Viticulture in Moldova
The viticulture in Moldova has a long tradition, similar to that in neighboring countries Romania and Ukraine ( Crimea ). In the Republic of Moldova there are favorable geological and climatic conditions for viticulture . The proportion of dry wines is quite high compared to neighboring areas and therefore more in line with international tastes. Internationally known grape varieties are grown. Nevertheless, the wines outside the region still lead a shadowy existence. The quality does not always reach the usual standards, and the remoteness of the region does not contribute to internationalization. Moldova is an official member state of the International Organization for Vine and Wine .
Well-known white wines are Dnestrovskoje , Gratijeschty ( Grătieşti ) and Trifeschty ( Trifeşti ); Negruy de Purkar ( Negru de Purcari ; with the definite article: Negrul ) is a well-known red wine . There are also some well-known sweet dessert wines traditionally found in the region .
Geography and climate
Moldova is a fertile country in south-east Europe and lies on the same latitude as Burgundy in France . (27–30 ° east longitude / 45–48 ° north latitude). The area is around 33,800 square kilometers . The area is criss-crossed with rolling hills and valleys and the highest point is 429 m above sea level.
The Codru ("forest"), a large wooded area, protects the wine-growing areas from the effects of cold air. Two main rivers, the Dniester and the Prut, flow from north to south along the border into the Black Sea . Fertile soil and the high level of solar radiation (3000–3250 hours of sunshine) provide optimal conditions for the production of top quality wines.
Moldova is influenced by the continental climate , which is tempered by the nearby Black Sea. There are relatively short, mild winters near the sea, but in the north temperatures below −30 ° C can be reached. The summers are long, hot and often rainy in June and July (especially due to storms). As in Western Europe, it happens that unprotected vines freeze to death in cold winters. The often old vine cultures have almost a picture-book climate in the best regions; humid in winter and dry in summer. The average temperature in July is 19.5 ° C in the north and 22 ° C in the south. In January the average temperature is -5 ° C in the north and -3 ° C in the south. The annual measured precipitation is moderate and ranges between 550 mm in the north and 405 mm in the southwest.
Grape varieties
In 2007, 147,000 hectares of vineyards were planted with many different grape varieties. The total vineyard area (with the production of table grapes, raisins, etc.) has not changed since 2004. With an export volume of 1.2 million hectoliters, the country was one of the most important wine exporting countries in 2017.
Among many indigenous varieties such as Saperavi , Rkatsiteli , Flori - Kagor , Kagor , Zamfira , Fetească Albă , Fetească Muskatnaia and Fetească Regala also regional varieties are widely used, such as Aligote , Cabernet Sauvignon , Chardonnay , Malbec , Merlot and Muller-Thurgau . There is also a notable proportion of direct carrier varieties of the genus Vitis labrusca , such as Isabella , Concord or Lydia.
70% of the production is used for the production of white wine , 24% for the production of red wine and 6% for processing wine . The proportion of the origin of the grape varieties is now 70% from European grape varieties , 14% regional Caucasian and 16% autochthonous varieties .
Wine-growing regions
Moldova can be divided into four agricultural and cultural zones with different climates: North, Central Region, South and Southeast. All of these regions have their own industrial winemaking from the Soviet era , with the exception of the north, where winemaking has been on a private basis. Many autochthonous grape varieties have been preserved there for generations. The four wine-growing regions are:
The division of Moldova into these main regions for grape production was made in 1954 after complex studies by Professor PIIvanov. These studies comprehensively examined the northern zone (Bălți) - Sculeni - Bălți - Florești - Soroca , the central zone (Codru) - Leova - Cimișlia - Tighina , the southern zone ( Cahul ) which includes the entire territory between Prussia, Danube and Nister and the south-eastern zone (Nistreana) - Transnistria , from Kamenka to Slobozia .
As a result of this study, a division into sub-regions was made. The optimal grape varieties for the production of white and red wine for consumer quality, single- variety quality wines and wines with vintage designations, fortified (liqueur) wines and wines suitable for distillation, which had the potential to become characteristic end products, could then be assigned to these microzones . This division is set out in the Wine Law of Moldova on Marketable Wines and Raw Materials for Winemaking , which was passed by Parliament on July 2nd, 1994 under Law No. 132-XIII.
