Energy transition by country
The article Energy transition by country describes the global efforts to transform the existing fossil - nuclear energy system into a sustainable energy system based on renewable energies (RE). This energy turnaround has been establishing itself in many industrialized and emerging countries for several years , although the respective political approaches differ significantly in some cases.
Motivation and background of the energy transition
The transition from the unsustainable use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy to a sustainable energy supply using renewable energies is referred to as the energy transition . The aim of the energy turnaround is to reduce the ecological and social problems caused by the energy industry to a minimum and to fully internalize the external costs that have so far hardly been factored into the energy market . In view of the largely man-made global warming, the decarbonization of the energy industry by ending the use of fossil fuels such as crude oil , coal and natural gas is of particular importance . The finiteness of fossil fuels and the dangers of nuclear energy are also important reasons for the energy transition. The solution to the global energy problem is considered to be the central challenge of the 21st century.
The energy transition encompasses all three sectors of electricity , heat and mobility , as well as the perspective of turning away from fossil raw materials when they are used as materials, for example in the production of plastics or fertilizers . A coal and oil phase-out associated with the energy transition must also mean that significant amounts of the available energy sources must remain in the ground. The core elements of the turnaround are the expansion of renewable energies, the increase in energy efficiency and the implementation of energy-saving measures . Renewable energies include wind energy , solar energy ( solar thermal energy , photovoltaics ), ocean energy , bioenergy , hydropower and geothermal energy . In addition, the electrification of the heating sector and transport by means of heat pumps and electromobility play an important role. The transition away from conventional fuels and towards renewable energies is underway in many countries around the world. Both the concepts and the technologies required for them are known. From a purely technical point of view, a complete global energy transition would be possible by around 2030. a. However, political and practical problems only make implementation possible by 2050, with the lack of political will seen as the greatest hurdle. Both on a global level and for Germany, studies have come to the conclusion that the energy costs in a regenerative energy system would be on the same level as in a conventional fossil-nuclear energy system.
The public discussion often reduces the concept of the energy transition to the electricity sector, which in Germany only comprises around 20% of energy consumption . Likewise, in the political and public debate, it is often overlooked that with energy saving in addition to renewable energies and efficiency as technical strategies, reference is made to the fact that a successful energy transition could also include changes in behavior in the sense of energy sufficiency, i.e. more frugality.
Worldwide development
Denmark is a pioneer in the energy transition , and in 2012 it already covered 30% of its electricity needs with wind energy. By 2050, Denmark is aiming for a completely renewable energy supply in the three sectors of electricity, heat and transport. Sweden has similar goals , which aims to become climate neutral by 2045, which also means phasing out fossil fuels. The German energy transition, which has received approval and imitators around the world, but also criticism and rejection, is also important. Although it is often wrongly linked in public with the second nuclear phase-out in 2011, the energy transition in Germany began in the 1980s with the promotion of renewable energies and the discontinuation of new nuclear power plant projects .
The serious environmental damage associated with the construction of fossil power plants such as smog , water pollution and soil contamination, the finiteness of fossil fuels, their scarcity and increase in price and, in particular, the global warming caused by their combustion, have led many other countries to rethink Energy supply led. In the meantime, the energy transition has been initiated in many countries around the world. In China in particular , where there have been repeated protests by the population, triggered by environmental problems, strong political efforts have recently been made to contain these negative effects, in particular stricter, state-prescribed environmental protection measures are being carried out and there is a massive advancement of renewable energies Energies and energy efficiency is coming. In 2013, China was the world market leader in the manufacture and use of wind turbines , solar cells and smart grid technologies; In addition, the state is both the largest investor in renewable energies and the world's most important green electricity producer. In addition, saving fossil fuels plays a central role in the switch to renewable energies for many countries around the world, as this enables them to reduce energy imports and gain security of supply at the same time. At the same time, the risk of military conflicts over energy resources is reduced.
The restructuring of the energy supply is supported by many institutions on a supranational level. In 2010, the International Renewable Energy Organization IRENA was founded to better coordinate the various paths . It sees itself as a “driving force” to promote the large-scale and increased use and sustainable use of renewable energies worldwide. The General Secretariat of the United Nations announced that it would present roadmaps for the decarbonisation of the global economy. In July 2014, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon published a report on this with the title Pathways to Deep Decarbonization , in which, among other things, paths for sustainable development and decarbonization of 12 industrialized countries can be found.
The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems has developed the so-called Energy Transformation Index (ETI) to determine the extent to which the energy transition has already progressed in individual countries. This compares both the establishment of renewable forms of electricity generation such as photovoltaics and the efficient use of energy. Germany ranks fourth behind Sweden, Brazil and Italy, on a par with Japan and Great Britain. In terms of the growth rate since 1990, however, Germany and Great Britain are in first place.
For the member states of the European Union, it must be taken into account that they are sovereign in their choice of the national energy mix - and thus the national energy transition path - but that they have strong interactions with the EU when it comes to integration into cross-border electricity and gas networks as well as into regulatory systems such as emissions trading - Legislation and the energy policies of the respective neighboring countries exist.
Armenia
The Armenian government has been planning to tender a solar power plant with an installed capacity of 50 megawatts since 2017 and with the support of the World Bank [obsolete] . It would be the first of its kind in the country. The motivation for Armenia is independence from Russian natural gas. At the end of 2015, only photovoltaic systems with an output of around one megawatt were installed.
Australia
Australia's primary energy demand is dominated by fossil fuels . In the 2017/18 balance year, 39% of energy came from crude oil, 30% from coal and 25% from natural gas; Renewable energies had a share of 6%. Australia is also a major exporter of energy sources such as coal, LNG and uranium. About 2/3 of the promoted energy sources are exported. Among other things, almost 30% of the coal traded worldwide and more than 20% of the natural gas come from Australia; a further expansion is planned. Domestic electricity production was 261 TWh, most of which was also obtained from fossil sources. 60% of the electricity comes from hard coal and lignite power plants, but it is declining. In 2000 it was more than 80%. 21% supplied gas-fired power stations, 17% renewable energies, especially wind and solar energy. The share of green electricity increased sharply. In 2018 alone, 5.2 GW of solar and wind energy were installed. It is assumed that while maintaining the growth rates achieved in 2018, Australia is well on track to generate 50% renewable electricity in 2024 and 100% in 2032. Internationally, Australia is blocking an ambitious climate protection policy in order not to endanger the export of fossil fuels, especially coal. So the country was z. For example, at the UN Climate Change Conference 2019 in Madrid, largely responsible for the fact that only a minimal compromise was reached there.
Belgium
In 2003, Belgium, under a government coalition with Green participation, decided to phase out nuclear power by 2025. According to this, all 8 existing reactor blocks in the two nuclear power plants in Tihange and Doel should be decommissioned after 40 years of operation. The construction of new nuclear power plants was prohibited by law. This law was controversially discussed in the following years and an extension of the term was also introduced, but there were no changes to the law. After the Fukushima nuclear disaster , the nuclear phase-out was confirmed by 2025. At the same time, the term of Tihange I was extended by 10 years to 2025, while the Doel 1 and 2 power plants were to be shut down in 2015.
After several thousand cracks as a result of material damage had been discovered in the two reactor pressure vessels of Units Doel 3 and Tihange 2, Units Doel 1 and 2 received a service life extension until 2015. However, the FANC nuclear safety authority has not yet approved for continued operation. However, it is uncertain whether the two damaged blocks can be repaired or will have to be shut down for good. Both units were shut down in March 2014 by order of FANC and have been in operation again since 2016.
In the expansion of renewable energies, Belgium aims to achieve a share of 13% of gross final energy consumption by 2020. As of 2014, the proportion was 8.0%, which is more than four-fold compared to 2004 (1.9). At the end of 2016, wind turbines with an output of 2,386 MW were installed in Belgium . The most important single producer was the Thorntonbank offshore wind farm with an installed capacity of 325 MW. At the end of 2014, the photovoltaic capacity was 3,105 MWp . This corresponds to approx. 277 W / inhabitant and is the third highest value in the EU after Germany and Italy.
In December 2017, the cabinet agreed that Belgium should phase out fossil fuels entirely by 2050. The nuclear phase-out by 2025 was also adhered to. The country completed its phase-out of coal -fired power generation in 2016, making it one of 7 EU states that can do without coal-fired power plants in December 2017.
Bolivia
The Bolivian government is planning a total renewable energy capacity of 545 megawatts by 2020. This would increase the share of green electricity (excluding hydropower) from three percent today to twelve percent.
China
In China, the energy transition is very ambivalent. On the one hand, China has overtaken the USA as the largest consumer of energy and emitter of greenhouse gases. In 2013, China accounted for 22.4% of global energy demand and 27% of global carbon dioxide emissions. Two thirds of China's energy consumption and 90% of electricity production is based on coal, followed by oil, which covers 20% of the country's energy needs. By 2015, only 1% of Chinese energy consumption was covered by wind and solar energy, 2% by hydropower and 6% by biomass such as dung and wood. Almost half of the world's coal production is consumed by China. China is also the largest coal producer in the world. With the planned further economic growth and the necessary reduction in poverty, as well as the growth of the middle classes who enjoy spending, the demand for energy will tend to rise in the coming years.
On the other hand, China is by far the world market leader in the manufacture and use of wind turbines, solar cells and smart grid technologies as well as the world's most important green electricity producer. Since 2011, China has taken over the leading role from Europe in the expansion of renewable energies worldwide, "because it recognizes the enormous market opportunities and the economic advantages" ( Claudia Kemfert ). Since 2005, the political leadership has been increasingly aiming for a sustainable energy industry. This is economically motivated, namely on the one hand by massive local environmental pollution with disease and death consequences for the own population and on the other hand by the effort to meet the increasing demand for energy from local sources in the interests of security of supply. The 11th five-year plan (2006-2010) focused on increasing energy sufficiency and efficiency - broken down to the provincial level. This objective was continued in the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) (e.g. with the introduction of strict maximum limits for gasoline consumption in private vehicles) and expanded to include the promotion of decarbonisation by increasing the share of renewable energies in energy consumption. Allegedly, the goals of increasing energy sufficiency and efficiency in the 12th Five-Year Plan were achieved, including by closing hundreds of inefficient factories, power plants and coal mines. This has also been achieved by "tightening control and surveillance, which resulted in a great deal of bureaucracy without much improvement for the people". The 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020) adopted in 2015 will continue the trend of improving resource and energy efficiency and promoting renewable energies - in line with China's commitment at the UN climate conference in Paris in 2015 . By 2020, carbon dioxide emissions are to be reduced by 20% and the manufacturing industry has been instructed to reduce these emissions by 40 percent within ten years. Energy production from solar energy is expected to increase by 20% by 2020. The planned construction of more than 100 coal-fired power plants has been stopped. Four cities in the region, including Beijing and Tianjin, are to become completely “carbon-free zones” from 2020. In 2017, China invested $ 86.5 billion in solar power plants. That was almost 60% more than a year earlier.
