UK economy

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United Kingdom
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
World economic rank 6. (nominal) (2016)
currency Pound sterling (GBP)
Conversion rate 1 GBP = 1.1405 (2019) EUR
Trade
organizations 		EU , WTO , OECD
Key figures
Gross domestic
product (GDP) 		$ 2,828.8 billion (nominal) (2018)
$ 3,038.8 billion (PPP) (2018)
GDP per capita $ 42,579.8 (nominal) (2018)
$ 45,740.8 (PPP) (2018)
GDP by economic sector Agriculture : 0.7% (2009)
Industry : 21.1% (2009)
Services : 78.2% (2009)
growth   +1.8% (2016)
inflation rate 2.5% (2018)
Employed 29.1 million (2009)
Employed persons by economic sector Agriculture: 1.3% (2008)
Industry: 17.3% (2008)
Services: 81.4% (2008)
Activity rate 52% (real)
Unemployed 2.45 million (October 2010)
Unemployment rate 5.0% (January 2016)
Foreign trade
export ₤ 251.1 billion (2008)
Export goods Semi-finished goods, chemical products, capital goods, oil and oil products
import ₤ 344 billion (2008)
Import goods Semi-finished goods, consumer goods, capital goods
Foreign trade balance ₤ -93 billion (2008)
public finances
Public debt 90.6% of GDP (2013)
Government revenue 38.8% of GDP (2015)
Government spending 43.2% of GDP (2015)
Budget balance 4.4% of GDP (2015)

The UK is one of the most deregulated economies in the world. The British economy is the origin of what is known as “ Anglo-Saxon capitalism ”, which is based on the principles of liberalization , free market , low taxation and low regulation. The country has the world's sixth largest gross domestic product (GDP) and the third largest in Europe after Germany and France . In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), it ranks sixth. At 28,300 euros, GDP per capita is in the upper European reference range. When compared with the EU's GDP (expressed in purchasing power standards), the UK has an index of 110 (EU-28 in 2015: 100). The UK economy is one of the strongest in Europe in terms of inflation , interest rates and unemployment .

The country was a member of the European Union and is a member of the Group of Seven . The British economy is often referred to as "Anglo-Saxon capitalism". Since the 1980s, numerous state-owned companies have been privatized in the course of Thatcherism and the unions have been weakened. The Labor Party government that followed in 1997 introduced, among other things, the minimum wage and supported the domestic economy with increased state investments, but pursued a similar policy overall.

Industry today only plays a relatively minor role in the British economy, even in a European comparison (except in the export share) and many traditional brands such as Bentley, Jaguar or Land Rover are no longer British companies. In contrast, financial services have gained in importance. The capital London is an international financial center (" City of London "), location of several important stock exchanges and banks. After a period of high growth from the late 1990s, the UK economy found itself in recession from 2008 to 2010 (see 2007 financial crisis ). Especially with the fall of the pound after the Brexit vote, the economy is growing again by over 2% annually. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic , the country is facing another recession of historic proportions.

In the Global Competitiveness Index , which measures a country's competitiveness, the United Kingdom ranks 9th out of 141 countries (as of 2019). In   2020, the country ranks 7th out of 180 countries in the index for economic freedom .

Economic sectors

Agriculture and fishing

British agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, highly subsidized and efficient by European standards. Agriculture contributes around 2% to GDP ; about two thirds of the production goes to livestock and one third to arable farming . The main foods grown are wheat , barley , oats , potatoes , sugar beets and vegetables . Cattle and sheep dominate cattle .

The UK is also an important fishing nation . Coastal towns with major fish processing operations are Kingston upon Hull , Grimsby , Fleetwood , Great Yarmouth , Peterhead , Fraserburgh and Lowestoft .

Energy industry

Conventional energies

The country has large resources of coal , natural gas and oil , the extraction of these raw materials contributes 10% to GDP, which is extremely high for an industrialized country . Some of the country's leading companies operate in this sector, including BP , Royal Dutch Shell , Cairn Energy , Centrica , BHP Billiton , Anglo American, and Rio Tinto Group .

