Medieval medicine

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Manuscript from the late 15th century with the “fathers of medicine”: In addition to Hippocrates , Avicenna , Aristotle , Galen , Albertus Magnus and Dioscurides , the fictitious “ Macer ” is also shown at the bottom right .

The medicine of the Middle Ages is mainly based on the ancient humoral (juice teachings), by Hippocrates founded and of Galen of Pergamum was developed. After the fall of the Roman Empire in late antiquity , academic medicine split into three main territorial strands and was continued in Western Europe, Byzantium and the Arab world until these were merged again with the emergence of university medicine in the High Middle Ages . Knowledge from folk medicine was adopted in many places by academic medicine in the Middle Ages.

Medical theory

The ancient humoral pathology according to Hippocrates and the numerous writings of Galen for medical thought in the Orient and Occident remained predominant until the 19th century . The balance of the four humors, the eukrasia, was considered a prerequisite for health, which was to be maintained by an appropriate lifestyle. A substance contrary to nature, the materia peccans, was held responsible for illness . This could disturb the balance of the juices or make one of the juices bad and therefore had to be removed from the body. This led to the frequent use of bloodletting as well as laxatives and emetics until the 19th century.

On the humoral-based diagnostic methods that were especially from antiquity to the early modern urine inspection (uroscopy) , the pulse diagnosis and the (often under a bloodletting made) Blood actor (Hämatoskopie). In addition, were Koproskopie (chair show) and Sialoskopie ( Sputumbegutachtung ) and Hidrotoskopie ( welding assessment ) is applied.

Doctors in antiquity and the Middle Ages acted according to the following principles: First the word, then the plant, and finally the knife ( ascribed to the god of medicine in Greek mythology Asklepios ) and Medicus curat, natura sanat (for example: the doctor treats, nature heals. ) from the Corpus Hippocraticum . In the Christian Middle Ages ... Deus salvat ( God saves ) was added to this. The concept of nature in antiquity and the Middle Ages means that doctors are only servants and, at best, allies of nature and that good doctors have to study nature very carefully. Yet their imitation can never be as good as nature itself.

The great overall scheme of Galen
element Body juice qualities colour taste organ season Age Fever type gender
air blood warm and humid red sweet heart spring youth continuous fever (none)
Fire Yellow bile warm and dry yellow bitter liver summer young man Tertiana male
earth Black bile cold and dry black hot and sour spleen autumn old man Quartana (none)
water White slime cold and damp White salty brain winter old man Quotidiana Female

In the theory of temperament , people were categorized according to the prevailing body juice in their basic nature:

  • Blood ( Latin sanguis , ancient Greek αἷμα háima ): sanguine ( αἱματώδης cheerful, active )
  • Phlegm ( φλέγμα phlégma ): phlegmatic ( φλεγματικός passive, cumbersome )
  • Black bile ( gr.μέλαινα χολή mélaina cholḗ ): melancholic ( μελαγχολικός )
  • Yellow bile (gr. Χολή cholḗ ): Choleric ( χολερικός irritable and excitable )

Astrological aspects influenced the treatments, such as the time of bloodletting. The doctrine of signatures also played a certain role, but was only systematized in writing by Paracelsus in the 16th century.

Byzantine medicine

Medical picture from the Vienna Dioscurides , fol. 3v (around 512)

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , Eastern Roman Byzantium continued to exist as the center of theoretical and practical medicine. Alexandria was again a stronghold of academic medicine until the Islamic expansion in the 7th century (cf. Herophilos of Chalkedon in the 3rd BC).

From the division of the Roman Empire in 395 to the conquest of Alexandria in 642, it was primarily ancient knowledge that was collected, commented on, systematized and summarized in a clear and concentrated form. Oreibasios of Pergamon , Aëtios of Amida , Alexander of Tralleis and Paulos of Aigina appeared as compilers . Oreibasios, personal physician of Emperor Julianus Apostata , created a Collecta medicinalia in 70 volumes on the orders of the regent , which was primarily based on Galen's writings. It is only partially preserved today. An excerpt from it, the Synopsis per Eustathion in nine volumes, spread quickly and was translated into Latin as early as the 6th century. A second important work was the Euporista (house medicine book) with prescriptions and therapy instructions for lay people. Around 512 the now famous Vienna Dioscurides was created for Anicia Iuliana , a collective manuscript that has been part of the world document heritage since 1997 . About 150 years after Oreibasios, Aëtios created his Tetrabiblon, a compilation in four by four volumes. He built on Galen and Oreibasios and, in addition to his own experiences, also integrated early Christian elements such as magic , mysticism and religion . Alexander von Tralleis addressed himself with his twelve books on medicine to laypeople and doctors. Essentially, he had compiled therapy instructions from Hippocrates and Galen and supplemented them with his own experiences. An excerpt in three volumes was widely circulated and translated into Latin, Arabic, Hebrew and Syriac. In the first half of the 7th century, Paulus von Aiginia created the compilation Hypomnema in seven volumes, a handbook of practical medicine. In the sixth volume, surgery, ancient knowledge was carefully supplemented with personal experience.