The wineries located in these regions confirm this classification through their quality work and the potential of their wines. So z. B. Mîndreşti and Inesti in Teleneşti District , Peresecina in Orhei District , manta in Cahul District , Băcioi, Mileştii Mici and Durlesti in Munizip Chişinău , Ciumai and Albota in taraclia district , and Raskov Camenca in Rayon Glodeni , Tigheci and Leova in leova district , Carpineni and Minjir, Lapusna and Stolniceni in Hînceşti District , VARZARESTI, Jurceni, Nisporeni and Grozeşti in nisporeni district , Trifesti and Cebalakcia in rezina district , Talmaza, Tudora and Carahasani in ştefan vodă , Sălcuţa in Rajon Căuşeni , Tighina in Transnistria, Basarabeasca in Basarabeasca and Cimișlia Raion in Cimișlia Raion and many others.
Bălți
In the north, large-scale agricultural grape production is less widespread than artisanal winemaking. There are no dominant large companies. The region produces grapes for making brandy , for fortified wines and partly for table wines or wines intended for personal consumption. Mainly white grape varieties are cultivated: Aligoté , Pinot blanc , Fetească Albă and Traminer .
Codru
Codru is surrounded by wooded, difficult to penetrate mountains. These mountains protect the vineyards from winter frosts and summer dehydration, which are characteristic of the continental climate of Moldova. This favors the cultivation of white vines for the vinification of light, fresh everyday wines. Recently, cuvées have been preferred in which acidity and sweetness are well balanced and whose fruit stands out.
Codru is the most technically developed wine-growing region of Moldova. 60% of the Moldovan vineyards are located here, as well as the majority of wineries and bottling plants. Some of Moldova's most famous wineries are located here: Cricova , Mileștii Mici , Aroma and Branesti. The shell limestone caves on which Chișinău is built are due to their uniform humidity of 80% rel. Humidity and a barely fluctuating annual average temperature of 12-14 ° C, in ideal conditions, it is able to store millions of bottles. The most extensive wine collection is housed in the Cricova winery, where parts of Hermann Göring's wine collection have been stored since the end of the Second World War . We are particularly proud of the only surviving specimen of Mogit David's Easter wine from 1902.
The large number of microclimate zones in this region allows the production of characteristic wines with the controlled designation of origin "Codru". This is also where the Româneşti winery of the former Romanov estate is located. Wines from Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot have been produced in the Hânceşti micro-zone for more than 100 years . The best of these wines are said to be in no way inferior to Bordelais "Chateau" wines and have already received several awards at international competitions.
Nistreana or Purkari region
The southeastern region of Purcari (Purkari) extends along the western Nister bank. The main Purkarian winery is also located there. This is known for its red wines Roșu de Purcari and Negru de Purcari . The climate favors the cultivation of red grape varieties: Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Rara neagră , which are developed into wines with storage and aging potential (Bordelais style). They are characterized by their aromas of black currants and violets with hints of leather and are rounded off in small barrels made from old Moldovan oak ( barrique ). Since the 18th century, these Purcarean wines, which are now considered the best of Moldova, have been exported. Towards the end of the 19th century, they were also delivered to the English royal court.
Cahul
The southern wine-growing region of Moldova includes the territory of the Budschak (Bugeac). "Budschak" means angle and stands for the triangular shape of the piece of land between the Prut, Nister and the Black Sea. The south of Moldova and the Budschak differ in terms of soil and climate. The terroir of the southern region is ideal for the production of red wines and sweet wines. The most famous wineries are Comrat, Taraclia, Ciumai and Trifești.
history
See also the article History of Moldova .
From the beginning to the Ottoman rule
Grape production in Moldova has a very long history. Viticulture in the region between the Nister and the Pruth began about 5000 years ago. Imprints of vine leaves ( Vitis teutonica ) have been found near the village of Naslavica in northern Moldova. From this it could be concluded that vines were uncultivated in this region as early as 6 to 25 million years ago. Grape seeds were found near the village of Varvarovca, dating back to around 2800 BC. Are to be dated. Their size suggests that vines were already being cultivated at that time.
At the end of the 3rd century BC The Greeks introduced the local population to winemaking from grapes. The processing of grapes was at that time a "core competence" of the Greeks, who also introduced other refined products. Through cultural exchange with the Romans in neighboring Dacia , viticulture in Moldova received new impulses at the turn of the ages. Great advances were made in vine growing and oenology . However, with the invasion of the Huns in 376 AD, large areas of agriculture in this region were destroyed.