Thanks to North Sea oil and North Sea natural gas , the UK was a net exporter of hydrocarbons in the 1990s and the second largest oil producer in Western Europe after Norway . Since around 2004 it has been a net importer again due to diminishing sources. Around 80% of electricity is currently generated from fossil fuels . Most of the rest of the production comes from nuclear and wind energy .

The UK is the world's seventh largest producer of carbon dioxide with a share of 2.3% . The British government has ratified the Kyoto Protocol and adopted the “Climate Change Program” in 2000, which aims to reduce emissions far beyond the Kyoto target values. The Brown government (2007-2010) decided in January 2008 - before Fukushima - to build more nuclear power plants. The first power plant of the new generation should be ready in 2020. The twelve old nuclear reactors are to be shut down by 2035.

The self-mined coal only has a relatively small share of the economy. In the 1980s and 90s - driven by Margaret Thatcher - a large part of the mines was closed; only a few larger mines remained:

mine Owner region Production 2011 (tons) Employees 2011 closure
Ayle Colliery Ayle Colliery Company Ltd Northumberland ? ? before 2015
Hatfield Colliery Hatfield Colliery Ltd Yorkshire 704.740 885 June 2015
Hill Top Colliery Grimebridge Colliery Company Ltd Lancashire ? 3 before 2015
Kellingley Colliery UK Coal Operations Ltd Yorkshire 2,276,434 695 Dec 2015
Monument Colliery Ray Ashly, Richard Daniels, Neil Jones Forest of Dean 250 3 before 2015
Thoresby Colliery UK Coal Operations Ltd Nottinghamshire 1,283,346 613 July 2015
Unity mine Unity Mine Ltd South wales ? ? before 2015

On December 18, 2015, the last working mine, Kellingley Colliery in North Yorkshire, was closed. This ended several centuries of industrial deep coal mining in the UK. However, coal continues to be mined in open-cast mining.

Renewable Energies

As part of the energy transition and climate protection, Great Britain has set itself the goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. In addition, the electricity sector is to be decarbonised by the 2030s . H. Become CO 2 -free. To encourage the changeover, a minimum price of £ 18.08 / ton (20.21 euros / ton) will be charged on the production of carbon dioxide . This minimum price is calculated in addition to the costs resulting from EU emissions trading and, under the current market conditions, should be high enough to bring about a switch from emission-intensive coal-fired to lower-emission gas-fired power plants.

Due to its island location, the UK has great potential for generating electricity in wind farms , wave power plants and tidal power plants . The proportion of electricity generated from renewable sources ( bioenergy , wind energy , solar energy and hydropower ) rose from 9.4% in 2011 to 11.3% in 2012. With 5.2 GW of power, the country is the world's largest user of offshore wind farms (see also list of offshore wind farms ). In total, wind turbines with a total output of 14.5 GW were installed in Great Britain at the end of 2016 . In contrast, hydropower makes up less than 2% of the electricity mix.

Industry

The de-industrialization is well advanced in the UK. In 2019, the share of the manufacturing sector in GDP was 8.6 percent and is fourth from the bottom behind Cyprus, Norway and Malta in a European comparison. The downward trend, which has continued steadily since the 1960s, has accelerated since 2000. At that time, industry still generated almost 20% of GDP. Nevertheless, industry continues to play an important role for the economy as a whole, as it generates 57% of all exports (2014).

According to the Office for National Statistics , industry still employed 8% of all workers in June 2015 (2,317,000 out of 29,129,000 employees). The share of people employed in the manufacturing industry is highest in the East Midlands and West Midlands regions , at 12% and 11% respectively. The share is lowest in London at 4%.

Compared to other industrialized nations such as the USA, Germany and France, the productivity of British industry is 20–30% lower. The inadequate training of many industrial workers is cited as a cause for this.