Nevertheless, it is estimated that the reductions in greenhouse gas emissions reported in Paris in 2015 will lag behind what is possible and necessary for China. But: The ecological civilization was proclaimed as a visionary sustainability goal. China's focus on greening the economy can serve as a model for many developing countries.
Denmark
Denmark is a pioneer country in the energy transition. With the plan to convert the entire energy supply (electricity, heat and transport) completely to renewable energies by 2050, it is also one of the countries with the most ambitious goals. This is to be achieved through the strong expansion of wind energy and the electrification of the heating and transport sector. The main goal since 1972 has been to reduce the dependence on oil imports, later on there was finally energy self-sufficiency, the withdrawal from the use of fossil fuels and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. By introducing various measures such as energy savings, increased efficiency and combined heat and power, Denmark managed to keep primary energy consumption at a level over 40 years (1972 to 2012), although the gross domestic product grew by more than 100% in the same period. At the same time, 25% of the primary energy was replaced by renewable energies. The carbon dioxide emissions from electricity production, which in 1990 were still over 1000 g / kWh, fell to 135 g / kWh by 2019, about a seventh of the initial value. In 2018 it was 194 g / kWh.
history
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis , which particularly hit Denmark as a largely oil-dependent state, there were considerations there to build nuclear power plants in order to diversify the energy supply. In 1974 the Association of Danish Electricity Suppliers advocated building a nuclear power plant every two years. In 1976, the Ministry of Commerce followed suit, advocating 65% of electricity demand from nuclear power by 1995. A strong anti-nuclear movement emerged that severely criticized the government's nuclear power plans.
The Danish parliament passed a law on March 29, 1985 that banned the use of nuclear energy. Instead, Denmark relied on renewable energies, especially wind energy . In Denmark, wind turbines for generating electricity could look back on a long history in their early form, going back to the late 19th century. As early as 1974, a commission of experts declared that “it should be possible to generate 10% of Danish electricity needs from wind energy without causing any particular technical problems in the public electricity network”. In parallel to this fundamental research, the development of large wind turbines began; However, like similar projects in other countries, it was initially not very successful.
Rather, small systems prevailed, which were often operated by private owners or small companies (e.g. farmers). The construction of these plants was funded by government measures; At the same time, the good wind speed , the decentralized settlement structure of Denmark and the lack of administrative obstacles favored its spread. Robust systems in the power range of initially only 50–60 kW were used, which were in the tradition of the developments of the 1940s and which, for example, Some of them were handcrafted by small firms; In addition, from the late 1970s and into the 1980s there was brisk export activity to the United States, where wind energy also experienced an early boom. In 1986 there were already around 1200 wind turbines in Denmark, but they only contributed just under 1% to Denmark's electricity supply.
This proportion increased significantly over time. In 2011, renewable energies covered 40.7% of electricity consumption, 28.1 percentage points of which was attributable to wind turbines. On March 22nd, 2012, the Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Building published a four-page paper called the DK Energy Agreement . This formulates long-term guidelines for Danish energy policy. The Danish parliament had already decided to increase the share of wind energy in electricity generation to 50% by 2020; In the long term, the entire Danish energy supply is to be decarbonised. The aim is to completely dispense with the use of fossil fuels by 2050.
In 2019 wind power covered 47% of the Danish electricity demand. Three quarters of wind power is generated with onshore plants, which have strong political backing. Due to this high proportion of wind power, there may be times during storm phases when power generation from wind energy exceeds power demand. For example, on a very windy night in July 2015, up to 140% of the electricity required was supplied by wind energy. This surplus was exported to Norway, where it can be stored in numerous hydropower plants, as well as to Germany and Sweden. In times of low wind power production, Denmark can turn to electricity from Norwegian and Swedish hydropower plants. Denmark has had experience with a wind power share of 20% and more in the electricity mix since at least 2002. On February 22, 2017, Denmark supplied itself exclusively with electricity from wind power for the day.
activities
Core elements of the Danish approach are strict energy efficiency, high taxation on fossil fuels, electricity and carbon dioxide, and the promotion of combined heat and power and wind turbines . This enabled the state to keep (primary) energy consumption at the level of the 1970s, despite economic growth and an increase in population. In 1974 taxes on petrol , diesel and heating oil were increased; In 1985, when oil prices fell, another tax hike followed. In 1982 a tax on coal was introduced, and in 1992 the production of carbon dioxide was levied. CHP plants based on natural gas and biomass (including waste and straw) have been built and now provide a large part of the heat requirement as well as part of the state's electricity requirement. In 1981 a feed-in tariff for renewable energies was set, as a result of which Denmark became the most successful wind energy country in the world in terms of its share of the electricity supply and per capita. In 2019, the government decided that the electricity supply should be completely converted to renewable energies by 2030 in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 70% by this year.
The installation of oil and natural gas heating systems in new buildings has been prohibited since the beginning of 2013, and this has also applied to existing buildings since 2016. At the same time, a funding program for heating replacement was launched. Denmark's goal is to reduce the use of fossil fuels by 33% by 2020. By 2050, complete independence from oil and natural gas should be achieved. The construction and expansion of coal-fired power plants was also prohibited by the state.
To this end, the installation of heat pump heating systems is being promoted. Within a few years, 27,000 systems were added by 2012, plus 205,000 more households that previously used oil heating could be upgraded. In addition, district heating is to be expanded, which in 2012 was already heating around half of the buildings in Denmark. In times of low electricity prices, district heating is often additionally generated with electricity in an electrode boiler ( power-to-heat ).
Denmark is massively promoting the purchase of electric cars . The 25% value added tax and registration tax, which can amount to up to 180% of the purchase price, do not apply to the purchase. The number of electric vehicles in June 2012 was 1160 vehicles. The Danish rail network is also to be further electrified.
The largest energy producer in Denmark is the company Dong Energy , which has a market share in Denmark of 49% for electricity and 35% for heat. It holds interests in the huge offshore wind farm Nysted Wind Farm , Anholt and Horns Rev . There are also important wind turbine production facilities in Denmark, such as Vestas Wind Systems and Siemens Windenergie . The Danish national transmission system operator Energinet.dk for electricity and natural gas is owned by the state.
Germany
The aim of the energy transition in Germany is to increase the share of renewable energies in electricity consumption to 80% by 2050, to reduce primary energy consumption by 50% in the same period compared to 2008 and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % in line with EU targets to reduce to 95% compared to 1990. In total, at least 60% of energy consumption is to be covered by renewable energies in 2050. These goals were set in 2010 before the nuclear disaster in Fukushima, which led to the withdrawal of the recently decided extension of the term.
Further goals are the complete phase-out of nuclear power by 2022, increasing energy efficiency for the more rational use of primary energy sources, greater independence from energy imports such as crude oil and natural gas, and strengthening Germany as a business location through innovations in the energy sector. With the amendment to the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) 2014, the interim targets were adjusted. By 2025, the renewable share of the electricity mix is to be increased to 40 to 45% and then to 55 to 60% in 2035.
The expansion of renewable energies began in 1990 with the introduction of the Electricity Feed Act and took off significantly in 2000 with the Renewable Energies Act passed under the Red-Green government. In the same year, it was also agreed to phase out nuclear energy. There was also a significant political shift in perception: if renewable energies had previously been traded as a supplement to the existing power plant portfolio, they were henceforth seen under the new government as an alternative that was supposed to replace the existing energy system in the long term.
In order not to miss the two-degree target when limiting global warming and thus risk incalculable climate impacts, according to the German Advisory Council on Global Change , a completely carbon dioxide-free energy supply for the period 2040 to 2050 should be aimed for. This goal is seen as achievable for Germany if the rate of expansion of renewable energies is increased. In order to meet the climate protection goals internationally agreed in the Paris Agreement , Germany would have to complete the energy transition in full by around 2040, at which point it would have to achieve 100% renewable energies in the electricity, heating and transport sectors. In addition to electrifying the heating and transport sector, this would require a significant increase in the current rate of expansion of renewable energies to a net increase of around 15 GW of photovoltaics and 9 GW of wind energy per year.
The potential and speed of the expansion of renewable energies are classified differently. In retrospect, the prognoses and scenarios made over the past decades have mostly underestimated the potential of renewable energies, often to a considerable extent. In addition to critics of the energy transition, supporters often underestimated the growth of renewable energies.
The Federal Network Agency predicted in their scenario framework in 2013 , compared to 2012, the total installed generating capacity in conventional electricity generation of 100 GW to 82 to 85 GW in 2024 will decrease. The most important change is the elimination of 12 GW of nuclear generation capacity. The total of regenerative power generation, however, will increase from 75.5 GW to 129 to 175 GW. Photovoltaics will increase from 33 GW to 55 to 60 GW, onshore wind will increase from 31 GW to 49 to 87 GW, offshore wind to 12 to 16 GW, biomass from 5.7 GW to 8 to 9 GW, and hydropower will hardly be and the other regenerative generation will increase from 1 GW to a maximum of 1.5 GW.
The origins: 1970s to 1990
The origins of the energy transition in today's sense lie in the 1970s. As a result of the oil crisis, debates about nuclear energy and the environmental debate, there were serious changes in energy policy and the energy industry in many countries around the world within a few years . With the oil crises, the criterion of security of supply in Germany became increasingly important and, in addition to economic efficiency, became a decisive goal of energy policy. With the debate on nuclear energy, social acceptability and acceptance also came to the fore from the mid-1970s . This debate, which had its initial spark in the protest against the Wyhl nuclear power plant , developed into a broad protest movement, the anti-nuclear movement ; there were serious disputes during the construction of nuclear power plants. A planned reprocessing plant in Gorleben was declared “politically unenforceable” in 1979, and another reprocessing plant in Wackersdorf failed in the early 1980s . With the shutdown of the Kalkar nuclear power plant , a fast breeder , the concept of the infinite fuel cycle, which had driven the development of nuclear energy as a utopia since the 1950s, failed.
From the mid-1970s, there were attempts to establish a peaceful dialogue between the nuclear industry and citizens. In 1980, the Enquete Commission on Future Nuclear Energy Policy presented a first report with paths to the year 2030. The aim was to find a compromise between supporters of nuclear power and opponents in energy policy. Among other things, this commission demanded that energy systems, if they are to be socially acceptable, must in future be based on a broad political consensus. Ultimately, however, this compromise failed; while new nuclear power plant projects were completed, measures to reduce energy consumption remained almost without result. The four possible future paths debated in this commission differed considerably: The energy industry favored a path that considered it necessary to build nuclear power plants with an output of 165 GW in Germany by 2030, half of which should be fast breeders . This path envisaged an increase in primary energy consumption to 800 million tons of hard coal units. Another path envisaged an exit from nuclear power and a reduction in primary energy consumption to 310 million tce. Although at the time strongly criticized by established forces and classified as "extreme" because he postulated the decoupling of economic growth and energy consumption, which was not considered possible at the time, this path, which was then viewed as a minority vote, finally came very close to real development. In the same year it was published under the title Energie-Wende. Growth and prosperity without crude oil and uranium a publication on alternative energy scenarios developed by scientists at the Öko-Institut , with particular emphasis on saving energy.