After the conquest of Alexandria, Graeco-Arabic text transfer began. The focus of academic medicine shifted to Constantinople . Subsequently, ancient and Byzantine traditions were supplemented with Persian, Arabic and Indian elements. With the late Byzantine hospital system (cf. history of the hospital ) clinical experiences increasingly came to the fore. In- patient nursing and, from the 10th century, medical care developed in these hospitals , which were influenced by Christianity . In the 12th century, the Pantokratoros not only had a hierarchically structured medical profession, but also its own medical school. Due to domestic political unrest, however, relevant writings did not appear again until the 11th century. Michael Psellos , Simeon Seth , and later Nikolaos Myrepsos and Johannes Zacharias Aktuarios (* around 1275, † after 1328) were the main representatives of the second phase of Byzantine medicine. Michael Psellos worked as a philosopher and scholar at the reopened Academy in Constantinople ( Academy of Mangana ). As the teacher and educator of Emperor Michael VII , he created a general encyclopedia , a synopsis of medicine, a diet and a treatise on gemstones as remedies. Simeon Seth, who wrote a lexical work on the healing powers of food , built on this. As the first pharmacology, it also systematically included Arabic and Indian materia medica such as camphor , musk , ambergris , cloves , nutmeg and hashish . In the 13th century Nikolaos Myrepsos created an antidotarium with 2,656 recipes from Greek, Latin and Arabic tradition. Byzantine medicine finds its conclusion in Johannes Zacharia Aktuarios. What has been preserved is a therapy in six volumes ( Methodus medendi ), in which my own experiences have been greatly incorporated. As a second major work, he wrote seven volumes on the urine, which is considered the climax of Byzantine uroscopy and goes far beyond Galen's writings. In On the Normal and Abnormal Activities of the Spiritual Spirit and Related Diet , actuaries combined ancient notions of the states of the soul with a dietary lifestyle.

Arabic medicine

The first page of a copy of the Canon of Medicine from 1597/98

The theory of Arabic medicine was based in particular on the works of Galen and other writings ascribed to him. After the Council of Ephesus (431) and again with the Second Council of Constantinople (553), the doctrine of the Nestorians was condemned as heresy . Many of the followers fled to the second Persian empire, the Sassanid Empire , some as far as Gundischapur . They translated and taught Aristotle at the Gundischapur Academy, which was founded in the 3rd century . Chosrau I founded the medical faculty there around 555, where the humoral pathology according to Hippocrates and Galen was transferred into the Middle Persian language by the Nestorians . The language of instruction could have been Persian, but the Syrian-Aramaic language is more likely, as this was the mother tongue of the Nestorians and the Sassanids.

The Christian-Arabic scholar Hunain ibn Ishāq (Latin: Johannitius) and his relatives translated a total of 129 Galen writings into Syriac-Aramaic and Arabic in the 9th and 10th centuries. A terminology for medicine was created here for the first time . The Persian doctor and philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakarīyā ar-Rāzī (Latin: Rhazes ) wrote a medical textbook based on Galen in ten parts ( Kitāb al-Manṣūrī fī aṭ-Ṭibb ), several dozen medical journals and a well-known treatise in the 10th century on smallpox and measles , with a differential diagnostic description of the initial symptoms. The formative Jewish doctor and philosopher Isaak ben Salomon Israeli worked in the medical school or medical school of Kairouan . He wrote about fever and urine, as well as about dietetics. Initially he had worked in Kairouan under Isḥāq ibn 'Imrān (known for a treatise on melancholy), who, like him, was given by Emir Ziyadat Allah III. had been brought to court. Thus the Greek tradition of Arabic medicine expanded to the west. This was followed by Ibn al-Jazzār , whose best-known work is the special pathology The Travel Provisions .