Research and development (R&D) expenditure as a percentage of GDP was only 1.72% in the UK in 2012. This made it ninth among the ten largest economies in the EU. Accordingly, top technology (e.g. pharmaceuticals, electronic and optical devices) and high technology (e.g. mechanical engineering, automotive industry) each contribute less than a sixth to the total added value of the industry. In British industry, the sectors with medium or low technological requirements (e.g. beverage filling, food processing, textiles, plastic goods, metal goods, wood processing and furniture manufacturing) dominate with 72% of total value added (as of the second quarter of 2015).

Within the industrial sector, the automotive industry makes up the largest share, even if all large companies are now in foreign hands. Represented in the UK are BMW ( Mini and Rolls-Royce Motor Cars ), Ford , Honda , Nissan , PSA ( Vauxhall Motors ), Tata Motors ( Jaguar Land Rover ), Toyota and Volkswagen AG ( Bentley ). There are also a number of small specialist companies including TVR , Lotus , McLaren Automotive , Morgan Motor , Leyland Motors , LDV , Alexander Dennis , JC Bamford and Manganese Bronze . Five out of six cars made in the country are exported. Several companies are active in the rail vehicle industry such as B. Brush Traction . BAE Systems is a global leader in the civil aviation and armaments sector; other well-known companies are Babcock International Group , GKN and Rolls-Royce Aero Engines.

Electronics as well as audio and optical equipment are also important branches of the industrial sector. Well-known companies in this area are ARM , Invensys , Linn Products and Nallatech . These and overseas companies represented in the UK manufacture a wide variety of televisions, radios, communications equipment, optical instruments, electrical appliances, office machines and computers. The chemical industry and in particular the pharmaceutical industry is an important pillar . The world's second and third largest pharmaceutical companies, GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca , are headquartered in the UK and have extensive research and manufacturing facilities here.

Other important industries include food processing, beverages, tobacco, paper, printing, publishing and textiles. Well-known companies in these areas are Diageo , SABMiller , Scottish & Newcastle , Unilever , Cadbury Schweppes , Tate & Lyle , British American Tobacco , Imperial Tobacco , EMAP , Reed Elsevier , Ben Sherman , Burberry , Pentland Group and Umbro .

Earlier who was shipbuilding a significant industry in the UK. In many European countries there were shipyard crises from the 1960s .

Services

London is the largest financial center in the world, with businesses concentrated in two areas, the City of London and Docklands (particularly around Canary Wharf ). Located in the city center are the London Stock Exchange (stock and bond trading), Lloyd's of London (insurance trading) and the Bank of England (central bank). Docklands is home to the Financial Services Authority and several financial institutions such as Barclays , Citigroup and HSBC . Over 500 foreign banks have branches in London, the largest concentration in the world. The Scottish capital Edinburgh is the fifth largest financial center in Europe and the seat of several large companies such as Royal Bank of Scotland and HBOS .

Tourism is of great importance ; With over 27 million tourists a year, the United Kingdom is the sixth most important tourist destination in the world. Tourism generates around 76 billion pounds of income annually and offers 1.8 million full-time jobs, which corresponds to 6.1% of all employed persons (as of 2002). Retail accounts for a significant share of GDP at £ 249 billion or 22%. The main companies in this industry are Tesco , Sainsbury's , Morrisons , ASDA and Marks & Spencer .

So-called "creative services" have seen the greatest growth since the early 1990s. This includes advertising , film and television productions , product design , edition of books and music as well as the trade in art and antiques . According to the Ministry of Culture, Media and Sport, this branch has grown by an average of 6% every year since 1997 (compared to 3% in the rest of the economy). It now has a share of 8% of the economic volume and generates exports worth 11 billion pounds. By the 1980s, home computers had spread rapidly here, creating a solid foundation for the entertainment software and computer game industries. Low taxation on the art and antiques trade has made London a European leader in this area.

Current account and trade flows

Great Britain has the largest current account deficit of any major industrialized country . In 2014 it was 5.1 percent of total economic output. This has set a record since the end of World War II. The last time a current account surplus was achieved was in the 1980s. The main cause is not the long-standing trade deficit , but rather the declining net income from (falling) British investments and assets abroad with increasing domestic consumption. The current account deficit has long been offset by foreign capital inflows, which could, however, decrease sharply in the event of interest rate hikes in the USA (2015/16) or after Brexit and then lead to a devaluation of the British currency.

