archeology

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Excavation of a ground monument ( in-situ archeology)
Find documentation in underwater archeology
Found objects must be evaluated and classified
Experimental archeology : Archaeological interpretations are checked in a reconstructed situation

The Archeology ( ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος archaios , German , old ' and λόγος lógos , teaching'; literally so "doctrine of the antiquities") is a science concerned with the natural sciences and humanities methods, the cultural development of mankind explored. It has developed into a network of the most diverse theoretical and practical disciplines around the world.

Archeology deals with material legacies of humans, such as buildings, tools and works of art. It covers a period from the first stone tools around 2.5 million years ago to the present day . Due to new finds in Africa that are around 3.3 million years old, a significantly earlier start of tool manufacture is also being considered. Material remains of recent history (for example concentration camps and bunker lines from the Second World War) are also evaluated today using archaeological methods, even if this approach of a “ contemporary ” archeology is controversial within the specialist field.

Although archeology is a relatively young science , it is hardly possible to keep track of all time periods, so that different disciplines emerged. The epochs can be dated differently from region to region, in some cases they cannot be documented everywhere. In addition to the orientation towards epochs (e.g. medieval archeology ) or regions (e.g. Middle Eastern archeology ), there is also specialization in certain subject areas (e.g. Christian archeology , legal archeology , industrial archeology ).

Archeology examines different types of sources. In prehistory and early history one deals mainly with material culture; in early history , written sources are also used. For archaeologists, unlike scientists from other sub-disciplines of historical science, these are not the focus of attention.

Findings on climate and environmental history, nutrition or the dating of finds also contribute to the reconstruction of past cultures.

Research history

Beginnings of antiquity research in Europe

In Europe archeology developed around 1450, because one wanted to find evidence of the events described in the sources of antiquity. Cyriacus of Ancona (* around 1391, † around 1455), an Italian merchant and humanist, is considered one of the founding fathers of modern classical archeology.

The rebirth of classical and ancient scholarship, which began in the Renaissance , led in the 15th and 16th centuries to an increased interest in Greek and Roman antiquity and to a wave of passion for collecting antique art objects. But even scholars who were less willing to travel began to be interested in the evidence of past times.

From the middle of the 16th century, the passion for collecting was replaced by the meticulous recording of monuments. During this time, numerous encyclopedias and catalogs were published, many of which were illustrated with copperplate engravings and woodcuts in the late 16th century. In England, William Camden (1551–1632) published his Britannia , a catalog of visible antiquities, in 1586 . It is noteworthy that he already noticed vegetation features in cornfields and interpreted them as such.

Michele Mercati (1541–1593) is considered to be the first European scholar to classify stone tools as such; however, his work was not published until 1717. Despite its great popularity, archeology as a science was not yet valued, because the prevailing view was that only historical sources and the Bible were suitable for interpreting the past. So it was long considered a fact that - as James Ussher deduced from the Bible - humanity in October 4004 BC. BC originated. In 1655 Isaac de La Peyrère dared to assign the so-called thunderbolts (Stone Age artifacts) to people who lived before Adam ( pre-Adamite hypothesis ). After an intervention by the Inquisition , he revoked his theory.

Drawing of the excavation of Cocherel in 1685
Stone box from Södra Härene on the Jättakullen burial ground, Sweden

In Scandinavia , ground monuments were recognized early on. As early as 1588 a dolmen was excavated near Roskilde . In 1662 Uppsala received a chair in archeology. In 1685 a Neolithic burial chamber was excavated in Houlbec-Cocherel in northern France . It is considered to be the oldest archaeological excavation because the first surviving excavation report was made here in 1722 . The Kiel professor Johann Daniel Major carried out extensive excavations in Jutland around 1690 and had numerous barrows opened. His aim was to clarify the origin of the inhabitants of the peninsula using archaeological methods.

Bernard de Montfaucon's L'Antiquité expliquée appeared from 1719. In ten volumes he presented works of art from the Mediterranean area. Montfaucon's work remained the standard work for a long time.

Mid-18th to mid-19th century

Archaeological research methods are now gradually gaining acceptance. Often, individual scholars made groundbreaking conclusions early on, which, however, often - because they were not yet up to date - went unnoticed. One of the pioneers was the French amateur archaeologist Jacques Boucher de Perthes , who was the first to correctly assign prehistoric artifacts , but for which he was only recognized more than 20 years later, through the confirmation of Charles Lyell (1797–1875). An important finding was the discovery of the stratigraphic principle . Long before that, the togetherness and thus the equality of finds that were in one layer (for example a stone artifact in connection with an extinct animal species) had been discussed again and again, but not generally accepted.