The universal scholar Abū Alī al-Husain ibn Abdullāh ibn Sīnā (Latin Avicenna) created the five-part canon of medicine in the early 11th century . The first part contains much of the medical theory. In the second part, 758 single drugs are primarily presented, but at the beginning there is a pharmaceutical science with detailed explanations of the primary qualities and how these are influenced by the mixture of ingredients. Avicenna also has very specific rules for experimenting with drugs. He rejects animal experiments, for example, because the effect on humans is different from that on animals. The third part contains internal medicine , the fourth the surgery and general diseases. The last part is an antidotarium with 650 remedies. In the western universities the canon remained the standard medical work until the 16th century, in the Orient even until after the Second World War .

Ali ibn Isa (Latin: Jesu Occulist) wrote the memory book for ophthalmologists, the world's first ophthalmology that described 131 diseases. Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili (Latin Canamusali) described cataract operations with a hollow metal needle he invented. The Christian doctor Ibn al-Quff (1233–1286) prepared 20 treatises on The Pillars in Surgery , which Abu l-Qasim Chalaf ibn al-Abbas az-Zahrawi (Latin Albucasis) took over in part. Its at-Tasrif, a medical encyclopedia in 30 volumes, was highly praised by Athanasius Kircher for its last treatise in the 17th century .

The medical school in Gondeschapur served as a model for other hospitals as important training centers, for example in Baghdad , Damascus and Cairo . Sultan Ahmad ibn Tulun founded the first public hospital in Fustāt in 872 . According to tradition, the treatment there should have been free of charge. The facility included separate baths for both sexes and special clothing. A dish of chicken was served for release.

As a basis for the subsequent dietetics of Ibn Butlan ( Taqwim it-sihha , see. Tacuinum sanitatis ) or Ibn Zuhr ( Kitab at-Taisir fī-mudāwāt wa-t-tadbīr ) that apply sex res non-naturals air, exercise and rest , Food and drink, abundance and emptiness, sleep and wakefulness and the animae of spirit .

The central writings of Arabic medicine came to Western Europe in two translation waves. Heinrich Schipperges coined the term Arabism, which was later confronted by so-called Galenism . The first wave was determined by Constantinus Africanus in Salerno in the second half of the 11th century , a second wave in the 12th century by Gerhard of Cremona in the translation school of Toledo .

Monastery medicine

St. Gallen monastery plan ( Reichenau monastery , around 820).

The epoch of monastic medicine in Western Europe was significantly shaped by the Regula Benedicti , in which Benedict of Nursia describes in the 36th chapter of the rule, caring for the sick as a service to Jesus around 529. Benedict names special rooms for the sick, but also for the trained nurse or monk doctor (infirmarius). The famous ora et labora of the Benedictines , which does not usually appear and is rather an invention from the late Middle Ages, should actually be called ora et labora et lege , i.e. pray and work and read . At that time reading also meant copying and Benedict told his monks to read at least one book every year. In an age that was determined by the migration of peoples , wars and epidemics, the monasteries remained as centers of literature and culture in the broken Western Roman Empire. Nevertheless, the healing art as such was still questioned by Gregor von Tours, for example . There was a discussion as to whether medicine as such was not fundamentally contrary to the work of God. This is probably one of the reasons why the oldest surviving monastery medicine scripture, the Lorsch Pharmacopoeia (World Document Heritage since June 2013) from the late 8th century, includes a preface in which not only the art of healing is defended, but also pagan sources are explicitly endorsed.

Cassiodor founded the Vivarium monastery around 554 and, with his encyclopedic work Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum, presented an authoritative educational and reading plan that was based on the school of Nisibis . Cassiodor recommends medical reading and a. the herb book of Dioscorides, Galen and writings of Hippocrates, De Medicina of Aulus Cornelius Celsus and a collection of anonymous writings. With Etymologiarum sive originum libri XX, Isidore of Seville compiled the knowledge still available from antiquity (see Loss of books in late antiquity ). Medical works of antiquity were usually written in Greek and were only partially available in the Latin version. After the fall of the Roman Empire, knowledge of the Greek language had largely disappeared from Western Europe. Those who could read and write did so in Latin. Many ancient scripts were preserved and developed in Byzantium and the Arab world and only came back to the West in the High Middle Ages. Isidore had medical works by Celsus and Pliny (cf. Medicina Plinii ) available.