The princes of Moldavia and the boyars established their own wine cult in the Middle Ages. Larger areas were devoted to viticulture, and cultivation and cellar technology were improved. The ruling house appointed special overseers who watched over the wines and the wine industry. From the 14th century, wine was exported to Poland and Moscow .
In the 15th century, during the reign of Stephen the Great , wine production flourished, as he supported the introduction of foreign grape varieties to promote wine quality. During the reign of the Turkish-Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the 18th century, wine growing then collapsed again. The Islamic religious laws suppressed the production of wine from grapes; only the export to Ukraine received the basic oenological skills.
In the days of the tsars
In the seventh Russo-Turkish War between 1806 and 1812, troops of the Russian Tsar Alexander I conquered Bessarabia . After the Peace of Bucharest (1812) , the wine industry was able to develop again. The art of winemaking was encouraged by the renewed predominance of Christianity. The church had a great need for wine because the Missal had required the use of wine since 1699. A Moscow monastery still orders Purcarian wine today. Russian aristocrats acquired wineries and imported modern vines from friendly France : Aligoté , Cabernet Sauvignon , Gamay , Muscat blanc à petits grains , Pinot Blanc , Pinot Gris , Pinot Noir , Sauvignon Blanc and others. Moldova took first place in Russian wine production with 50%. In 1837 1 million buckets (old Württemberg wine measure) were produced, in 1900 already 15 million. Of this, 10 million were exported. a. also to France, which at that time was suffering from a lack of wine due to the phylloxera crisis. At that time, mainly autochthonous grape varieties were grown: Bătuta neagră, Cabasia, Fetească albă, Fetească neagră, Galbena, Plăvaia, Rara neagra, Tămâioasa, Zghihara ( Sghihara ), as well as local varieties from Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary and Turkey.
Viticultural microzones emerged, and specialization took place in the individual viticulture zones within Moldova. The Purcarian microzone was e.g. B. known in the 19th century for their red wine. The high quality of the wine was confirmed by winning a gold medal at the Paris International Wine Exhibition in 1878. The royal family bought up the entire lot. In the early 19th century, Negru de Purcari was shipped to the United Kingdom . At the end of the 19th century, the royal family founded their own Româneşti winery in honor of the Romanov family . Romanesti was purveyor of the Russian Empire and was also delivered to other European courts. In the area of what was then Bessarabia , today's Moldova including the coastal region up to the Black Sea, the winegrowers were subsidized by the state.
Bessarabian German immigrants also had an influence on the development of viticulture in the historical area of Bessarabia, the northern part of which belongs to Moldova and the southern part with the Budschak today to Ukraine. The resettlers immigrated between 1814 and 1842 from southwest Germany, especially from Württemberg and Baden , as well as from former Prussian areas in Poland to the then Russian governorate of Bessarabia . The Tsar wanted them to improve agriculture on the fertile black earth. Experience in viticulture was to be assumed among the emigrants from the southwestern German regions. In the newly founded German villages, every farming community grew wine on the farm property for their own use. In some villages large areas of wine were grown for export.
The first Viticulture School of Moldova was opened in Stavcheni in 1842. This institute had a botanical garden or vineyard for the first time .
The grape varieties introduced by France in the second half of the 19th century were widely planted until the phylloxera plague brought in from America brought the wine industry to a standstill at the end of the 19th century. It was not until 1906 that the vineyards were reactivated by grafting new clones (→ grafted vines ).
At the beginning of the 20th century, PK Kazimir, one of the best Bessarabian oenologists, founded new vineyards on a large scale and used the old Coquina mine near Mileștii Mici as a wine cellar. On the initiative of the governor-general of New Russia , Prince Mikhail Semjonowitsch Voronzow , the Geto desert and the Budschak steppe were cultivated. As early as 1903, the Covaliotty Brothers winery received two gold medals at the Bessarabian agricultural exhibition. Their two-story cellars have been preserved to this day. Bessarabia was also Russia's largest wine-growing region in 1914. A wine fair was organized in Moldova as early as 1914.
The German-language specialist wine-growing terminology is also recorded for the Bessarabian German dialects in the dictionary of the German winegrowing language and in the word atlas of the continental Germanic winegrowing terminology .