In 1983 the Greens moved into the Bundestag and demanded an "immediate exit" from the use of nuclear energy within the current year. After the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the SPD and trade unions also joined the demand for an exit from nuclear power, whereby the SPD, unlike the Greens, committed itself to a nuclear phase-out after 10 years. Also in response to Chernobyl, the black and yellow government coalition called the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety into being and commissioned studies from the research institutes RWI and IÖW to explore various nuclear phase-out scenarios and their consequences. Both reports came to the conclusion that an exit would be “technically feasible, ecologically harmless and economically justifiable”. The energy report submitted by the federal government in the same year stated that the longstanding consensus between the federal and state governments was now at risk. Opponents of nuclear energy would not only demand a nuclear phase-out, but a fundamentally new energy policy. While there were a number of attempts by some SPD-ruled countries to shut down nuclear power plants, the conservative-liberal federal government maintained its nuclear energy-friendly course.
Although the government was fundamentally strongly pro-nuclear, several nuclear power plants were shut down during Helmut Kohl's chancellorship before the operating license expired: In addition to the five blocks of the East German nuclear power plant in Lubmin, which were shut down for safety reasons in 1989/90, and one block in the Rheinsberg nuclear power plant, this was the case including several West German power plants. In 1985 the Kahl nuclear power plant was shut down after 25 years of operation, and in 1988 the Mülheim-Kärlich nuclear power plant was shut down after less than a year as a result of a court ruling on the earthquake hazard of this power plant. In 1989 the THTR-300 nuclear power plant was shut down due to technical and economic problems. In 1994 the Würgassen nuclear power plant finally went offline . To this end, several nuclear power plant projects were abandoned during the planning phase or after the start of construction.
The 1990s: Electricity Feed Act and Consensus Talks
A very important step for the energy transition in 1990 was the resolution of the Electricity Feed Act , which was introduced into the Bundestag by the two politicians Matthias Engelsberger (CSU) and Wolfgang Daniels (Greens) and which was approved by a large majority (CDU / CSU, SPD, Greens against FDP) was accepted. It came into force on January 1, 1991. Even if this law was to develop enormous importance in the long term, it was not the first funding for research or the expansion of renewable energies in Germany; In fact, a framework program for energy research , which also included research into renewable energies, had already been launched in 1974 . In the 1970s, however, in most countries energy research was largely understood to mean research into nuclear energy; In 1979 around 65% of energy research expenditure in Germany went into nuclear fission or fusion, while renewable energies received only 4.4% of research funding. After large-scale research had initially dominated, which was reflected in the failure of the Growian project, energy research shifted to smaller wind power projects in the second half of the 1980s, and in 1989 a 100 MW program for wind power plants was launched.
A decisive factor in the Electricity Feed Act was that energy supply companies were legally obliged for the first time to purchase and pay for electricity from renewable sources. Renewable energies had already been expanded locally, but until the law came into force, the electricity supply companies were free to refuse to feed electricity into their network. In addition, up to this point in time, wind energy was only perceived as a fuel saver, so that the price for electricity generation was only based on the avoided costs of the energy companies, which means that the remuneration actually paid was often comparatively low. The Electricity Feed Act, on the other hand, now grants feeders a remuneration amounting to at least 90% of the average costs of private customers and at the same time granted a legal right to feed into the power grid. This meant a fundamental paradigm shift in the promotion of renewable energies, direct subsidies such as B. the 250 MW program that was also launched during this period was then canceled.
Although it was very simply structured, the Electricity Feed Act achieved a great effect: It formed the basis for the expansion of renewable energies in Germany, promoted the decentralization of the energy supply, as it was only aimed at comparatively low outputs and contributed to precisely this long before the actual liberalization of the energy supply at. To this end, it created sales markets for the young renewable energy sector, in particular the wind energy sector.
From the end of the 1980s, climate protection was another important factor in energy policy. Against this background, the nuclear industry started a new attempt to achieve a basic consensus on energy policy in German energy policy; an idea that was quickly taken up and further propagated by the then Economics Minister Jürgen Möllemann . These so-called consensus talks marked the beginning of the nuclear phase-out in Germany. While the aim of the energy supply companies was mainly to avoid further bad investments such as in Wackersdorf, Kalkar, Hamm and Mülheim-Kärlich , which together accumulated around 25 billion marks in bad investments, the Federal Ministry of Economics as well as the nuclear industry aimed to establish the indispensability of the use of nuclear energy from. The energy industry, on the other hand, was divided. Above all, RWE and VEBA worked to ensure that the SPD reversed the nuclear phase-out decision made at the Nuremberg party congress without losing credibility among the voters. This met with considerable resistance from a number of other energy companies, particularly from southern Germany, which had a high proportion of nuclear energy in the electricity mix and considered nuclear energy to be indispensable. The aim of these companies was for the SPD to abandon the resolutions it had previously made; They refused to phase out nuclear power or to set a time limit. At the end of 1992, energy managers wrote a letter to the then Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl , in which they set out the list of subject matters of an energy consensus that had previously been negotiated with Lower Saxony's Prime Minister Gerhard Schröder .
At the same time, the energy industry demanded a longer service life for nuclear power plants. While calculations by TÜV Rheinland assumed terms of 25 or 30 years, the energy companies now give 36 years. At the beginning of 1993, VEBA boss Klaus Piltz presented seven criteria for an atomic consensus at the annual meeting of the German Atomic Forum ; including u. a. the definition of standard service lives, the acceptance of large power plants and the processing of plutonium into MOX fuel elements . During the consensus talks, the nuclear lobby finally warned of “fatal consequences for the ecological and economic development of Germany”, a formulation that was later taken up by Economics Minister Günter Rexrodt . Rexrodt advocated an electricity mix consisting of nuclear energy and coal, the CSU, on the other hand, was not ready to “shut down the safe German nuclear power plants in order to then buy nuclear power from France or Russia”. The Union parties then decided on a clear course in favor of nuclear energy, which they described as "indispensable". On the other hand, environmental associations not only called for a nuclear phase-out, but also for a completely new energy policy. Finally, the consensus talks failed after five rounds of negotiations. Further negotiations in June 1995 also ended with no results, although strong agreement had already been reached on a number of points.
The Red-Green Government 1998 to 2005 - Renewable Energy Sources Act and nuclear phase-out
The energy transition experienced a significantly accelerated dynamic during the red-green federal government (1998-2005, Cabinet Schröder I and Cabinet Schröder II ). In the coalition agreement , with the introduction of the eco-tax on energy consumption, better promotion of renewable energies, the 100,000 roofs program and the legally agreed nuclear phase-out, a number of core elements of the energy transition were initially agreed and finally implemented into applicable law by 2001. This was accompanied by a major change in the electricity mix . The share of renewable energies rose from 29 TWh in 1999 to 161 TWh in 2014, while electricity generation in nuclear power plants fell from 170 in 2000 to 97 TWh and coal electricity generation fell from 291 to 265 TWh. By 2017, electricity generation from renewable energies had increased to 216 TWh; At the same time, electricity generation from nuclear energy and coal fell to 75 and 242 TWh, respectively. In 2017, lignite was the most important source of electricity with a share of 22.6%. This was followed by wind energy (16.1%), hard coal (14.4%), natural gas (13.1%), nuclear energy (11.6%), bioenergy (7%), photovoltaics (6.1%) and other renewable sources or fossil sources.
In addition, this coalition changed the perception of regenerative sources. While renewable energies were viewed under the previously ruling black-yellow coalition as a supplement to the existing power plant fleet, large parts of the red-green coalition viewed them as an alternative to the status quo, which would replace fossil-nuclear energy generation in the course of the 21st century should.
The first step that the new coalition took was to improve the funding conditions for renewable energies. In January 1999, the Federal Ministry of Economics started the 100,000 Roofs Program, which initially provided for major bureaucratic hurdles for funding, but which were reduced after strong protests by parliamentary groups. At the end of 1999, the revision of the Electricity Feed Act was finally prepared, which, however, took much longer. While the economics minister responsible at the time, Werner Müller (independent), spoke out in favor of a quota system and then tried to delay the passing of the law, parliamentary groups advocated maintaining the feed-in tariffs. At the same time, they received broad support from various civil society actors for the passage of the law, including a. Environmental associations, the Association of German Mechanical and Plant Engineering and IG Metall . Great resistance came from the Federation of German Industry , while the opposition parties CDU / CSU and FDP were divided and could not act as one. In March 2000 the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) was finally passed. A lawsuit brought by the European Union regarding compatibility with the EU funding conditions was withdrawn in 2002.
In contrast to the Electricity Feed Act, in which the goal can only be found indirectly, the goals were clearly outlined in the EEG 2000:
"The purpose of this law is to enable a sustainable development of the energy supply, especially in the interests of climate and environmental protection, to reduce the economic costs of energy supply by including long-term external effects, to conserve fossil energy resources and to further develop technologies for the generation of Promote electricity from renewable energies. "
Once again, however, the internalization of external costs was emphasized as an important goal of energy policy. An accompanying statement led u. a. from the fact that the social and ecological follow-up costs of conventional energy generation would not be borne by the operators, but by the general public, taxpayers and future generations, and that the EEG actually only compensated for this competitive disadvantage.
Whereas wind energy and (small) hydropower were mainly promoted with the Electricity Feed Act, the EEG introduced technology-specific feed-in tariffs for individual technologies. These were granted over a period of 20 years and were designed to be degressive, so they decreased from year to year for new systems. While wind energy was successfully expanded in the 1990s, the EEG and the accompanying 100,000 roofs program also made it possible for the first time to expand photovoltaic systems economically . With the EEG amendment in 2004, the goals of the EEG were made even more precise, at the same time responsibility for renewable energies was transferred from the Federal Ministry of Economics under Wolfgang Clement , which was rather critical of the EEG, to the Federal Environment Ministry.