With his decree Capitulare de villis vel curtis imperii, Charlemagne obliged the monasteries to cultivate useful and medicinal plants. On this basis, the monastery plan and the didactic poem Liber de cultura hortorum by Abbot Walahfrid Strabo were created in the Reichenau Monastery in the 9th century . The most important work of monastic medicine was the didactic poem Macer floridus , written by Odo Magdunensis , in which 77 medicinal plants are described in the form of hexameters. Hildegard von Bingen , who wrote her natural and medicinal works Causae et curae and Physica in the middle of the 12th century, is considered to have completed the monastery medicine . The works that are extremely popular today, however, only had regional significance in the Middle Ages. Only one manuscript of the Causae et curae has survived, about ten of the Physica have survived. In contrast to other authors, Hildegard drew far less on ancient authors, but adopted many recipes and also plants from folk medicine . The persecution of herbalist women in the Middle Ages, which is often claimed today, never happened, but goes back to inventions of the 19th century.

In the Irish-Scottish region, local folk knowledge was often mixed with the Mediterranean sources of antiquity. The three-part Bald's Leechbook from the 9th century, one of the oldest surviving medical writings in Anglo-Saxon, still contains numerous recipes in the third part, which are largely without influence from the Mediterranean region. The term leech for people's doctor can also be found in Beda Venerabilis' work Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum .

In the run-up to Melfi's constitutions (1231), there was a separation of the departments of manual-surgical and academic-internal medicine practice. Around 1240, Friedrich II separated the professions of doctor and pharmacist from one another. This and the emergence of university medicine in u. a. Salerno and Montpellier contributed significantly to the decline in the status of monks and nuns in medicine. Until secularization in the early 19th century, there was a shift to pharmacy in particular - the monastery pharmacy. In today's monastic medicine, some formulas and other elements from the epoch of monastery medicine still live on.

Salerno and Montpellier

Depiction of the Trota of Salerno on a manuscript around 1200.

The Abbey of Montecassino maintained a hospital in Salerno , in which sick friars, but also crusaders from the ships at dock, were treated. In the 10th century, it became a medical school, which is now considered the oldest university in Europe. In the early phase from around 995 to 1087, sources were secured and Byzantine texts were transmitted. The Tunisian-Arab Constantinus Africanus came to Salerno around 1063 and began to translate galenic works of Arabic medicine into Latin. This is how the Articella was created, the authoritative corpus for teaching in Salerno. With Liber Graduum , Antidotarium Nicolai and Circa instans , three major pharmaceutical apprenticeships were created that later served as the basis of the new pharmacy. The Trotula ensemble was the first comprehensive gynecology , created around 1100. The author of the main part was Trota von Salerno , who did not play a special role as a scholar: several dozen women who learned and taught in Salerno are attested in writing. Trota paid attention to a simple composition of the recipes so that the common people could adopt them. For her time, Trota had an amazingly advanced gynecological knowledge. Her information on infertility, birth control, and obstetrics is particularly noteworthy. In the late phase up to 1275 various works were combined, including a. the four masters gloss (see Roger Frugardi and Roland von Parma ). Surgery has already been separated from the medical profession here (cf. Council of Tours , 1163), and the craft profession of surgeon emerged. Early scholastic tendencies ( Quaestiones salernitanae ) can be found in Salerno . In the late 13th century, a local language reception began, for example by Ortolf von Baierland . One of the earliest important authors in the Germanic-speaking area was the Flame and Lanfrank student Jan Yperman in the 14th century, who created both surgical and internal medicine with Surgie (surgery) and (his less well-known) Medicine ("internal" medicine) which is based in particular on texts from the Salern School. It contains the contents of the Grabadin of Pseudo-Mesuë , the surgery of Bruno von Longoburgo , the Roger Urtext and the First Rogerglosse as well as the Practica brevis (originally Curae ) by Johannes Platearius the Younger and the Thesaurus pauperum by Petrus Hispanus .

The Montpellier school dates back to 1137, from 1181 anyone could be taught there. The foundation probably goes back to Christian doctors who were trained in Salerno. The school had its greatest importance in the 14th century, when Arnaldus de Villanova , Bernhard von Gordon and Gerhard von Solo worked there. Guy de Chauliac created an important work of surgery with the Chirurgia magna , from 1366 at the latest there were human sections. While there were still 244 registered graduates from the school in the 14th century, there were only 133 medical students in the following century. In the 16th century, Montpellier was an important foster home for humanism .

surgery

It was only in the High Middle Ages that the level of the ancient Alexandrian school (cf. Herophilos of Chalkedon ) could be reached again in Western European surgery . The surgeon, later a surgeon , had to be differentiated in the Middle Ages from the learned physicus or medicus and the pharmacist.