Imports to the UK
in states in €
country 2002 2006 2010 2014 2015
United StatesUnited States United States 44,090,852,574 33.810.450.598 32,594,139,786 40.405.182.302 51.891.235.712
GermanyGermany Germany 48,770,826,430 57,488,926,223 53.482.354.152 73,674,497,739 83,612,498,337
NetherlandsNetherlands Netherlands 24.123.640.780 30.230.822.912 29,915,646,348 39.956.728.242 42,700,589,873
FranceFrance France 30,617,819,686 30,429,000,514 24,773,634,834 29,937,750,446 32,659,894,293
IrelandIreland Ireland 15.190.736.740 15.235.325.453 14,866,869,075 14,562,464,023 17,254,756,995
European UnionEuropean Union European Union 220.617.587.252 274.482.077.091 218.337.414.360 275,398,737,776 302.832.145.852
world 385.020.365.826 487.950.784.951 445.291.428.904 519.733.369.850 564,550,864,571
Source:
UK exports
from states in €
country 2002 2006 2010 2014 2015
United StatesUnited States United States 44.390.546.028 43,858,575,828 40.376.459.767 45.496.219.004 60.417.712.410
GermanyGermany Germany 34,409,377,044 37.610.421.165 31,437,680,477 37,419,561,247 41.961.240.209
NetherlandsNetherlands Netherlands 21,922,576,503 24.250.480.235 24,533,857,687 27,622,975,444 23,839,337,824
FranceFrance France 29.476.157.304 40.870.335.832 21,619,461,960 22,812,234,888 24.453.163.282
IrelandIreland Ireland 25.155.475.542 25.172.901.562 19.109.375.906 22,037,963,344 22,937,159,479
European UnionEuropean Union European Union 182.068.578.546 225.145.687.637 165.678.490.179 182.059.040.767 184.245.536.969
world 296.315.073.875 359.116.776.648 313,765,544,548 380.282.144.440 414.739.344.106
Source:
UK export balances in €
positive export surplus, negative import surplus
country 2002 2006 2010 2014 2015
United StatesUnited States United States 299,693,454 10.048.125.230 7,782,319,981 5,091,036,702 8,526,476,698
GermanyGermany Germany -14,361,449,386 -19,878,505,058 -22,044,673,675 -36,254,936,492 -41.651.258.128
NetherlandsNetherlands Netherlands -2,201,064,277 -5,980,342,677 -5,381,788,661 -12,333,752,798 -18.861.252.049
FranceFrance France -1,141,662,382 10,441,335,318 -3,154,172,874 -7,125,515,558 -8.206.731.011
IrelandIreland Ireland 9,964,738,802 9,937,576,109 4,242,506,831 7,475,499,321 5,682,402,484
European UnionEuropean Union European Union -38.549.008.706 -49,336,389,454 -52,658,924,181 -93.339.697.009 -118,586,608,883
world -88,705,291,951 -128.834.008.303 -131,525,884,356 -139.451.225.410 -149.811.520.465

capital

According to a study by Bank Credit Suisse from 2017, the United Kingdom ranked fourth in the world in terms of total national wealth . Total real estate, stocks, and cash holdings totaled $ 14,073 billion. The wealth per adult person is 278,038 dollars on average and 102,641 dollars in median (in Germany: 203,946 and 47,091 dollars, respectively). In terms of wealth per inhabitant, the country is among the top 10 countries worldwide. In total, 52.2% of total wealth in Britain was financial wealth and 47.8% was non-financial wealth. The Gini coefficient for wealth distribution was 73.5 in 2017, which indicates a relatively high level of wealth inequality. The top 10% of the population owned 57.2% of total wealth and the top 1% owned 24.3%. A total of 4.3% of Britons are wealthy millionaires, while 18.9% of the population have assets of less than $ 10,000. In 2018 there were 54 billionaires in the country. A significant number of wealthy people in the country have immigrated from abroad.