On June 14, 2000, in negotiations between the government and the nuclear power plant operators , a staggered nuclear phase-out , usually referred to as a nuclear consensus , was negotiated, in which both sides had to make far-reaching concessions. Contrary to the time frame of 10 years or annual period previously represented by the governing parties, the SPD and the Greens, the government accepted that the newest nuclear power plants were allowed to run for another 20 years, while the operators accepted that the oldest power plants only had a relatively short remaining life. The core element of this consensus was the time limitation of the running times of all existing German nuclear power plants by means of so-called residual electricity volumes, with an operating time of 32 years serving as the assessment basis. According to this regulation, the last nuclear power plant should go out of operation around 2020; at the same time, the construction of new nuclear power plants was prohibited. The reprocessing of nuclear fuel was allowed to power plant operators until 2005, after which, however , spent fuel elements should be disposed of directly . The government also undertook to ensure the continued operation of the power plants until the residual electricity was used up while complying with nuclear law. In addition, the nuclear consensus included a moratorium on exploration of the Gorleben salt dome , which is intended as a repository , in order to be able to examine questions relating to the storage concept and the safety of the repository. In 2002, the agreement was finally implemented into applicable law with the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act .
The atomic consensus met with varying echoes, mainly because neither side of the atomic compromise went far enough. Nevertheless, the atomic consensus led to a pacification of the nuclear debate. Nuclear power opponents criticized what they considered to be the long running times for the nuclear power plants, as well as the protection of existing buildings, which only required further safety retrofitting to a limited extent. Supporters of nuclear power rejected the consensus and the like. a. with the argument of low CO 2 emissions. The opposition parties CDU / CSU and FDP declared that they wanted to lift the nuclear phase-out if there was another change of government.
Energy transition in the grand coalition
However, this did not happen at first. After neither a conservative-liberal nor a red-green majority had come about in the 2005 general election , the Union and the SPD formed a grand coalition led by Angela Merkel . While Union politicians had previously strongly criticized both the EEG and the nuclear phase-out, the coalition agreement now stipulates that the Union and the SPD have different views on nuclear energy policy and that the nuclear consensus cannot therefore be changed. The nuclear phase-out remained in place, so that two more nuclear power plants were shut down during the grand coalition. In 2003 the Stade nuclear power plant was shut down for economic reasons after 31 years of operation, shortly before its residual electricity ran out, and in 2005 the Obrigheim nuclear power plant went offline after 36 years of operation.
In addition, the future renewable energy policy was specified in the coalition agreement. These are an important means of energy and climate policy for the coalition partners and should therefore be expanded further. The aim was to achieve a share in electricity generation of at least 12.5% in 2010 and at least 20% in 2020; the share in total energy consumption should increase to 4.2% (2010) and 10% (2020). In addition to a few other measures, such as the continuation of market incentive programs in the heating sector (from which the Renewable Energies Heat Act finally emerged at the end of 2007 ), it was agreed to retain the basic structure of the EEG, although changes were announced in the coalition agreement that were later amended were carried out. These included B. the redesign of the hardship regulation for electricity-intensive companies, for which it was already firmly agreed in the coalition agreement that their economic burden should be limited to 0.05 ct / kWh by the EEG, as well as the introduction of a new calculation method for the EEG surcharge. On January 1, 2007, a regulation came into force that stipulates a minimum amount of biofuel in gasoline, diesel or in the form of pure biofuels.
In addition, during this time there were enormous technical advances in renewable energies, which were previously thought to be impossible. At the same time, with the rapid development of electronics with intelligent networks, controlled decentralized energy structures became conceivable. The economic efficiency and thus the competitiveness compared to conventional energy conversion technologies had also improved drastically. Only a few years before, opinions had been expressed that wind and solar energy in Germany could only cover a small proportion of the energy demand “for reasons of natural law”, these forecasts have now been overtaken by technical developments.
One of the most significant changes turned out to be the reform of the compensation mechanism that came into force in early 2010 and fundamentally redesigned the marketing of renewable energies. Warnings that this reform, as a result of the release of the electricity network operator from the efficient marketing of EEG electricity, would lead to drastically falling stock exchange electricity prices and thus in turn to a sharp increase in the EEG surcharge, as may be the case. a. by Jarass et al. statements were ignored, but proved correct in retrospect.
In the first year after the new equalization mechanism came into effect, revenues from green electricity fell from 5.15 billion euros in 2009 to 3.35 billion euros, despite higher generation. Subsequently, the price of electricity on the exchange fell further due to the merit order effect , so that electricity prices on the exchange in the first quarter of 2014 were only half of the value in 2008. As a result, the difference in costs between the electricity price on the exchange and the average feed-in tariff according to the EEG increased significantly, as a result of which the EEG surcharge rose disproportionately. Until 2009 the increase in remuneration payments according to the EEG and the development of the EEG surcharge were largely proportional, after the reform there was a sharp divergence. While the remuneration payments doubled from EUR 10.5 billion to a good EUR 21 billion between 2009 and 2014, the EEG surcharge almost quintupled in the same period from 1.33 ct / kWh to 6.24 ct / kWh. In return, large industrial consumers, who are largely exempt from the EEG surcharge, benefit from the low electricity prices on the exchange. The total of the exchange price plus the EEG levy, however, remained almost constant.
Energy transition under black and yellow: Extension of the term, Fukushima and the second decision to phase out nuclear power
Term extension
A major change in German energy policy took place in autumn 2010, when the black and yellow federal government decided to significantly extend the service life of German nuclear power plants . Following a resolution in the Bundestag on October 28, 2010, this came into force on December 14, 2010 with the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act. Prior to this, there had been strong pressure on the government from various quarters, including the demand for unlimited operating permits made by some energy suppliers. However, since the population still did not accept nuclear energy and at the same time the progress made in renewable energies was evident, the term “bridge technology”, which had already been coined after the Chernobyl catastrophe, was reintroduced into the political discussion from 2009; a sign that large parts of the government should not continue to use the nuclear power plants indefinitely. However, there was disagreement about the duration, with the economic wing of the CDU and the FDP in particular, together with its Minister of Economic Affairs, Rainer Brüderle, advocating a very extensive extension, while Environment Minister Norbert Röttgen recommended no or only the smallest possible extension of the term. Strong pressure against the extension of the term came not only from the opposition, the media and opponents of nuclear power - the extension of the term was also controversial within the CDU. On the other hand, the energy companies under the leadership of RWE boss Jürgen Großmann exerted strong pressure for the longer running times, including with an advertising campaign in various German newspapers under the name Energiepolitischer Appell .
A compromise solution was finally agreed, which provided that, on the one hand, the nuclear phase-out decision and the ban on building new nuclear power plants should remain in place, but at the same time the term should be extended by an average of 12 years. Elderly, d. H. Power plants commissioned before 1980 were given an additional service life of 8 years, while power plants connected to the grid after this date were allowed to operate 14 years longer, which means that individual power plants would have a total operating time of over 50 years. A total of 200 additional reactor operating years were agreed upon in September 2010 and the final phase-out of nuclear power was postponed until the end of the 2030s.
The extension of the term met with massive criticism, in public it was perceived as an affront and was rejected by large parts of society. In particular, the justification for the extension of the term is considered inadequate in the scientific literature. According to Joachim Radkau and Lothar Hahn , it was not clear how the transition to renewable energies should take place, nor was it explained to what extent the agreed period was useful or necessary. In addition, u. a. a comprehensible safety-related justification for the different additional runtimes for new and old nuclear power plants was missing, while at the same time the problem of retrofitting the nuclear power plants with newer safety systems was not seriously addressed. They therefore come to the conclusion "that the extension of the term lacked any conclusive energy-related justification and safety-related justification, it was rather only 'negotiated' politically and therefore had aspects of the arbitrary".
Fukushima and another turn
On March 11, 2011, the Fukushima nuclear disaster occurred in Japan , a series of accidents with the highest INES level 7 , in which a total of 4 reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant were destroyed and large amounts of radioactivity were released into the environment. The resulting pressure on the government brought about another turnaround in energy policy: just 3 days after the start of the catastrophe, the German government announced a three-month nuclear moratorium and then on June 6, 2011, the nuclear phase-out by 2022.
On June 30, 2011, the Bundestag passed a roll call vote with a large majority of 513 to 79 votes and with the votes of the CDU / CSU, SPD, FDP and the Greens the “13th Law amending the Atomic Energy Act ", which regulates the termination of the use of nuclear energy. In particular, the operating license for eight nuclear power units in Germany expired; the remaining nine blocks are staggered: the shutdown of the last nuclear power plants is scheduled for 2022. This de facto returned Germany to the status quo that had been agreed in 2000 under the Red-Green. Compared to the red-green nuclear phase-out, there were 8 more reactor operating years, and the year of the final nuclear phase-out remained the same at 2022.
Despite the large majority, there had been some sharp criticism from economic politicians in the run-up to the withdrawal of the term extension. Critically expressed u. a. Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle , and the former CSU chairman Erwin Huber and Helmut Kohl , while Economics Minister Rainer Brüderle accused the Germans of hysteria . However, a large majority of the population supported the project. In a representative survey in September 2011, 80% of Germans described the nuclear phase-out as correct, while only 8% rejected it. 12% were undecided. These numbers have been confirmed in further surveys. In June 2013 - three months before the 2013 Bundestag elections - 82% of citizens stated in a representative survey commissioned by the consumer advice center that they found the goals of the energy transition “completely right” or “more or less right”. 45% found the pace of the expansion of renewable energies “too slow” and 26% “just right”.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) described German energy policy in its country report "Germany 2013" as progressive and gave up its concerns about the national nuclear phase-out. The Federal Republic is "on the right track". Germany is one of the few countries to reduce its CO 2 emissions. However, the climate-damaging renaissance of coal as an energy supplier is worrying. The expansion of renewable energies and the cost reductions in their technologies are all the more important, for which the Renewable Energies Act in particular is proving to be a successful instrument. In the future, adjustments must be made there in order to promote the synchronization of the expansion with the infrastructure. Security of supply and sufficient generation capacities are guaranteed for the next few years. The IEA criticized the sharp rise in electricity prices; she urged the government to distribute “the costs, but also the benefits” fairly and transparently and to create social equilibrium in order to relieve consumers and maintain acceptance for the energy transition. Optimal market development depends on the balance between sustainability, competitiveness and cost efficiency. The World Bank also sees the energy transition as positive. In June 2013, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim stated, referring to the energy transition, that Germany is a leader when it comes to decoupling economic growth from pollutant emissions and successfully combating climate change.
For several years now, research and testing of various energy transition technologies has been promoted worldwide. In addition to improving renewable energy systems, energy efficiency and energy saving, many research and demonstration projects for energy storage systems are being promoted. Here, possibilities are being sought to store electricity centrally or decentrally on different time scales at low cost and with good efficiency. The first battery storage power plants and power-to-gas systems for storing electricity in the natural gas network have already been built. There are also plans for underground pumped storage power plants in former mines and compressed air storage power plants, e.g. B. in Staßfurt . Different heat storage systems , both mobile and stationary long-term and short-term storage, are increasingly being tested in practice. In the solar sector, on the other hand, self-consumption of solar power is gaining importance.