In the early Middle Ages, for example, dislocations were corrected, fractures of the long bones were treated, and intrusions in the case of skull injuries were straightened up again and bone fragments were removed. Prosthetic restorations of amputation stumps have also been documented. Traditional scriptures are written in vulgar Latin and are partly pseudo-galenic. The training was primarily practical; there was no school.

At the University of Salerno, medicine was divided into the fields of theory ( theorica as a theoretical guide to therapy) and practice ( practica as a serving subject). At the end of the 12th century the practica (medicinae) was viewed more as the field of internal diseases and the specialty for external injuries was separated from it as chirurgia , from which the work titles Practica and surgery of the corresponding textbooks developed. The meaning and the respective value of “theory” and “practice” was discussed for a long time in the late medieval faculties.

In the High Middle Ages, surgery as a craft was separated from medicine and pharmacy, academically trained surgeons such as Ortolf von Baierland or Thomas Schelling were seldom and clergymen (monastery medicine) made medical practice more difficult (prohibition of operative activity). The translations of Arabic texts and their reception resulted in new specialist surgical literature. So new forms of treatment could also spread. Roger Frugardi taught in Parma , his surgery was performed in 1180 by Guido von Arezzo the Elder. J. edited. It was received in Latin and the national language and modified into modern times , including a. by Roland von Parma , in Montpellier , in Erfurt and Leipzig . From the 13th century, Bologna took the lead in surgery. Ugo Borgognoni founded the school in 1219. General anesthesia were performed with sleeping sponges and pus-free wounds were treated with alcoholic bandages. Mondino dei Luzzi was perhaps the first to include sections in anatomy lessons. His Anathomia , published in 1316, was divided into the six steps of a section. In the poetry of the High Middle Ages, as with Wolfram von Eschenbach , surgery is often discussed.

In the late Middle Ages, surgery was integrated into the guilds of the cities. The university anatomy was influenced by the written recording of new methods. From 1295 Paris becomes the center of surgery through Lanfrank von Milan . The Parisian school in Bolognese tradition brings the nerve sutures mentioned in a minor surgery to Lanfrank in 1293/94 and the intubation in case of shortness of breath according to Guy de Chauliac . The Flemish doctor January Yperman put 1329 his surgical textbook Surgie ago, Thomas Schelling 1343 an overall view. In skull surgery, suturing techniques and the treatment of bone fractures, both went far beyond their specifications. In Lombardy and the Romagna looked Leonardo de Bertapaglia , Pietro d'Agellata and Giovanni da Vigo .

In the late Middle Ages, medical care was primarily the responsibility of surgeons. Due to fee schedules, the lower and middle classes could also afford the treatments with them. Studied doctors primarily cared for the upper class. The surgeons usually made their own medicines and used local ingredients. The unaffordable “spices from the Orient” had been criticized again and again since the Lorsch Pharmacopoeia in the late 8th century. The cost reduction in the health service propagated there had finally become a reality thanks to the surgeons, some of whom were city physicians or city physicians. In the case of complicated drugs such as theriac , however, surgeons also turned to pharmacists. The apprenticeship usually included traveling as a journeyman, some later also worked as traveling specialists for, for example, eyes or teeth. They were not allowed to practice internal medicine , but numerous representatives of the guild did not always adhere to it exactly - they botched the doctor's degree into the cure.

Transition to modern times

With the rise of Renaissance humanism , the theological influence on medicine weakened, but lived on, for example in the form of the plague leaves, into the incunable period and beyond. The knowledge about the herbal medicine was the first printed herb book in German, the Gart health passed (1485). The fathers of botany corrected and expanded this knowledge from the 16th century. The first German-language medical works include the Ortolf von Baierland Pharmacopoeia and, for the Middle Low German area, the Düdesche Arstedie (contained in the Gotha Pharmacopoeia from the 14th century. With the slow departure from dogmatic humoral pathology, modern medicine gradually developed. Galen's views of the flow of blood were not revised until the 17th century by William Harvey and Marcello Malpighi and sometimes against considerable opposition. The public burning of the books of Galen and Avicenna by Paracelsus had no immediate effect. Humoral pathology was finally completely superseded in the 19th century through cellular pathology .