Macroeconomic trends

This table shows the development of the gross domestic product of the United Kingdom (since the separation from Ireland) in millions of pounds . The underlying market prices are an estimate by the International Monetary Fund .

year GDP
US dollar exchange rate		 Inflation index
(2000 = 100)
1925 4466 £ 0.21
1930 4572 £ 0.21
1935 4676 £ 0.20 each
1940 7117 £ 0.26
1945 9816 £ 0.25
1950 13,162 £ 0.36
1955 19,264 £ 0.36
1960 25,678 £ 0.36
1965 35,781 £ 0.36
1970 51,515 £ 0.42
1975 105,773 £ 0.45
1980 230,695 £ 0.42 43
1985 354,952 £ 0.77 60
1990 557,300 £ 0.56 76
1995 718.383 £ 0.63 92
2000 953.576 £ 0.65 100
2005 1,209,334 £ 0.54 107
2010 1,579,877
2017 2,037,638

For comparisons of purchasing power parity, an exchange rate of £ 0.66 applies to the US dollar.

Development of the key figures

Various macroeconomic indicators of the UK economy from 1980 to 2017. All GDP values ​​are given in US dollars ( purchasing power parity ).

year GDP
(billion US dollars) 		GDP per capita
(in US dollars) 		GDP growth
(real) 		Inflation rate
(in percent) 		Unemployment rate
(in percent) 		Public debt
(in% of GDP)
1980 500.1 8,879   −2.0%   16.8% 7.1% 42.5%
1981   542.6   9,628   −0.8%   12.2%   9.7%   44.8%
1982   587.9   10,444   2.0%   8.5%   10.7%   43.1%
1983   636.9   11,309   4.2%   5.2%   11.5%   41.8%
1984   674.5   11,958   2.3%   4.4%   11.8%   42.3%
1985   725.3   12,825   4.2%   5.2%   11.4%   41.2%
1986   763.0   13,461   3.1%   3.6%   11.3%   41.2%
1987   824.0   14,506   5.3%   4.1%   10.4%   39.3%
1988   901.9   15,846   5.7%   4.6%   8.6%   37.0%
1989   961.0   16,838   2.6%   5.2%   7.2%   32.5%
1990   1,003.8   17,539   0.7%   7.0%   7.1%   28.6%
1991   1,026.0   17,863   −1.1%   7.5%   8.9%   28.5%
1992   1,053.3   18,292   0.4%   4.3%   10.0%   33.3%
1993   1,105.7   19,158   2.5%   2.5%   10.4%   38.1%
1994   1,173.0   20,272   3.9%   1.9%   9.5%   41.0%
1995   1,227.0   21,147   2.5%   2.7%   8.6%   43.9%
1996   1,281.1   22,026   2.5%   2.5%   8.1%   44.1%
1997   1,355.7   23,249   4.0%   1.8%   7.0%   43.4%
1998   1,413.4   24,171   3.1%   1.6%   6.3%   41.3%
1999   1,481.2   25,241   3.2%   1.3%   6.0%   39.9%
2000   1,570.4   26,669   3.7%   0.8%   5.5%   37.0%
2001   1,647.1   27,863   2.5%   1.2%   5.1%   34.4%
2002   1,713.5   28,863   2.5%   1.3%   5.2%   34.5%
2003   1,805.8   30,279   3.3%   1.4%   5.0%   35.7%
2004   1,899.3   31,681   2.4%   1.3%   4.8%   38.7%
2005   2,021.1   33,455   3.1%   2.1%   4.8%   39.9%
2006   2,134.4   35,089   2.5%   2.3%   5.4%   40.8%
2007   2,242.8   36,576   2.4%   2.3%   5.4%   41.9%
2008   2.276.0   36,814   −0.5%   3.6%   5.7%   49.9%
2009   2,197.2   35.291   −4.2%   2.2%   7.6%   64.1%
2010   2,261.8   36,038   1.7%   3.3%   7.9%   75.6%
2011   2,342.0   37.007   1.5%   4.5%   8.1%   81.3%
2012   2,420.5   37,995   1.5%   2.8%   8.0%   84.5%
2013   2,510.0   39,154   2.1%   2.6%   7.6%   85.6%
2014   2,633.1   40,762   3.1%   1.5%   6.2%   87.4%
2015   2,724.1   41,839   2.3%   0.0%   5.4%   88.2%
2016   2,812.3   42,839   1.9%   0.7%   4.9%   88.2%
2017   2,914.0   44,118   1.8%   2.7%   4.4%   87.0%