After the federal election, the Union and the SPD formed a grand coalition ( Merkel III cabinet ); most of the responsibilities for the energy transition have since been bundled in the Federal Ministry of Economics under Sigmar Gabriel (SPD). An EEG reform was promoted by Minister Gabriel, the main goal of which was a fairer distribution of costs. In the run-up, there had been criticism in particular of exemptions for industry after the number of companies exempted from the EEG surcharge increased from 753 in 2012 to 2,098 in 2014 as a result of a change in the law passed by the black-and-yellow government and the relief from 2.5 to 5 billion euros. Thereupon Gabriel announced a reduction of around 500 companies; a goal that was not achieved. Instead, the number of exempted companies rose by almost 100 companies to a total of 2,180 in 2015, which is a new high. At the same time, the amount of electricity exempt from the EEG surcharge rose to 110 billion kWh, while the resulting additional burden for non-exempt companies and households rose to a new maximum of 1.37 ct / kWh. A total of 219 out of 246 branches of industry can apply for exemptions from the EEG surcharge. As of July 2015, the number of industries that can apply for exemption permits was increased again.
Political debate
The German energy transition is considered Germany's most outstanding national project. Germany is one of the countries that are pursuing the most ambitious goals in the transition to a sustainable energy supply worldwide. However, the public debate about the energy transition in general and its concrete form is highly politicized and is often ideologically motivated or driven by self-interest. Central aspects of the debate about the energy turnaround, especially after the second nuclear phase-out in 2011, for example. In some cases, the security of supply, the costs of the energy transition and the distribution of costs between citizens and industry have been or are heavily discussed.
In January 2012, more than thirty leading energy researchers in Germany issued an open letter warning of the failure of the energy transition in Germany. In this letter - addressed to Chancellor Angela Merkel, the then Economics Minister Philipp Rösler and Environment Minister Norbert Röttgen as well as to the members of the Environment and Economic Committees of the Bundestag - it says that the project will only succeed if there is a "permanent reduction in energy demand". Wherever effective instruments need to be developed to reduce energy consumption, the specific signals have so far been "ambiguous". The researchers are calling for “the brakes to be released and an energy saving policy to be designed in all fields of action that does justice to the ambitious government goals that have been set”.
In the economy, the topic of the energy transition is viewed ambiguously. Companies such as Siemens and Munich Re , manufacturers in the renewable energy sector and larger parts of the trades see advantages in the energy transition. In April 2012, Hildegard Müller , the general manager of the BdEW ( Federal Association of Energy and Water Management ) described the energy transition as "irreversible" ("It is no longer a question of whether, but how it will be implemented."). At the same time, Müller demanded suitable (more) framework conditions for the transformation of the energy markets from politicians .
In March 2013, the Federal Environment Ministry announced that Germany is likely to miss its climate protection targets by 2020. The aim was to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40 percent; A reduction of between 33 and 35 percent is now expected, depending on economic developments. The reason for this is the currently non-functioning EU emissions trading . Due to a massive oversupply of certificates (as of March 2013), their price is a fraction of the originally planned level, which means that there are hardly any incentives for companies to invest in low-emission technologies. The then economics minister Philipp Rösler strictly rejected a reform of emissions trading, which the European Commission and Minister Altmaier consider to be urgently necessary . However, the German 40 percent emission reduction target is only to be understood as a political target; the legally binding requirements for Germany under EU law are only 31 to 35 percent. In many cases, there is therefore a call for a binding national climate protection law to be passed.
Debate about security of supply
As a result of the nuclear phase-out, a public debate about security of supply broke out in Germany , whereby the risk of a power failure due to insufficient generation capacities in southern Germany was emphasized (for the course of the debate, see here ). With an average unavailability of electricity of 15.91 minutes for end consumers, Germany was the country with the highest security of supply in 2012. In order to be able to continue to guarantee this despite the expansion of fluctuating renewable energies and the shutdown of conventional power plants, increasing flexibility measures such as B. Network expansion , load management and storage expansion necessary.
Since the end of 2012, transmission system operators and the Federal Network Agency have had to be informed early and bindingly about the planned shutdowns of power plants and the final shutdown of systemically important power plants can be averted against payment. In addition, from 2013 the Federal Network Agency will determine the need for generation capacity for a network reserve and then procure it. For the winter of 2011/2012, an agreement was made with Austrian electricity companies to keep power plant capacities available in order to be able to help out if necessary (see also cold reserve ). Another measure was the resolution of a network development plan , in which the expansion requirements of the German electricity and gas network were set out over the next 10 years. Among other things, four large so-called “electricity highways” are planned, with two of them being partially cabled using HVDC technology. In the public and political discussion, the necessity of two of these power lines, the south-east link and the south link , is controversial.
Although eight fewer nuclear power plants were in operation in 2012, Germany recorded a new record of electricity exports. Even in the severe frost period of winter 2011/2012 , which was seen as the first major test case of power grid stability, Germany mostly remained a net power exporter during the daily peak load. On average, 150–170 GWh of electricity were exported to France, which, due to the large number of apartments heated by electricity, had a greatly increased demand for electricity. This corresponds to the production volume of five to six large nuclear reactors. According to the Federal Statistical Office , 66.6 TWh of electrical energy were exported in 2012 as a whole, 43.8 TWh were imported, which means an export surplus of 22.8 TWh (corresponds to slightly less than 4 percent of net electricity generation). The export surplus quadrupled compared to the previous year and reached the highest level in the past four years. With the export of electricity 3.7 billion euros were received, 2.3 billion euros had to be spent on imports, so that Germany was able to achieve an export surplus of 1.4 billion euros. The value of the exported electrical energy was 5.56 ct / kWh, while the value of the imported electrical energy was slightly lower at 5.25 ct / kWh. The development of the German electricity trade balance is presented in detail in the article energy market . The reason for this is that France exports a lot of electrical energy at low prices during times of low electricity demand in order to keep its v. a. Not having to throttle from existing nuclear power plants operating at the base load . Germany, on the other hand, exports v. a. at times of higher electricity demand, i.e. during medium and peak loads , when electricity prices are usually higher. In 2013, too, the average price of exported electricity was higher than the price of imported electricity.
If high supply and low demand come together, negative electricity prices can occur on the electricity exchange, which means that during certain hours electricity buyers are paid for the purchase of electricity. In the first half of 2013 that was 36 of a total of 4,380 hours. This often happened in the morning or afternoon during the sunny season and often at night in the dark season. For example, there was a negative electricity price on Sunday, June 16, 2013 at 3 p.m. and on Christmas Day 2012 at 4 a.m. The negative electricity price is not unexpected, as the weather forecast provides very precise forecasts for energy trading, such as a wind power forecast for short periods of a few minutes up to two days and a medium-term forecast for up to eight days.
In the course of the energy turnaround in Germany, there is also discussion as to whether new power plants with secure capacity should be built because of the nuclear phase-out in southern Germany. This would contradict the goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. In particular, the shutdown of nuclear power plants in southern Germany and the inadequate network situation are cited as arguments for building new gas-fired power plants in southern Germany. These are to serve as a bridge until sufficient storage facilities have been built and the power grids have been upgraded. The increase in the proportion of electricity from gas-fired power plants, which is sometimes required as a backup for a transitional period, can temporarily increase the dependency on foreign gas suppliers, especially Russia. This could be reduced by promoting German natural gas, which, however , is very difficult to implement politically because of the fracking required in this context . However, with the exception of lignite, all other primary energy sources (hard coal, uranium, crude oil) have largely been imported into Germany. For example, 23% of the hard coal used in Germany comes from Russia. It is controversial to what extent these new back-up power plants are even necessary or whether the loss of power in southern Germany can be compensated for by other measures, in particular the expansion of power grids and storage facilities. This is especially true in light of the fact that there is currently overcapacity in conventional power plants across Europe.
In July 2013, both the EU and the Federal Environment Agency warned against panic-mongering by energy companies. They had previously announced that they wanted to shut down conventional power plants on a large scale due to the fall in electricity prices, which threatened power outages. The EU considers such threats to be “deliberately exaggerated”. These announcements were deliberately distributed by energy companies in order to promote the creation of capacity markets through political pressure on governments . In this way, electricity companies could obtain subsidies for the continued operation of conventional power plants, although these are not necessary. There is "the risk that companies intentionally exaggerate their intention to close capacities in order to generate additional sales".
In October 2014, Europe-wide overcapacities were stated to be at least 100 GW, of which around 60 GW are in the grid area that is relevant for Germany. Overcapacities are therefore expected in the electricity market for years to come. For Germany itself, the overcapacity is estimated at around 10 GW.
Cost debate
Since it became known in autumn 2012 that the price of electricity would rise - among other things because of a sharp increase in the EEG surcharge on January 1, 2013 - the EEG has been under increasing discussion. Among other things, a cap on the EEG surcharge and / or the annually subsidized new building volume was required.
Federal President Joachim Gauck warned on June 5, 2012 that the energy turnaround would not succeed “solely with planned economy regulations” and “probably not with an excess of subsidies”, but rather with “convincing innovations and fair competition”. It is therefore necessary to “set a reliable political framework” so that “what is harmful is avoided and what is desired is achieved. For him, a market-based, growth-friendly environmental policy "means that costs for environmental pollution and environmental risks are billed to the polluters and not to the taxpayers. And that environmentally friendly production pays off in competition for companies. ”At the same time, Gauck warned against burdening future generations with the costs of environmental policy , since such an attitude would be“ simply irresponsible ”. He also warned that every life on earth can develop “in harmony with nature”, which is why in the long term “only economic sense is made that is ecologically sensible”.
In February 2013, the German government's Council for Sustainable Development stated that there was an imbalance in the electricity price debate. Although the energy transition is only responsible for part of the electricity price increases, it is often blamed for it alone. In addition, the electricity bill still only accounts for two to three percent of the costs of an average household or 21% of total energy costs - but 37% for transport (petrol / diesel) and 42% for heat. While heating costs have increased by 46.7% since 2007, electricity has only increased in price by 29%; In contrast to electricity costs, however, the increase in heating costs is not an issue in the energy cost debate. In order to be able to design the further expansion of renewable energies in a way that is compatible with the system, the EEG must be further developed, exceptions for industry must be checked and, in addition, corrections to EU emissions trading must be carried out at the European level .
Critics complained that the financing of the energy transition in Germany is unevenly distributed. According to a study by the IdW ( Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft ), poor households, measured by their wealth, paid up to ten times as much for subsidies for renewable energies than rich ones. In addition, (as of June 2012) energy-intensive companies are largely exempt from the surcharge, so that, according to the Federal Network Agency, large companies that together use 18% of German electricity only have to bear 0.3% of the surcharge. Most small and medium-sized businesses, however, are not exempt. The EU Commission saw this as a type of subsidy (ization) for large companies at the expense of small companies and private consumers and initiated state aid proceedings in June 2012 .