See also

literature

  • Wolfgang U. Eckart , Robert Jütte : Medical history. An introduction. UTB, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2903-0 .
  • Gerhard Eis : Manuscript studies on the medical literature of the late Middle Ages. In: Sudhoff's archive. Volume 38, 1954, pp. 233-266; also in: Gerhard Eis: Research on specialized prose. Bern / Munich 1971, pp. 15–34 and 358–364.
  • Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Encyclopedia Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 .
  • Dietlinde Goltz: Medieval pharmacy and medicine, presented in the history and content of the Antidotarium Nicolai (= publications of the international society for the history of pharmacy. New series, 44). With a reprint of the print version from 1471. Stuttgart 1977.
  • Mirko Grmek: The History of Medical Thought. Ancient and Middle Ages. CH Beck, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-406-40286-0 .
  • Peter Murray Jones: Medieval Healing Art in Illustrated Manuscripts. Belser, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-7630-5642-4 .
  • Gundolf Keil: Medieval surgery. In: Acta medicae historiae Patavina. Volume 30, 1983/1984 (1985), pp. 45-64.
  • Gundolf Keil: The medical literature of the Middle Ages. In: Ria Jansen-Sieben (ed.): Artes Mechanicae in middeleeuws Europa (= Archief- en Bibliotheekwezen in België. Extra number 34). Brussels 1989, pp. 73–111.
  • Gundolf Keil (Ed.): Würzburger Fachprose-Studien. Contributions to medieval medicine, pharmacy and class history from the Würzburg Medical History Institute. Festschrift Michael Holler (= Würzburg medical historical research. Volume 38). Wuerzburg 1995.
  • Gundolf Keil, with Peter Assion , Willem Frans Daems and Heinz-Ulrich Roehl (Ed.): Specialized prose studies. Contributions to the history of science and ideas. Festschrift Gerhard Eis . E. Schmidt, Berlin 1982, ISBN 3-503-01269-9 , passim.
  • Nancy G. Siraisi : Medieval and early Renaissance medicine. An introduction to knowledge and practice. University of Chicago Press, Chicago / London 1990.

On individual aspects

  • Donald Campbell: Arabian medicine and its influence on the Middle Ages. London 1926. (Reprint: Amsterdam 1974)
  • Paul Diepgen : Woman and gynecology in the culture of the Middle Ages. Stuttgart 1963.
  • Konrad Goehl: Avicenna and his presentation of the medicinal effects. Deutscher Wissenschafts-Verlag, Baden-Baden 2014, ISBN 978-3-86888-078-6 .
  • Gundolf Keil: Possibilities and limits of early medieval medicine. In: Gundolf Keil, Paul Schnitzer (Ed.): The Lorsch Pharmacopoeia and early medieval medicine. Negotiations of the medical history symposium in September 1989 in Lorsch (= history sheets for the Bergstrasse district. Special volume 12). Laurissa, Lorsch 1991, ISBN 3-922781-74-8 .
  • Gundolf Keil: Phytotherapy in the Middle Ages. In: Scientiarum historia. Tijdschrift voor de divorceis van de wetenschappen en de geneeskunde. Volume 20, 1994 (printed: 1995), ISSN  0036-8725 , pp. 7-38.
  • Arnd Krüger : history of movement therapy. In: Preventive Medicine. Springer loose-leaf collection. Heidelberg 1999, 07.06, pp. 1-22.
  • Johannes Gottfried Mayer, Konrad Goehl: The basics of medicine Avicennas. In: Herbal Book of Monastery Medicine. Reprint-Verlag, Leipzig 2003, ISBN 3-8262-1130-8 , pp. 42-73.
  • Johannes Gottfried Mayer, Konrad Goehl, Katharina Englert: The plants of monastery medicine in presentation and application. With plant pictures by the Benedictine Vitus Auslasser (15th century) from Clm 5905 of the Bavarian State Library in Munich (= DWV writings on the history of medicine . Volume 5). Deutscher Wissenschafts-Verlag, Baden-Baden 2009, ISBN 978-3-86888-007-6 .
  • Michael Roger McVaugh : Surgical Education in the Middle Ages. In: Dynamis. Volume 20 (2000), ISSN  0211-9536 , pp. 283-304 ( raco.cat ).
  • Michael Roger McVaugh: The Rational Surgery of the Middle Ages (= Micrologus' library. Volume 15). Sismel, Florence 2006, ISBN 88-8450-199-7 .
  • Alexander Rittmann: Fundamentals of a history of disease theory in the Middle Ages. Brno 1868.
  • Volker Zimmermann: Reception and role of medicine in national-language handwritten compendia of the late Middle Ages (= Ars medica. Texts and studies on the sources of ancient medicine, Department IV: National-language and medieval medicine. Volume 2). Stuttgart 1986 (medical habilitation thesis, Würzburg 1982).