Between the wars and the Soviet Union
Both world wars contributed to the widespread destruction of many vineyards and wineries, but neither the revolution nor the war could destroy the wine culture and tradition. The most common red varieties of this time are Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Rara neagră, Saperavi, the most common white varieties: Aligoté, Nutmeg Ottonel , Rkatsiteli , Fetească, Chardonnay, Traminer. Gutedel , Muscat de Hambourg , Moldavschi, Moldova, Pearl Muscat, Vineyard Queen and the pearl of Csaba were grown as table grapes .
Reconstruction of the Moldovan vineyards and wineries began in the 1950s. Over 150,000 hectares were planted within ten years . Already in 1960 the vineyards reached their greatest extent with more than 220,000 hectares. The tunnel and cellar were combined, expanded and economically strengthened. Therefore, today Cricova, Mileştii Mici and Brăneşti are true wine discovery pits in the republic. Their tunnels stretch for kilometers and are only comparable to those in Champagne . More than two million rarity bottles can be found there. In the Soviet era, the production of semi-dry and sweet wines began in the 1960s. In order to meet the demand for wine , the Minister of Economy of the USSR demanded the development of new wine qualities. These quickly caught the taste of Soviet consumers. To this day, the demand for wines from Moldova in Russia is great, as these appear light, fresh, fruity and differentiable compared to the other qualities available in Russia.
The years between 1960 and 1980 gave the Moldovan wine industry new impetus. Viticulture expanded and the range of grape varieties diversified. Every second bottle of wine and every third bottle of sparkling wine in the USSR was produced in Moldova and from Moldovan base wines. Grape production was decoupled from wine production and an era of mass production began. The prohibition of the 1980s hit Moldova hard. Acres of vineyards were laid down in the fight against alcoholism. Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign destroyed valuable vineyards. This resulted in major economic difficulties. The region was focused on viticulture, but suddenly should schedule less wine.
At the beginning of the 1990s, the successful revival of viticulture and the wine industry became an important economic development factor. The wineries developed rapidly and the grape producers as suppliers benefited from this. A lot of money is currently being invested in the development of the cellars and their technical equipment as well as in new vineyards with stable production and high quality standards.
Wine economy today
Acreage and production
At the end of 1999 there was still a registered wine-growing area of 162,000 ha in Moldova. Of this, 110,000 ha of grapes come from cooperative wine production, 15,000 ha for the fresh table grape market and 37,000 ha from private wine-growing.
In 2005, the Moldovan wineries bottled 2.405 million hectoliters of wine. However, the total amount fluctuates very strongly every year, which can also be due to inaccuracies in the statistics. According to the agricultural association Moldova-Vin, the production of sparkling wines , which can still be called "champagne" locally, increased by 5% compared to 2004 - to 15.9 million bottles, and brandy (locally called "cognac") by 27% - to 876,000 hectoliters.
export
The wine industry is still the most important production branch for Moldova. 9% of the gross national product and 25% of exports result from wine production, which also employs 25% of the workforce. Moldova's vineyards represent 2.3% of the world's vineyards. There are around 127 wineries in Moldova that export between 1.0 and 1.5 million hectoliters of wine annually. This corresponds to around 2 million bottles or around 2% of the total amount of wine exported worldwide.
90% of the wine production is exported, only 10% of the total production is consumed within the republic. The value of the annual wine exports is around 100–120 million euros (2004). Moldova's largest wine markets in 2004 were:
- Russia (including Belarus) - 82%
- Ukraine - 7%
- Kazakhstan - 3.8%
- Latvia - 1.6%
- Estonia - 0.8%
- Romania - 0.8%
- USA - 0.5%
The remaining 3.5% are exported to Germany, Norway , Poland , South Korea , Switzerland and other countries.
For a long time, the main market for Moldovan wines was the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although more and more export countries and opportunities have recently been added and exports to Russia have plummeted since 2015.
International success
Many medals testify to the art of Moldovan wine producers and their constant achievements. Prestigious awards come from international competitions in Russia, Europe and America, such as the “Chardonnay of the World”, the Bordeaux wine competition, “Muscat of World” (France) and other international competitions, e.g. B. in the UK or Germany. Moldova's reputation as a wine country is attracting the interest of foreign investors. However, Romania and Bulgaria have also modernized their wine production considerably and as EU member states have an advantage when it comes to imports into the European Union.