It was also criticized that the black-and-yellow government is spreading the costs of the energy transition on fewer and fewer shoulders (especially small businesses and private citizens) by greatly expanding the exemptions for industry. For example, the threshold above which exemption regulations apply for companies has been reduced from 10 GWh per year to 1 GWh, corresponding to the electricity consumption of around 250 households. As a result, the number of companies that applied for the exemption rose from 813 in 2011 to 2,023 by September 2012 alone; in 2006 there had been only about 400 companies. For 2013, the Federal Environment Ministry expects around 5,000 companies to apply for exemption from the EEG surcharge as a result of the expansion of the special regulations.
In July 2013, the economics professor Justus Haucap (until 2012 chairman of the Monopoly Commission ) criticized the high costs of the energy transition. You could have them much cheaper if you used more competition. From a regulatory point of view, it is best to let CO 2 trading alone . If that is not achievable, renewable energies should be promoted in a technology-neutral way using a green electricity quota model . Felix Ekardt contradicts this and also asserts that the cost debate is forgetting many aspects, such as the looming long-term costs of climate change and the looming price increases for fossil fuels.
In addition, the taxation and social distribution of economic profits from electricity generation and related services are also discussed in the context of the energy transition.
In its lead study in 2018, the German Energy Agency (dena) estimated the additional costs (spread over three decades) for the conversion to a climate-friendly energy system in Germany by 2050, in accordance with the Federal Government's decision, at values between 1200 billion euros (with a reduction greenhouse gas emissions by 80% compared to 1990 and technology mix) to 2200 billion euros (at 95%, predominantly electricity-based). These costs relate to investments in building renovations and heating, new vehicles and transport infrastructures such as charging stations as well as in power plants, Power-to-X systems and renewable energy systems. In addition, there could be (depending on the technology) costs for increased expenses for the expansion of the electricity network in the amount of 80 to 110 billion euros at the transmission network level and 140 to 250 billion euros at the distribution network level. In 2020, the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE estimated the additional expenditure for climate protection in Germany (reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 95% by 2050) to be between 440 billion and 2,330 billion euros depending on the scenario ("sufficiency", "reference", "Unacceptance", "Persistence").
Coal exit
Since the nuclear phase-out and the change of government in 2013, there have been increasing initiatives to gradually phase out coal in order to achieve climate protection goals. Since, according to the goals of the federal government, renewable energies should cover at least 80% of the electricity supply in 2050, coal will only make up a maximum of 20% of the electricity mix. At the same time, power generation from coal must be scaled back in order to achieve the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050. The Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy presented its first proposals in November 2014 and a key issues paper in March 2015 that provides for old and inefficient coal-fired power plants to be shut down before 2020. This is to be achieved through a climate protection levy.
On January 16, 2020, the federal and state governments specified the steps to phase out lignite . All lignite power plants are to be shut down by 2038. Although older power plants are to be shut down as a priority, the plan is criticized because the climate targets cannot be achieved through it.
Researchers at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research warn that the exit from coal could even increase CO 2 emissions if sufficient carbon pricing is not introduced. Without such pricing, the demand for emission allowance certificates in European emissions trading and thus their price could fall, which means that electricity producers abroad could buy more of the cheaper emission allowances and thus increase their CO 2 emissions. To avoid this, a CO 2 minimum price must be introduced.
France
Since 2012, political discussions have been developing in France on the subject of the energy transition and how the French economy could benefit from it. The background to the discussion is that several French nuclear power plants are approaching the end of their 40-year lifespan in the coming years .
In September 2012, Environment Minister Delphine Batho coined the term “ecological patriotism”. The government started a work plan for a possible start of the energy transition in France. This should answer the following questions by June 2013:
- How can France move towards energy efficiency and energy saving? This includes lifestyles, changes in production, consumption, and transportation.
- Which path can be taken to achieve the targeted energy mix in 2025? France’s climate change targets call for a 40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and 60% by 2040.
- Which renewable energies should France rely on? How should the use of wind and solar energy be promoted?
- What costs and financing models can be expected for advice and investment support for alternative energies? With which for research, renovation and expansion of district heating, biomass and geothermal energy? One solution could be a continuation of the CSPE ( Contribution au service public de l'électricité ), a tax that is added to the electricity bill.
The environmental conference for sustainable development on September 14 and 15, 2012 dealt with the environmental and energy transition as the main topic. There, President François Hollande presented specific goals of the energy transition, which he described as a "strategic decision". According to this, the consumption of fossil fuels is to be halved by 2050, the government is aiming for a 30% reduction by 2030 as an interim goal. In addition to increased funding for renewable energies and electric vehicles , the share of nuclear power is to be reduced from around 75% today to 50% by 2025. The Fessenheim nuclear power plant should also go offline in 2016 , as Hollande had promised before his election as president . This date was later moved from 2017 and finally to 2018 [obsolete] . A tax for environmentally harmful energies had previously been agreed between the governing parties in August 2013. This is to be introduced gradually for fossil fuels from 2014 and is based on the emissions they cause; A profit levy for nuclear power plants is also planned.
In April 2014, Ségolène Royal , the new environment and energy minister (in Valls cabinet ), announced a draft law for July 2014. This is to define how the share of nuclear energy in French electricity production is to be reduced to 50% by 2025. The plan includes a list of six priority goals, including the further expansion of renewable energies. As of April 2014, 100,000 jobs are to be created in the green economy .
In October 2014, the energy transition law was passed in the French parliament with 314 votes to 219. It plans to reduce the share of nuclear energy in the electricity mix to 50% by 2025, currently it is around 75%. The output of the nuclear power plants was capped at 63.2 gigawatts. In addition, the building insulation is to be greatly improved, a million charging stations for electric cars are to be created and renewable energies are to be greatly expanded. This should reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40 percent by 2030. Total energy consumption is expected to drop to half its current value by 2050.
In July 2015, the law finally passed the National Assembly . As an interim goal, the share of nuclear power should fall to 50% by 2025 and the share of renewable energies should increase to 40% by 2030. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions are to be reduced by 75% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels.
In early 2017, the French Climate Plan 2050 stipulated that CO 2 emissions from the energy sector should be reduced by 40% by 2013 and by 96% by 2050 on the basis of 1990. The 75% target across all sectors was confirmed.
As of December 31, 2016, around 12 gigawatts of output were installed in the wind energy sector. A total of 1.56 gigawatts went online in 2016. By 2018, 15 gigawatts of power are to be achieved.
In July 2017, French Energy Minister Hulot announced that France plans to close up to 17 reactors by 2025. At the same time, energy consumption should decrease and “electricity production should be diversified”.
India
At the beginning of 2017, the share of renewable energies in the electricity sector was 16 percent. Wind power account for around nine percent of this, and photovoltaics for just under three percent. The largest source of energy is currently still coal power. According to a study, India may not need new coal-fired power plants to meet the growing demand for electricity, as the existing or under construction power plants will be sufficient by 2026. Likewise, the increasing demand for electricity would be covered by the more affordable renewable energies and by means of electricity storage. Furthermore, the coal phase-out is possible by 2050. According to official information, 50 gigawatts (according to other information 65 gigawatts) coal-fired power plants are currently under construction, and another 178 gigawatts are planned. The new power plants could create large overcapacities on the Indian electricity market.
In 2015, the Indian government announced that it wanted to achieve 40 percent of installed energy output from non-fossil fuels by 2030. This means a four-fold increase compared to the current level. Likewise, renewable energies should have an installed capacity of 175 gigawatts by 2022; 100 gigawatts of this should be photovoltaics. According to other information, a total of 40 gigawatts of photovoltaics should have been implemented in large parks by 2020. The parks should each have an installed capacity of 500 megawatts. As an ambitious goal, the government is also planning a full conversion to electric vehicles by 2030.
Japan
On March 11, 2011 occurred in Japan , the Tohoku Earthquake in 2011 that a tsunami triggered, were killed by the more than 18,000 people. This tsunami triggered the Fukushima nuclear disaster , which resulted in several core meltdowns at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant . As a result, energy policy in Japan was rethought. The share of nuclear energy in the electricity mix is to decrease, and renewable energies are to be expanded significantly.
On June 18, 2012, the then Minister of Economics and Industry Yukio Edano confirmed the German-style feed-in law for renewable energies that came into force on July 1. The grant rates are significantly higher than in other countries, which is why a solar boom broke out. As of April 1, 2013, solar systems with 5.3 GW were already in operation and as of May 31, 2013, around 17.5 GW of solar systems were approved for feed-in tariffs. Japanese companies are global leaders in battery storage power plants for system services in the power grid, so that Japan is already building demonstration plants with a storage capacity of 20 MWh and 60 MWh (as of October 2013).
On September 14, 2012, the Japanese government decided at a ministerial meeting in Tokyo to gradually phase out nuclear energy by the 2030s, at the latest by 2040. The government announced that it would take “all possible measures” to achieve this goal to reach. A few days later, the government restricted the planned nuclear phase-out again after the industry urged it to reconsider the plans. The arguments given were that a nuclear phase-out would burden the economy and that the import of oil, coal and gas would lead to high additional costs. The government thereupon approved the energy transition, but left the time for the decommissioning of the nuclear power plants open. In April 2014, the Abe cabinet reversed the complete nuclear phase-out. A new energy plan was decided according to which nuclear power plants should continue to be operated, with each power plant first being checked for safety. However, the overall share of nuclear energy in the energy mix is to be reduced and more renewable energies are to be used instead.
The Abe cabinet is aiming for a nuclear power share of just under 20%; before Fukushima it was around 30%. As of April 2015, a total of 4 of the 48 nuclear power plant units received approval for a restart after the newly introduced increased safety regulations were checked by the state nuclear supervisory authority. Previously, all nuclear power plants had been gradually taken off the grid by 2013. So far, however, the start-up of these four reactor blocks has not been carried out, as a court has banned the operation of the reactors with reference to the unproven earthquake safety.
Jordan
Jordan imports around 97% of its energy and spent around 20% of its gross domestic product on it in 2016 . The state would like to increase the share of renewable energies from two percent (2011) to ten percent by 2020 by expanding 600 MW of solar and 1,200 MW of wind energy. Overall, the dependence on energy imports is to be reduced to 65% and measures for energy efficiency, for example in the building sector, are to be implemented.
Mexico
The Mexican government plans to increase the share of renewable energies in the electricity sector from 16% (2016) to 50% in 2050.