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Wolfram Schmitt: Theory of health and " Regimen sanitatis " in the Middle Ages. Medical habilitation thesis. Heidelberg 1973.
  2. ↑ Johannes Gottfried Mayer : The blood show in the late medieval diagnostics. In: Sudhoff's archive . Volume 72, 1988, pp. 225-233, JSTOR 20777192 .
  3. ↑ Irmgard Müller: Hematoscopy. In: Werner E. Gerabek u. a. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of medical history. 2005, p. 525.
  4. ↑ Gundolf Keil : Harnschriften. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil, Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , pp. 533-535.
  5. ↑ Ortrun Riha : Microcosm of man: The concept of nature in medieval medicine. In: Peter Dilg (Hrsg.): Nature in the Middle Ages: Conceptions - Experiences - Effects. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-05-003778-4 , pp. 111–123.
  6. ↑ Johannes Gottfried Mayer: The origin of the four juices theory in the Greek natural philosophy. In: Mayer, Goehl: Herbal Book of Monastery Medicine. Reprint-Verlag, Leipzig 2003, ISBN 3-8262-1130-8 , p. 30 ff.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kamal Sabri Koltar, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: Byzantine Medicine. In: Gerabek u. a .: Encyclopedia of Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 , p. 224 ff.
  8. ^ Vienna Dioscurides in the Memory of the World Register.
  9. ↑ Iwan Bloch : Byzantine Medicine. In: Max Neuburger, Julius Pagel (ed.): History of medicine. Jena 1902. Reprint Hildesheim 1971, pp. 492-588.
  10. ^ Paul Diepgen : History of Medicine. Berlin 1949, pp. 165-174.
  11. ↑ Heinrich Steinhagen: The fourth book of the Tetrabiblon of the Byzantine doctor Aetios of Amida. Translated from Greek into German. Dissertation, Düsseldorf 1938.
  12. ^ Heinrich Haeser : History of Christian nursing and nursing. Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin 1857. Reprint Bad Reichenhall 1955, p. 15 ff. ( Digitized in the Internet Archivehttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dgeschichtechris01haesgoog~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3DDigitalisat%20im%20Internet%20Archive~PUR%3D )
  13. ↑ Eduard Seidler : History of the care of sick people. Stuttgart 1970, p. 56.
  14. ^ Wolfgang Wegner: Johannes Zacharias Aktuarios. In: Encyclopedia of Medical History. 2005, p. 703.
  15. ↑ Georg Harig : From the Arabic sources of Simeon Seth. In: Medical History Journal. Volume 2, 1967, pp. 248-268.
  16. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Friedrun Hau: Arabic medicine in the Middle Ages. In: Gerabek u. a .: Encyclopedia of Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 , pp. 87 ff.
  17. ^ Friedrun R. Hau: Ibn al-Quff. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , pp. 1209 f.
  18. ^ Gerhard Baader : Medical reform thinking and Arabism in Germany in the 16th century. In: Sudhoff's archive. Vol. 63, 1979, pp. 261-296, JSTOR 20776606 .
  19. ^ Gotthard Strohmaier : Avicenna. Beck, Munich 1999, pp. 153-156.
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  33. ↑ Monica H. Green: Who / what is "Trotula"? 2008 (PDF; 89 kB). In: celt.ucc.ie, March 8, 2011, accessed May 10, 2019.
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  35. ↑ Erwin Huizenga: Tussen autoriteit s empiricism. De Middelnederlandse chirurgieën in de veertiende en vijftiende eeuw en hun maatschappelijke context (= Artesliteratuur in de Nederlanden. Volume 2). Hilversum 2003, pp. 133-143.
  36. ↑ Gundolf Keil: January Yperman and the Dutch surgery in the late Middle Ages. In: Sarton Chair of the History of Sciences: Sartonia. Volume 19, (Gent) 2006, pp. 99 and 104-136.
  37. ↑ Corneille Broeckx (ed.): La chirurgie de maître Jehan Yperman, publiée pour la première fois. In: Annales de l'Académie d'Archéologie de Belgique. Volume 20, 1863, pp. 128-332.