Organic viticulture
Years ago, thanks to the cooperative production method, many of the Moldovan vineyard parcels were over a hundred hectares in size, because the large Soviet agricultural machinery was worthwhile on such extensive monocultures . Due to the intensive large-scale agricultural use during the Soviet era, however, the soil was heavily stressed. The political upheaval in all of Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 1990s triggered an economic downturn, which also had its good sides: Less fertilization was used because fertilizer was too expensive; the air got better again because there was hardly any fuel for the agricultural machinery; the soil compaction decreased because hardly heavy agricultural machinery were used. This allowed the ecosystem to recover a little. The re- privatization of the land made the parcels smaller again on average and the cultivated area at least somewhat more varied, which is ecologically beneficial.
At the beginning of the 1980s, the demand for organically produced goods and environmental protection through ecological production techniques grew in the western industrialized countries . However, due to the high prices for this product, the major breakthrough did not initially materialize. It only came when, with the progress of residue analysis, consumer confidence in the absence of residues in conventionally manufactured products fell sharply, and genetic engineering also emerged as an uncertainty factor. Organic wine is no longer perceived as exotic, because consumers have long since discovered that being closer to nature does no harm and can taste just as good as conventionally produced wine.
This gave the Moldovan wine producers the opportunity to enter this market niche . The vineyards, some of which had been fallow for years, met the strict requirements of the certification organizations for organic agricultural products ( Bioland , Demeter , EcoVin , Gäa eV , Naturland in Germany). Moldova's vineyards are characterized in some areas by extremely low levels of dangerous substances, i. H. there is hardly any soil pollution from pesticide and herbicide residues . Moldovan ecological wines and juices were examined by Dutch, German, French and even Chinese residue specialists, who confirmed that no undesirable toxic components beyond the EC limit values could be detected in the products.
New fungus-resistant grape varieties were tested that protect the entire “vineyard” ecosystem. Except in extreme years with a lot of rain, this means that pesticides are completely superfluous. There are now 10,000 hectares of mold-resistant Moldovan varieties and 6,000 hectares of imported varieties in the republic. White Suruceni, Viorica, Doina, White Oinițcani, White from Laloveni, Muscat from Laloveni, Muscat from Budschak, Riton, Legenda, Hungarian Byanka and Regent .
Perspectives
The Moldovan wine industry is already working partly ecologically. Despite this, no Moldovan organic regulation has yet been passed in parliament. Without a legal basis, however, it is very difficult to work with European and American wine importers. French oenologists and scientists from the Université Bordeaux II , with whom traditionally good contacts exist, support their Moldovan colleagues in advancing the legislative process. Together with the Moldovan Ministry of Health and VNIICOP (Moscow), the scientists also carry out long-term studies of the soil with regard to the accumulation of nitrate , nitrite , nitrosamines , heavy metals ( iron , cadmium ) and fungus toxins .
According to current estimates by agricultural experts, the proportion of organically produced products in Moldova can rise to 20–30%. The use of relatively cheap human labor for the optimal, labor-intensive foliage work is a plus point for the Moldovan organic wine industry. However, there are also serious barriers to the mass production of organic wines:
- The natural soil fertility of the Moldovan black earth will be overwhelmed in the long run. Fertility can only be sustainably maintained through an abundant supply of natural nutrients through green manure and compost , as well as manure from animal husbandry.
- The risk of cross-contamination due to the proximity of conventional farms must be minimized by partitioning them off with generous forest or green strips.
- The relationship between beneficial insects and pests must be stabilized or the number of beneficial insects promoted.
- The use of organic plant strengtheners and care products must be increased.
- Robust fungus- resistant grape varieties (Piwi for short), e.g. B. Red Regent , need to be planted.
Wine war with Russia
On March 27, 2006, the Russian government put an import ban on Moldovan and Georgian wine products into force. The ban is said to have taken place following rumored violations of health regulations (excessive pollution) at the request of the Supreme Hygiene Doctor Gennady Grigoryevich Onishchenko . The decision led to severe criticism from the affected wine producers in Moldova and Georgia .
About 82% of all Moldovan wine exports went to Russia, and more than a third of the gross national product depended on wine exports.