Norway
With a share of 99%, Norwegian electricity generation is almost entirely based on hydropower. The country is working towards becoming CO 2 neutral with various measures . In addition to hydropower, there are ambitious plans to build a 1,000 megawatt wind farm. In general, the amount of electricity from wind power is to be tripled by 2020. Norway has the highest density of electric cars per person. To increase this, new registrations of cars with internal combustion engines are to be banned from 2025.
Austria
Due to the geographical conditions, energy generation in Austria is traditionally strongly influenced by renewable energies, especially hydropower . The share of renewable energies in gross final energy consumption was 32.2% in 2012, and in the electricity sector their share was even 75.4% of domestic production. Due to the Atomic Lockdown Act, there are no nuclear power plants in operation in Austria .
Domestic energy generation makes up only 31% of Austria's total energy consumption, i.e. H. in the three sectors of transport, electricity and heat. The total energy consumption is covered by around 42% oil, 23% renewable energies, 23% gas and 12% coal. Relative to total energy consumption, the share of renewable energy sources has only increased by around one percentage point in the last 20 years. According to EU guidelines, it should increase to 35% by 2020. However, there is no discernible trend towards the energy transition, particularly in the field of green electricity systems - the actual share of green electricity in Austria is steadily decreasing. Even if electricity generation by green electricity systems is growing continuously (from 37 TWh in 1997 to 45.4 TWh in 2010), the relative share of green electricity systems in total energy consumption is falling (from 66% in 1997 to 61% in 2010). The targets set by the EU in Directive 2001/77 / EC for Austria for the share of renewable energies in (gross) electricity consumption of 78.1% for 2010 were thus clearly missed. Austria is therefore threatened with infringement proceedings , which were filed on November 20, 2013. In 2017, the Austrian government agreed to convert the electricity sector to 100% renewable energies by 2030; a goal that Austria had already promised at the UN climate conference in Paris 2015 .
An energy transition in Austria can be seen in individual villages, towns and regions. For example, Güssing in Burgenland is considered a pioneer for independent and sustainable energy generation. Since 2005, Güssing has been generating significantly more heat (57.5 GWh ) and electricity (14 GWh) from renewable raw materials than the city itself needs.
Wind energy is also being expanded significantly in eastern Austria. At the end of 2014, a total of 1,016 wind turbines with a total output of 2,095 MW were in operation. The standard energy capacity of these systems is more than 4.5 TWh, which corresponds to about 7.2% of Austria's electricity demand. Most of these plants, each with around 960 MW, are located in the federal states of Lower Austria and Burgenland. Based on the resolution of June 8, 2006, Burgenland planned to cover all electricity needs with renewable energy by 2013. This was mainly driven by the construction of further wind turbines, with which the targeted arithmetic electricity self-sufficiency was achieved for the first time in Burgenland in March 2013. In Burgenland there is also one of the largest wind parks in Europe, the Andau / Halbturn wind park. The wind farm has a total of 79 wind turbines of the 3 MW class with a total output of around 237 MW.
Saudi Arabia
The Saudi Arabian government planned a total of 100 billion dollars in investments in solar energy between 2013 and 2032. 41 GW of photovoltaics are to be installed. A total of 9,500 megawatts of wind and solar parks are to be installed by 2023. Ten percent of the installed generation capacity should consist of renewable energies. In 2013, the country had only 16 MW of photovoltaics. The first wind turbine was built in early 2017.
In March 2018, the company Softbank and the Saudi Arabian Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman presented significantly more extensive expansion plans for photovoltaics. According to this, a solar park is to be built in Saudi Arabia by 2030 , which will gradually be expanded to a capacity of 200 GW. The total investment for the project is given as around 200 billion dollars. Compared to Saudi Arabia's current electricity mix consisting of oil and gas, solar power is expected to save around 40 billion dollars in electricity costs.
Sweden
In June 2016, the ruling Social Democrats and Greens agreed with the opposition parties of the Christian Democrats , the Moderates and the Center Party to expand renewable energies to 100% by 2040. In 2017, the country covered 58% of its electricity needs from renewable energy sources. About 40 percent of the electricity produced in Sweden comes from nuclear power . In the 2016 energy agreement, the government and the opposition agreed that electricity production should be 100 percent fossil-free by 2040, with 4 of the 10 nuclear reactors being shut down by 2020 and the rest of the nuclear phase-out being left to the market .
Switzerland
Due to the high hydropower share of around 60%, electricity production in Switzerland is already comparatively sustainable. Since electricity consumption only accounts for 24% of total energy consumption, mobility / logistics and heat production are much more relevant for the sustainability balance, since the corresponding demand is primarily satisfied by fossil fuels.
For energy production from nuclear power, Switzerland is dependent on foreign uranium suppliers, some of whom are accused of causing major environmental damage in the mining areas. After the nuclear disaster in Fukushima , the Federal Council and Parliament decided in principle to phase out nuclear power . There are currently five Swiss nuclear power plants on the grid, generating 35% of Swiss electricity production. So far, no binding dates for the shutdown of the nuclear power plants have been negotiated. This also applies to the Beznau nuclear power plant , which, along with the Mühleberg nuclear power plant (which was shut down on December 20, 2019) is one of the oldest in the world. According to the Federal Council, the nuclear power plants should remain on the grid as long as they are safe.
On May 21, 2017, the Swiss population approved the Energy Strategy 2050 with 58.2% yes-votes. As a result, the construction of new nuclear power plants is prohibited. Furthermore, renewable energies and the more efficient use of energy are to be promoted (see measures of the Energy Strategy 2050 ).
South Korea
South Korean President Moon Jae In announced in June 2017 that South Korea would completely phase out nuclear power within the next 40 years. In addition, Moon Jae In announced that it would close ten coal-fired power plants by 2021 and not want to build any new coal-fired power plants. The share of renewable energies in the electricity mix is to be increased from 6.6 to 20% by 2030, while CO 2 emissions are to be reduced by 37%.
Spain
With a share of 32% in electricity generation in 2012, the share of renewable energies in Spain is at a high level across Europe. This is mainly due to the great importance of hydropower and wind energy. Hydropower (without pump storage) contributed 7.6% to total electricity generation, while wind energy (41.8 TWh 2011) had a share of 18.2% in 2012 and was thus behind nuclear energy (22.1%) and combined cycle power plants (19.3%) in third place in the generation statistics. On the other hand, generation from biomass (1.8%) and solar energy (4.3%), which in turn can be divided into photovoltaics (3%) and solar thermal power plants (1.3%), are comparatively less important.
In 2013, according to preliminary figures from the grid operator Red Eléctrica de España, wind energy was the most important Spanish electricity producer. With a share of 21.1%, it was just ahead of nuclear power with 21.0%, coal power with 14.6% and large-scale hydropower (14.4%).
The use of hydropower has a long tradition in Spain, as in many countries with corresponding resources. The development of wind energy began in the mid-1990s when state subsidies were introduced. In addition, the geographical conditions for wind power are favorable, resistance from the population is rare - also due to the low population density. At the end of 2012, wind turbines with a total output of 22.8 GW were installed in Spain, placing Spain in fourth place worldwide behind China, the USA and Germany.
Photovoltaics, which previously eked out a niche existence, experienced a sharp rise in 2007 after the Zapatero government introduced a feed-in tariff that guaranteed investors high returns. Subsequently, due to the high demand, solar subsidies were limited to a certain number of hours of sunshine per year and a duration of 25 years through a moratorium. At the end of 2012, the conservative Rajoy government introduced an electricity tax for solar energy and announced further reductions in yields. According to a report by the EU Commission from 2012, however, this is primarily due to “excessive” compensation payments for nuclear power plants that have already been written off and for the unprofitable Spanish coal mines. In the future, operators of renewable energy systems are to receive an additional payment and an investment allowance in addition to the electricity market prices. This is intended to enable “reasonable profitability”.
After the expansion of renewable energies had almost come to a standstill under the previous government at times, the social democratic government announced in 2018 that the electricity supply in Spain should be completely converted to renewable energies by 2050. Greenhouse gas emissions are also to be reduced by 90% by 2050, and the full decarbonisation of the economy is to be achieved shortly thereafter . An end date for the coal phase-out and the nuclear phase-out has not been announced, but no new permits are to be issued for projects to promote fossil fuels . In order to achieve the goals, at least 3000 MW of wind and solar energy are to be installed each year in the coming decade. In addition, no new vehicles with internal combustion engines are to be registered from 2040.
The Spanish company Gamesa is one of the world's largest manufacturers of wind turbines. The companies Iberdrola , Acciona and EDP Renováveis are globally active companies that also develop and operate wind farms around the world. They also own about half of all Spanish wind power plants.
Taiwan
The share of renewable energies in the total energy production of Taiwan (the Republic of China ) was still low until a few years ago and was around 5 to 10 percent. The energy supply of Taiwan has so far been ensured by the largely state-owned Taiwan Power Company ("Taipower"). Since the late 1970s / early 1980s, three nuclear power plants were also in operation (see also nuclear energy in Taiwan ). Another fourth nuclear power plant has been largely completed, but has not yet gone into operation because a committed anti-nuclear power movement has grown in Taiwan since the 1990s, whose protests and lobbying have prevented this. Especially since the nuclear disaster in Fukushima in 2011, proponents of nuclear power have fallen heavily on the defensive. Politicians of all stripes emphasized the necessity of expanding renewable energies. In the 2016 parliamentary elections , the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) , which is critical of nuclear power, won an absolute majority and at the same time the DPP candidate Tsai Ing-wen was elected to the office of president . On October 20, 2016, the Taiwanese government passed a plan that would see Taiwan completely phase out nuclear power generation by 2025. The plan envisaged a significant expansion of solar power production to 20 GW by 2025. Another 3 GW should be generated by wind energy in offshore wind farms. In the years 2014–2016, two of the three operating nuclear power plants were shut down.
Thailand
So far, Thailand has been heavily dependent on energy imports. As of 2012, over 80% of electricity was generated from oil, gas and coal. In addition, electricity demand is expected to double by 2022. The government therefore wants to increase the share of renewable energies in the electricity sector to 25% by 2021. This should happen, among other things, with a power feed regulation. The commissioning of the Nakhon Ratchasima solar park with an installed capacity of 7.5 MW is viewed as a success . By 2036, the share of renewable energies is expected to be 30%.
Tunisia
The government plans to increase the installed capacity of renewable energy systems from 300 MW (early 2017) to 4,700 MW in 2025.
Turkey
In February 2017 it was reported that Turkey would like to tender a photovoltaic system with one gigawatt of installed capacity. This is to be built near Karapınar in the province of Konya in the south of the country. In the course of this, the construction of a solar energy center, a module factory and a photovoltaic research center is planned. The price determined in the tender is to be granted for 15 years. The law on this was passed in parliament on October 9, 2016.