  38. ↑ Evert Cornelis van Leersum (ed.): De 'Cyrurgie' van Meester Jan Yperman: Naar de Handschriften van Brussel, Cambridge, Gent en London. Leiden 1912 (= Bibliotheek van Middelnederlandsche letterkunde. )
  39. ↑ Leon Elaut (ed.): De Medicina Johan van Yperman, naar het Middelburg EDERLANDS hs. 15624-41 (14 de eeuw) uit de Koninklike bibliotheek te Brussel. Gent / Leuven 1972.
  40. ↑ Willy L. Braekman (ed.): Fragments from Johan Yperman's 'De Medicina'. In: Verslagen en mededelingen of the Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Taal- en Letterkunde. 1990, pp. 2-15.
  41. ↑ Gundolf Keil: January Yperman and the Dutch surgery in the late Middle Ages. In: Sarton Chair of the History of Sciences: Sartoniana. Volume 19, (Gent) 2006, pp. 99-136, in particular pp. 104 ff.
  42. ↑ See also Mario Tabanelli (trans.): Jehan Yperman, padre della chirurgia fiamminga. Florence 1969 (= Biblioteca della 'Rivista di storia delle scienze mediche e naturali'. Volume 16).
  43. ↑ Gundolf Keil: "The best advice is the icker toe can against genomen vte platearise". References to Ypermans Medicine. In: Geneeskunde in nederlandstalige teksten tot 1600. Koninklijke Academie voor Geneeskunde van België, Brussels 2012 (2013), ISBN 978-90-75273-29-8 , pp. 93-137.
  44. ↑ Konrad Goehl: Notes on Gundolf Keil's source-based decoding of Yperman's 'Medicine'. In: Specialized prose research - Crossing borders. Volume 8/9, 2012/2013 (2014), ISSN  1863-6780 , pp. 547-550.
  45. ↑ a b Bernhard Haage, Wolfgang Wegner: Montpellier. In: Gerabek u. a .: Encyclopedia of Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 , p. 1006.
  46. ↑ a b c d e f g Bernhard Haage, Wolfgang Wegner: Chirurgie. In: Gerabek u. a .: Encyclopedia of Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 , p. 251.
  47. ^ Bernhard D. Haage, Wolfgang Wegner: Practica medicinae. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 1177 f.
  48. ^ Rolf-Dieter Hofheinz: Mondino de Liucci. In: Gerabek u. a .: Encyclopedia of Medical History. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019703-7 , p. 1004.
  49. ^ Günter Klamroth: Lanfranks "Kleine Chirurgie" in modern German translation. Medical dissertation, Würzburg 1978 (commissioned by Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg), p. 4 f.
  50. ↑ Mario Tabanelli: Jehan Yperman: padre della Chirurgia Fiammenga (= Biblioteca della “Rivista di storia delle scienze mediche e naturali”. 16). Florence 1969.
  51. ^ Evert Cornelis van Leersum: Notes concerning the life of Jan Yperman. In: Janus. 18, 1913, pp. 1-15.
  52. ↑ Evert Cornelis van Leersum (ed.): De 'Cyrurgie' van meester Jan Yperman, naar de handschriften van Brussel, Cambridge, Gent en London. Leiden 1912 (from the series Bibliotheek van Middelnederlandsche letterkunde ).
  53. ^ EC van Leersum: Master Jan Yperman's Cyrurgia. In: Janus. Volume 18, 1913, pp. 197-209 (part 1).
  54. ↑ Oliver Bergmeier: The so-called "lower surgery" with special consideration of the city of Halle an der Saale in the first half of the 19th century . Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 2002, DNB  967192587 , chap. 2 From the surgeon, Bader and Feldscher to surgery 2.1 Brief historical overview of the term surgery , p. 6–30 , doi : 10.25673 / 3157 ( uni-halle.de [PDF; 252 kB ; accessed on December 21, 2019] dissertation).
  55. ↑ Sven Norrbom (ed.): The Gotha Middle Low German Pharmacopoeia and its clan. (Philosophical dissertation Upsala) Hamburg 1921 (= Middle Low German Pharmacopoeia. Volume 1).
  56. ↑ Gundolf Keil: "blutken - bloedekijn". Notes on the etiology of the hyposphagma genesis in the 'Pommersfeld Silesian Eye Booklet' (1st third of the 15th century). With an overview of the ophthalmological texts of the German Middle Ages. In: Specialized prose research - Crossing borders. Volume 8/9, 2012/2013, pp. 7–175, here: pp. 19–24.