Since October 2007 the Republic of Moldova has been exporting wine to Russia again. 323 products from 19 manufacturers received a health certificate. However, experts did not expect that Moldovan wines would regain the position on the Russian market that they had with a 35% market share before the embargo, but a maximum of 10%.
In 2010 and 2013, import bans were renewed, the timing of the process of rapprochement between Moldova and the EU was certainly no coincidence. Wine exports to Russia have continued to decline since 2015.
Wine culture
Wine festivals
According to the government decision № 1005-XV of April 19, 2002, the second Sunday in October of each year was declared a national wine day . The aim of this wine day , Sărbătoarea vinului ("Wine Festival"), is to promote the prestige of the wine industry and of Moldova, as well as to take the first steps towards internationalization. Everywhere in the wine-growing regions of Moldova, the young wine is enjoyed at traditional wine festivals on this second Sunday in October.
Main objectives of the central wine festival:
- To revive the wine festival culture in the country where pride in wine is a national self-image and where history and winemaking tradition are closely related
- To establish an annual wine festival tradition in order to maintain the reputation of the Moldovan wine industry, stimulate interest in quality viticulture and promote wine consumption.
- To make Moldova interesting for visitors interested in wine culture.
Logo of the Viticulture Association - legend
The stork with grapes symbolizes Moldovan winemaking and is shown on the logo of the Viticulture Association. This logo is based on one of the many legends about wine:
- During a Turkish invasion, the enemy besieged a fortress near Grodieshti. The defenders fought bravely and determined, but food, water supplies and the strength of the fighters were slowly running out. Suddenly hundreds of storks appeared in the sky, driving the enemy to the ground with the help of the wind and their strong wing beats. The storks threw bundles of vines from their beaks down to the defenders. The warriors were thus saved from thirst and hunger. The local fortress was successfully defended with renewed strength, and the Turkish enemy had to withdraw. Since then, the stork has been a symbol of happiness and contentment.
literature
- André Dominé : Wine . Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft 2000, ISBN 3-8290-2765-6 .
- Hugh Johnson : Little Johnson . Hallwag 2000, ISBN 3-444-70202-7 .
- Rudolf Knoll and Violeta Avram: Moldau - Wine & more . La Vinum Verlag, Duisburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-00-027136-6 .
- Ministry of Food Industry of the USSR: The Inter-Republican Winery in Moscow . Moscow 1985 (Russian, English).
- ЭНЦИКЛОПЕДИЯ Виноградарства, Кишинёв, Главная редакция Молдавской Советской Энциклопедии, 1986
Web links and main source
- The Tagesspiegel of October 28, 2007: Matthias Meissner: "Brothers, drink"
- Wines from Moldova - Private website
Individual evidence
- ↑ www.oiv.int
- ^ German Wine Institute : Statistics 2007/2008 . Mainz 2007.
- ↑ Source: vitis-vea.zadi.de
- ↑ Climatic conditions in Moldova ( Memento of August 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Local weather differences
- ↑ Climate in Chișinău
- ↑ Weather and climate in Moldova
- ↑ The General Director of the OIV visiting Moldova on the website of the International Organization for Vine and Wine Report of the OIV of February 17, 2017, accessed on September 23, 2018
- ^ Rudolf Hermann: Wine as the national pride of the Republic of Moldova, in: NZZ , December 30, 2010.
- ↑ Klaus-Peter Matschke: The cross and the half moon. The history of the Turkish wars . Winkler, Düsseldorf 2004 ( ISBN 3-538-07178-0 ).
- ^ Phylloxera invasion in France
- ↑ Viktoria Akimowa: Moldavian wine in the past and present . Chișinău ( WOSTOK special: Moldowa - Land on the Dniester).
- ↑ Arthur Wirtzfeld: Weinland Moldavia reinvents itself on yoopress.com from February 23, 2017; accessed on September 23, 2018
- ↑ German wave: Russian wine war against Moldova . April 20, 2006.
- ^ RIA Novosti: Russian import ban threatens to grow into a wine war . April 4, 2006.
- ↑ ( page no longer available , search in web archives: business news )
- ↑ top.rbc.ru
- ↑ Russia is the wine country of Moldova , yoopress.com , September 17, 2013.
- ↑ Simion Ciochină / Robert Schwartz: Russia tightens embargo against the Republic of Moldova on Deutsche Welle October 26, 2014; accessed September 23, 2018