United States
In 2016, the Obama administration adopted the Climate Plan 2050, which, based on 2005, provides for a CO 2 reduction of 80% by 2050. This goal is to be achieved by reducing primary energy consumption by 20 percent, by generating electricity that is 55 percent based on renewable energies, and by using CCS technology for coal-fired power plants.
The commitment of the USA to the expansion of renewable energies is heterogeneous from state to state, from city to city and it is remarkable in absolute numbers: The USA ranks third in terms of investments in renewable energies (17% of global investments) after China (32nd place) %) and Europe (21%), also with regard to electricity production with renewable energies (188 GW, after China with 404 GW and Europe with 339 GW). The USA is a leader in geothermal electricity production (2.5 GW, 16.7 TWh) as well as in the production of biofuels. California is a pioneer among the states . Here it was decided in 2018 that 100% of the electricity must be supplied from renewable energies by 2045. Some US cities, such as Burlington (Vermont) , Georgetown (Texas) and Rock Port ( Missouri ) are already (2019) supplied with 100% electricity from renewable energies, the metropolis Seattle with over 70%.
United Kingdom
The UK has set itself the goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. In addition, the electricity sector is to be decarbonised by the 2030s . H. Become CO 2 -free. To encourage the changeover, a minimum price of £ 18.08 / tonne (20.18 euros / tonne) will be charged on the production of carbon dioxide . This minimum price is calculated in addition to the costs resulting from EU emissions trading and, under the current market conditions, should be high enough to bring about a switch from emission-intensive coal-fired to lower-emission gas-fired power plants. Due to this regulation and the closure of several coal-fired power plants , among other things , the share of coal- fired power generation in the UK electricity mix fell to 9.2% in 2016. In 2015 it was still 22.6%. Great Britain reduced its share of coal-fired electricity from 143 TWh in 2012 to 7 TWh in 2019. Great Britain wants to phase out coal-fired electricity entirely by 2025 at the latest.
In Great Britain, offshore wind farms are in operation with just under 5.2 GW (as of 2016), which corresponds to a good third of the world's installed offshore capacity of around 14.4 GW. A large proportion of these wind farms are on land owned by the British Crown, the Crown Estate . Together with the turbines installed on land, wind turbines with a total output of 14.5 GW were installed at the end of 2014, placing Great Britain in sixth place worldwide in terms of installed output. In 2016, these provided around 11.5% of the UK's electricity needs.
After the promotion of renewable energies was initially based on a quota system ("Renewables Obligation"), although the expansion targets were repeatedly missed, the promotion system was switched to feed-in tariffs . The lack of security of supply and the failure of existing power plant capacity are the subject of various controversies. Britain is giving nuclear energy a share of future energy supplies, which is why EDF is to build and operate two new reactors, Hinkley Point C1 and C2 .
In 2013, the government published a new solar strategy that aims to increase solar capacity from 2.5 to 20 gigawatts over the next ten years.
In August 2015, the government announced that it would cut subsidies for photovoltaic systems by 90 percent.
In contrast to Germany, the energy transition in Great Britain is not linked to the withdrawal from the use of nuclear energy. Rather, the expansion of nuclear energy in the United Kingdom is seen as a contribution to climate protection and thus to the energy transition. In May 2012, the government decided to subsidize the construction of new nuclear power plants through long-term electricity prices. In May 2013, the government approved the construction of two nuclear power plants in the west of England.
literature
- Volker Quaschning : Renewable energies and climate protection. 4th edition. Hanser, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-446-45703-4 .
- Viktor Wesselak , Thomas Schabbach , Thomas Link, Joachim Fischer: Handbuch Regenerative Energietechnik , 3rd updated and expanded edition, Berlin / Heidelberg 2017, ISBN 978-3-662-53072-6 .
- Volker Quaschning : Regenerative Energy Systems. 9th edition. Hanser, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-446-44267-2 .
- Felix Ekardt : The energy transition of the century: A manual , Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86153-791-5 .
- Achim Brunnengräber , Maria Rosaria du Nucci (Ed.): In the hurdles for the energy transition. About transformations, reforms and innovations. For the 70th birthday of Lutz Mez , Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-06787-8 .
- Martin Kaltschmitt , Wolfgang Streicher, Andreas Wiese (eds.): Renewable energies. System technology, economy, environmental aspects . Springer Vieweg, Berlin / Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-03248-6 .
- Nicola Armaroli , Vincenzo Balzani : Powering Planet Earth - Energy Solutions for the Future , Wiley-VCH 2013, ISBN 978-3-527-33409-4 .
- Klaus-Dieter Maubach: Energy transition. Ways to an affordable energy supply. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 978-3-658-03357-6 .
- Claudia Kemfert : The fight for electricity. Myths, Power and Monopolies . Murmann, Hamburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-86774-257-3 .
- Peter Hennicke , Paul JJ Welfens : Energy transition after Fukushima: German special path or global role model? Oekom, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-86581-318-3 .
- Conrad Kunze: Sociology of the energy transition: renewable energies and the transition of rural areas . Ibidem, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-0347-8 .
- Nicola Armaroli , Vincenzo Balzani : Energy for a Sustainable World - From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future , Wiley-VCH 2011, ISBN 978-3-527-32540-5 .
- Hermann Scheer : The energy ethical imperative: 100 percent now. How to implement the complete switch to renewable energies . Kunstmann, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-88897-683-4 .
- Peter Hennicke , Susanne Bodach: Energy Revolution: Increasing Efficiency and Renewable Energy as a New Global Challenge , published by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy , Oekom, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-86581-205-6 .
- Rob Hopkins : Energy transition. The manual. Zweiausendeins , 2008, ISBN 978-3-86150-882-3 (Original title: "The Transition Handbook: From Oil Dependency to Local Resilience" (Transition Guides), 2008).
Web links
- Agora Energiewende , Berlin 2013: 12 theses on the energy transition. A contribution to the discussion on the most important challenges in the electricity market (PDF; 3 MB)
- energytransition.de: Energy Transition - The German Energiewende (English)
- Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy : erneuerbare-energien.de
- Research Association for Renewable Energies (FVEE) ,, fvee.de: Energy Concept (PDF 4.4 MB, a vision for a sustainable energy concept based on energy efficiency and 100% renewable energies)
- iiasa.ac.at: Global Energy Assessment - Toward a Sustainable Future . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-00519-8
- Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems , 2013, ise.fraunhofer.de: Energiesystem Deutschland 2050
- Political-bildung.de: Energiewende
- Renewable Energy Agency , January 14, 2010, infinite-viel-energie.de: ERNEUERBARE ENERGIEN 2020 - Potential atlas Germany (PDF)
- visualcapitalist.com , October 31, 2018, Iman Gosh: Visualizing the Global Transition to Green Energy (graphic "Global transition to green energy")
- Scientific Advisory Council of the Federal Government Global Environmental Change : World in Transition. Energy transition towards sustainability . Springer, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-540-40160-1 ( wbgu.de , PDF, 3.84 MB)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Aviel Verbruggen: Could it be that Stock-Stake Holders Rule Transition Arenas? in: Achim Brunnengräber , Maria Rosaria du Nucci (Ed.): In the hurdles for the energy transition. About transformations, reforms and innovations. On the occasion of Lutz Mez's 70th birthday , Wiesbaden 2014, 119–133, p. 120.
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- ↑ Christophe McGlade, Paul Ekins: The geographical distribution of fossil fuels unused When limiting global warming to 2 ° C . In: Nature 517, (2015), 187-190, doi: 10.1038 / nature14016 .
- ↑ Volker Quaschning : Regenerative Energy Systems. Technology - calculation - simulation . 8th updated edition. Munich 2013, p. 53.
- ^ Mark Z. Jacobson ; Mark A. Delucchi: Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials . In: Energy Policy 39, Vol. 3, (2011), 1154–1169, doi: 10.1016 / j.enpol.2010.11.040 .
- ^ Nicola Armaroli , Vincenzo Balzani : Towards an electricity-powered world . In: Energy and Environmental Science 4, (2011), 3193-3222, p. 3216, doi: 10.1039 / c1ee01249e .
- ^ Mark Z. Jacobson ; Mark A. Delucchi: Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies . In: Energy Policy 39, Vol. 3, (2011), 1170–1190, doi: 10.1016 / j.enpol.2010.11.045 .
- ^ Hans-Martin Henning , Andreas Palzer: A comprehensive model for the German electricity and heat sector in a future energy system with a dominant contribution from renewable energy technologies — Part II: Results. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 30, (2014), 1019-1034, p. 1027, doi: 10.1016 / j.rser.2013.11.032 .
- ↑ Cf. Viktor Wesselak , Thomas Schabbach : Regenerative Energietechnik. Berlin / Heidelberg 2009, p. 33f .; Felix Ekardt : The task of the energy transition of the century: A manual. Berlin 2014, pp. 50–52.
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- ↑ Erich Hau: Wind power plants: Basics, technology, use, economy . Berlin / Heidelberg 2014, p. 45.
- ↑ Manfred Kriener: The power from the air. In: The time . February 6, 2012, accessed March 15, 2014 .
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- ↑ California wants to use only green electricity from 2045 . In: n-tv.de , September 10, 2018. Accessed April 9, 2020.
- ↑ Climate Change Act 2008 - Section 1
- ↑ Carbon floor price hike will trigger UK coal slowdown, say analysts . In: The Guardian, April 2, 2015. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
- ↑ Philip Plickert: The British can do it without coal . In: Frankfurter Allgemeine . June 20, 2020.
- ↑ a b UK wind power overtakes coal for first time . In: The Guardian , January 6, 2017. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
- ↑ Renewable energies: quota model is no alternative to the EEG. (PDF; 800 kB). DIW weekly report 45/2012, p. 18f. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
- ↑ Alistair Osborne: Britain 'risks blackouts in run-up to next election' Former head of Ofgem warns of biggest crisis for 30 years due to lack of generating capacity, National Grid warned this week that the safety margin for UK power supply this winter in an “average cold spell” had dwindled to 5pc . In: The Telegraph. October 9, 2013.
- ↑ Patrick Wintour: Hinkley nuclear power station gets go-ahead as coalition signs off EDF deal - Building to commence on Britain's first nuclear power station in 20 years as government hands subsidy to French company , The Guardian, October 21, 2013.
- ↑ UK Solar PV Strategy Part 1: Roadmap to a Brighter Future , Department of Energy & Climate Change, October 2013
- ^ Ministers signal the end of Britain's' solar revolution , The Telegraph, August 2015
- ^ Claudia Kemfert : Global energy transition: "Made in Germany" . Ed .: Federal Center for Political Education (= From Politics and Contemporary History (APuZ aktuell), supplement to the weekly newspaper Das Parlament . Volume 66 ). Frankfurter Societät , Frankfurt am Main March 21, 2016, p. 17-24 .