A model, the basic features of which are still valid today, was published by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in 1836 . He was a curator in Copenhagen and invented the “ three period system ”, which divides the prehistory of mankind into three phases: the Stone Age , the Bronze Age and the Iron Age . About 30 years later, around 1865, J. Lubbock still differentiated the Stone Age into that of the beaten and that of the polished stone. The terms "Palaeolithic" (Paleolithic) and "Neolithic" ("New Stone Age" / Neolithic) were born. The epochs are subdivided in many ways, but the subdivision found at that time still applies - with restrictions - to this day.

Pompeii and Vesuvius around 1900

The first major excavations took place in the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum . According to a report by the Roman writer Pliny the Younger, both were wiped out by the eruption of Vesuvius on August 24, 79 AD . Pompeii was rediscovered at the end of the 16th century when a water pipe was built. Excavations began in 1748. In Herculaneum was dug for the first time in 1709, in 1738 Charles III. from Naples deliberately excavate the city. In 1768 the theater, the basilica and the Villa dei Papiri were uncovered.

With his letter of the Herculan discoveries , the first archaeological publication, Johann Joachim Winckelmann founded the new science of archeology in 1762 and has been considered the father of (classical) archeology ever since . Winckelmann was also the first to attempt a periodization and historical classification of Greek art. Its stages of development (old style - high style - beautiful style - style of imitators - decay of art) are overtaken by the included rating. For the dissemination of his research and its reception in contemporary literature and art, the Göttingen professor Christian Gottlob Heyne was decisive, who corresponded with Winckelmann, reviewed and publicized his writings and used them in his lectures. In 1802 the first chair for classical archeology was established at the Christian Albrechts University in Kiel .

The Egyptian monuments, especially the pyramids, were popular travel destinations in ancient times (see Wonders of the World ). In the 17th century it was recognized that these were royal tombs. The Egyptology took Napoleon Bonaparte 's Egyptian campaign in 1798 began. Scientists were also accompanied by the army. Of particular importance was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone , which made it possible for Jean-François Champollion to decipher the hieroglyphs in 1822 .

Of particular importance for Egyptian archeology is Auguste Mariette (1821–1881), who from 1858 as director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service excavated more than thirty sites. His methods were brutal (e.g. explosive charges). The determination of the find circumstances and scientific evaluations were not yet determined, but he ended the era of pure treasure hunters (according to Giovanni Battista Belzoni , 1778–1823), who had previously brought countless finds to Europe. Mariette herself has brought around 7,000 objects to Paris (Louvre) since 1850. But now he campaigned vehemently to ensure that Egypt's antiquities were no longer dragged out of the country. To store the finds, Mariette founded the forerunner of the Egyptian National Museum in Cairo. Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884) compiled a comprehensive survey of Egyptian and Nubian monuments between 1842 and 1845. In 1859 the result was published in the twelve volumes of the monuments from Egypt and Ethiopia , which alone contain 894 color plates. Ludwig Ross , who was the first to carry out systematic excavations on the Acropolis of Athens, made a particular contribution to the archaeological exploration of Greece around 1840 .

From the middle of the 19th century

In the middle of the 19th century archeology developed increasingly into a science. While the excavators previously differed only insignificantly from treasure hunters and grave robbers , the excavation techniques have now been refined, and good documentation and precise classification of the finds have become increasingly important.

It was not until 1859 that the old age of mankind was generally recognized. In the same year Darwin's On the Origin of Species appeared . The discovery of the Neanderthal man , discovered as early as 1856 , which Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen failed to classify as Ice Age, was not able to establish itself as such in Germany until 1902, when Rudolf Virchow died, who as a pathological authority had prevented any further discussion.

In Sweden, Oscar Montelius (1843–1921) developed a system of differentiated typology for classifying ( periodising ) found objects and creating the basis for a relative chronology .

