Border Markers In: The New York Times. July 22, 2015.
186. ↑ Daniel Wechlin: Dispute about every meter of the earth In: NZZ , July 16, 2015.
187. ↑ Michael Schwirtz: "Russia Ordered a Killing That Made No Sense. Then the Assassin Started Talking." The New York Times, March 31, 2019
188. ↑ Zoomer: Georgia starts military offensive August 8, 2008
189. ↑ CJ Chivers, Ellen Barry: Georgia Claims on Russia War Called Into Question.
190. ↑ Der Spiegel Deutsch: Did Saakashvili Lie ?: The West Begins to Doubt Georgian Leader
191. ↑ Заявления Exemples прессы и ответы на вопросы по журналистов итогам переговоров с Франции Президентом Николя Саркози. Press releases [by the President of the Russian Federation] and answers to questions from journalists after discussions with French President Nicolas Sarkozy. (No longer available online.) In: kremlin.ru. August 12, 2008, archived from the original on January 24, 2009 ; Retrieved January 19, 2019 (Russian). 
192. ↑ Russia and Georgia Clash Over Separatist Region
193. ↑ South Ossetian news agency: Tskhinval is under the most frightful fire
194. ↑ Uwe Klussmann in Der Spiegel Deutsch: Georgian Tanks vs. Ossetian Teenagers: The Story of Tskhinvali's Resistance , August 26, 2008.
195. ^ Radio Liberty , September 11, 2008: Kokoity Says South Ossetia Will Become Part Of Russia
196. ↑ International Court of Justice: Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) ( Memento of September 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
197. ^ Kommersant: Georgia Opened the Hague Front ( February 19, 2014 memento in the Internet Archive ), September 9, 2008
198. ↑ ^{a b} Süddeutsche Zeitung, September 12, 2008, Das Anschluss-Dementi
199. ↑ Press release of October 15, 2008 ( Memento of December 26, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 93 kB), IGH accessed on October 15, 2008
200. ↑ Conference failed ( memento of October 19, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), SZ accessed on October 15, 2008
201. ↑ Angelika Nußberger : “The 'Five Day War' in front of the court - Russia, Georgia and international law” in Eastern Europe , vol. 58, 11/2008, pp. 19ff, 21ff.
202. ^ IGH: Georgia's lawsuit against Russia dismissed
203. ^ Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia ( Memento of October 7, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 3.8 MB) p. 20.
204. ↑ IIFFMCG Report, Vol. 1, pp. 23f.
205. ↑ IIFFMCG Report, Vol 1., p. 25 and p. 26: Numerous violations were committed by South Ossetian irregular armed groups, by volunteers or mercenaries or by armed individuals.
206. ^ Resolution 1839 - The situation in Georgia. In: unscr.com. October 9, 2008, accessed March 9, 2019 . 
207. ^ Resolution 1866 (2009). (PDF; 21 kB) (No longer available online.) In: dag.un.org. United Nations Security Council, February 13, 2009, archived from the original on August 16, 2018 ; accessed on August 16, 2018 . 
208. ↑ CAP. "Kremlin holds up the Kosovo mirror to the West" (August 28, 2008)
209. ↑ Focus: G-7 condemn Russia's policy on Georgia , August 27, 2008
210. ^ Spiegel: EU condemns Moscow's recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia , September 1, 2008
211. ↑ El Presidente de la República Nicaragua Decreto No. 47-2008 (PDF; 230 kB) Archived by WebCite ® at webcitation.org/5ajFHstLY ( Memento from September 10, 2008 on WebCite ).
212. ↑ El Presidente de la República Nicaragua Decreto No. 46-2008 (PDF; 228 kB) Archived by WebCite ® at webcitation.org/5ajFTB665 ( Memento from September 10, 2008 on WebCite )
213. ↑ Münchner Merkur, August 29, 2008, Caucasus crisis: Russia remains internationally isolated
214. ↑ FTD.de: Caucasus conflict: China fails to provide Russia with support ( Memento from August 1, 2012 in the web archive archive.today )
215. ↑ the standard: paid article
216. ↑ Kommersant online, Allies let him down , August 29, 2008 ( Memento from September 10, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
217. ^ Spiegel.de: Caucasus conflict: South Ossetia wants to join Russia
218. ↑ So, Let's Negotiate for It. (No longer available online.) In: Kommersant. September 12, 2008, archived from the original on November 29, 2014 ; accessed on September 3, 2014 (English, background report on the Valdai Club meeting). 
219. ↑ russland.ru: Chávez in Russia - Venezuela recognizes South Ossetia and Abkhazia ( Memento from July 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (accessed on December 16, 2009)
220. ↑ net-tribune.de: Pacific state Nauru recognizes Abkhazia and South Ossetia ( Memento of March 29, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) (accessed on December 16, 2009)
221. ↑ Syria recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia , Novaya Gazeta, May 29, 2018
222. ↑ Syria has established diplomatic relations with South Ossetia , Novaya Gazeta, July 22, 2018
223. ↑ The Pacific state of Tuvalu recognizes the independence of Abkhazia
224. ^ Government of Vanuatu, October 7, 2011: Vanuatu's recognition to the Republic of Abkhazia ( Memento of December 18, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
225. ↑ globalpost: Vanuatu scraps recognition of Georgia breakaway region (May 20, 2013)
226. ↑ Interpressnews: Tuvalu takes back recognition of independence of Abkhazia and so-called South Ossetia ( Memento of September 3, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (March 31, 2014)
227. ^ Spiegel Online about Olympius Inferno
228. ↑ Avgust Vosmowo. In: kinopoisk.ru.
229. ↑ Avgust Vosmogo. In: Internet Movie Database .