currency

The UK currency is the pound sterling . The relatively good economic development is one of the main reasons why the accession to the euro, which Tony Blair 's government wanted, has not yet taken place. The UK Prime Minister has always insisted that he would hold a referendum on this issue if membership passes the “five economic tests” set out by Chancellor Gordon Brown . These tests are:

  1. Are the economic cycles and economic structures compatible with the European interest rate in the long term?
  2. If problems arise, is there enough flexibility to solve them?
  3. What impact would joining the euro have on UK financial services?
  4. Will joining the euro create better conditions for companies that want to invest in the long term?
  5. Will joining the euro lead to higher economic growth, greater stability and a sustainable increase in jobs?

Gordon Brown has repeatedly come to the conclusion that the United Kingdom is not yet ready to introduce the euro, even if the decision was narrow in each case. He sees fluctuations in real estate prices as an obstacle to immediate entry. These tests will also be carried out in the future. Opinion polls show that the majority of the population is against joining the single currency. Since the public awareness of the euro crisis - the Greek financial crisis became known in autumn 2009 - such an accession seems very unlikely.

The table below shows the average pound exchange rate over the past few years:

year USD / GBP EUR / GBP GBP / USD GBP / EUR
1999 £ 0.619 each £ 0.659 $ 1,617 € 1,516
2000 £ 0.661 £ 0.610 $ 1,513 € 1,640
2001 £ 0.694 £ 0.622 $ 1,440 € 1.607
2002 £ 0.666 each £ 0.629 $ 1,501 € 1,590
2003 £ 0.612 £ 0.692 $ 1,633 € 1,444
2004 £ 0.546 £ 0.679 each $ 1,831 € 1,473
2005 £ 0.550 £ 0.684 $ 1,821 € 1.463
2006 £ 0.544 £ 0.682 $ 1,843 € 1,467
2007 £ 0.500 £ 0.685 $ 2.002 € 1,462
2008 £ 0.545 £ 0.796 $ 1,855 € 1,260

Regional differences

The performance of the UK economy varies from region to region. The following table shows the GDP per capita (2018) in the twelve NUTS 1 regions of the country (collected by Eurostat ).

rank region GDP per capita (in euros) % of EU-27 (PPP)
1 London € 64,200 186
2 South East England € 38,500 112
3 East of England € 33,700 98
4th Scotland € 33,200 96
5 South West England € 31,600 92
6th North West England € 31,900 93
7th East Midlands € 28,800 84
8th West Midlands € 30,400 88
9 Yorkshire and the Humber € 28,600 83
10 North East England € 26,100 76
11 Northern Ireland € 28,500 83
12 Wales € 26,300 76

Two of the richest NUTS 2 regions in the European Union are in the United Kingdom. Inner London-West is in 1st place with a GDP of € 213,400 per capita, followed by Luxembourg with € 98,600; The Inner London-East region ranks 12th with € 57,000, behind Upper Bavaria with € 58,600.

swell

  1. ↑ "Average annual exchange rate for the British pound". Retrieved April 15, 2020
  2. ↑ a b c IMF World Economic Outlook Database , October 2019 , accessed April 15, 2020
  3. ↑ Eurostat - Gross Value Added Agriculture Accessed October 22, 2010
  4. ↑ Eurostat - Gross Value Added Industry Accessed October 22, 2010
  5. ↑ Eurostat - Gross Value Added in Services. Accessed on October 22nd
  6. ↑ Real GDP growth rate - volume: change from previous year (%). Eurostat, accessed March 20, 2013 .
  7. ↑ Eurostat - Employment. Accessed October 22, 2010
  8. ↑ a b National Statistics UK - Labor Market (PDF; 331 kB) Retrieved October 22, 2010
  9. ↑ Eurostat - unemployment rate. Accessed 5 May 2016
  10. ↑ a b c d National Statistics UK - Pink Book (PDF; 1.8 MB) Retrieved October 22, 2010
  11. ↑ Eurostat - Government debt. Accessed 25 January 2013
  12. ↑ Eurostat - total government revenue. Accessed 5 May 2016
  13. ↑ Eurostat - General government expenditure. Accessed 5 May 2016
  14. ↑ Eurostat - government deficit. Accessed 5 May 2016
  15. ^ IMF : World Economic Outlook Database, April 2009
  16. ↑ Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in PPS. Eurostat , June 1, 2016, accessed December 4, 2016 .
  17. ↑ Covid-19: General situation and economic development | Special | GTAI. Retrieved April 6, 2020 .
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  20. ↑ Der Spiegel: Great Britain is building new nuclear power plants , January 10, 2008
  21. ^ Hatfield Colliery, near Doncaster, closure announced. BBC News, June 29, 2015, accessed December 18, 2015 .
  22. ↑ a b Sadness tinged with relief for miners as Kellingley Colliery closure date set. (No longer available online.) Yorkshire Evening Post, December 14, 2015, archived from the original on December 22, 2015 ; accessed on December 18, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk
  23. ↑ Closure of Thoresby colliery leaves UK with just one deep coal mine. The Guardian, July 10, 2015, accessed December 18, 2015 .
  24. ^ Closure of Kellingley pit brings deep coal mining to an end. BBC News, December 18, 2015, accessed December 18, 2015 .
  25. ↑ Climate Change Act 2008 - Section 1
  26. ↑ Henrik Lund et al., System and market integration of wind power in Denmark . In: Energy Strategy Reviews 1, (2013), 143-156, p. 143, doi: 10.1016 / j.esr.2012.12.003 .
  27. ↑ Carbon floor price hike will trigger UK coal slowdown, say analysts. In: The Guardian. April 2, 2015. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
  28. ↑ Energy Trends 2013 (PDF) Department of Energy & Climate Change, p. 40
  29. ↑ Global Wind Statistics 2016 (PDF) Global Wind Energy Council. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  30. ↑ Industry 4.0 solutions increasingly important on the British Isles | Industry report | GTAI. Retrieved April 6, 2020 .
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  32. ^ Office for National Statistics: Time Series Data: Trade in Goods , August 2015
  33. ↑ Office for National Statistics: Employee jobs by industry , Date of Publication: September 16, 2015.
  34. ↑ geolinde.musin.de ( Memento of the original from April 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Great Britain / Industry on Geolinde.de  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.geolinde.musin.de
  35. ↑ Eurostat : Key Data on Europe - 2014 edition. Luxembourg 2014, p. 139 (Table 10.1: Gross inland expenditure on R&D ).
  36. ↑ Office for National Statistics: Index of Production Dataset August 2015 .
  37. ↑ german.zenews.co.uk  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / german.zenews.co.uk  
  38. ↑ International Tourism Receipts ( Memento of July 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), World Tourism Organization, 2005 (PDF file)
  39. ↑ visitbritain.com
  40. ↑ Gerald Hosp: Britain's Other Deficit. In: NZZ, International Edition, 23 December 2015, p. 9.
  41. ↑ a b the EU (ed.): Export / Import United Kingdom . December 14, 2016 ( [1] [accessed January 19, 2017]).
  42. ↑ Global Wealth Databook 2017. Accessed July 20, 2017 .
  43. ↑ imf.org Statistics of the IMF
  44. ↑ Lawrence H. Officer, Exchange rate between the United States dollar and forty other countries, 1913-1999 ( Memento of the original dated November 3, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Economic History Services, EH.Net, 2002 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / eh.net
  45. ^ Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. Retrieved September 1, 2018 (American English).
  46. ↑ oanda.com - Comparison of historical exchange rates
  47. ↑ Eurostat. Retrieved July 22, 2020 .
  48. ↑ Eurostat. Retrieved July 22, 2020 .

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