In 1853/54 wooden pillars, stone axes and ceramics were discovered due to the unusually low water level at Obermeilen on Lake Zurich. The settlement was examined by Ferdinand Keller . For a long time it was believed that these damp settlements were stilt houses in the water. From the 1920s a heated discussion about the location of the pile dwellings ensued. Bank and water pile structures competed. Today we know that there were land and water pile structures. The new investigations in Hornstaad on Lake Constance show pile dwellings in the water, raised up to 5 meters from the bottom of the lake. Reconstructions (for example in Unteruhldingen on Lake Constance) show not only the various solutions proposed by archeology, but also the current state of research based on the findings of underwater archeology ( Pfahlbaumuseum Unteruhldingen ).

The excavations in Hallstatt begin in 1846 . The archaeological research of the Celts began in 1858 when Colonel Schwab carried out the first excavations in La Tène on Lake Neuchâtel (Switzerland). In 1872, the Iron Age of Europe was divided into an older phase ( Hallstatt period ) and a younger phase ( Latène period ) for the first time .

Édouard Lartet (1801–1871) examined a site in the Pyrenees ( Massat ) in 1860 and found an antler tip with an engraved bear's head, the first discovery of Upper Palaeolithic art. He later excavated several French cave sites (Gorge d'Enfer, Laugerie-Haute, La Madeleine and Le Moustier). Special attention was paid to the magnificent cave paintings that were discovered in the Altamira Cave in 1879 .

The development of classical archeology in the second half of the 19th century was dominated by Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890). The businessman and "amateur archaeologist" Schliemann is considered to be the founder of prehistoric archeology in Greece and the Aegean region. In 1869 he dug on Ithaca and in 1871 he started digging in Hissarlik . There he suspects Homer's Troy and is proven right, although he was wrong during the construction period. His excavation methods were very controversial, and some experts thought nothing of Schliemann's abilities. His fame is based mainly on the valuable finds (for example " Priam's Treasure "). His discovery of prehistoric (pre-Homeric) cultures and settlements triggered numerous other excavations in the Aegean region. The methodological advances he brought about, such as the emphasis on stratigraphy or the use of photography as a means of archaeological documentation, were long underestimated.

In 1892 the founder of the Institute for Prehistory and Early History at the University of Vienna, Moritz Hoernes , received the first teaching license in Europe to cover the entire field of prehistoric archeology.

20th century

Howard Carter, 1924
Aerial archeology: floor plan of a Gallo-Roman warehouse

In Egypt, Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) did pioneering work as a researcher and excavator from 1880 . A milestone in archaeological research are his methods and goals of archeology , which he published in 1904. In it Flinders Petrie set out four principles:

  1. Care in handling the monuments that are excavated and consideration for potential future excavators
  2. meticulous care in the excavation and registration of every detail found
  3. detailed and neat surveying and mapping
  4. full publication of the results

The first volume of the Handbook of Archeology was published in 1913 , edited by Heinrich Bulle (1867–1945). The excavation of the burial ground of Assini ( Argolis ), which began in 1922 and was carried out by Swedish archaeologists, was regarded as an exemplary excavation of this time . The entire excavation was screened and first-class excavation documentation was created. The most famous archaeological find of the 20th century was made by Howard Carter (1873–1939) in the same year. After six years of searching, he found the tomb of Tut-anch-Amun .

After the First World War, the pioneer of aerial archeology was the British pilot Osbert GS Crawford , who photographed archaeological sites in England from an airplane.

Gustaf Kossinna (1858–1931) presented his settlement archaeological methods in 1920. His interpretations, which ascribed the Germanic peoples of outstanding cultural importance, served National Socialism as evidence of the superiority of the Germanic peoples and the Aryan race. The discrediting in the post-war period meant that a connection between archaeological finds and ethnic groups was obsolete for decades.

The first full professorship was created in Marburg in 1927 and was filled in the following year by Gero Merhart von Bernegg from Bregenz . He completed his habilitation in 1924 with The Bronze Age on the Yenisei . Before his forced retirement by the National Socialists in 1942, 29 students were doing their doctorates with him, and five more were added after the war. From 1950, the Marburg School , which these academics formed, dominated Germany . Gero von Merhart, as he is usually called, set the subject on strict recording, systematization and cataloging and largely avoided the cultural-historical interpretation.

Thor Heyerdahl went on a raft from South America to Polynesia in 1947 and is considered one of the founders of experimental archeology .

Archeology has been making increasing use of scientific methods since the 20th century. These include the 14 C dating developed in 1949 for the dating of organic substances and the strontium isotope analysis for researching the migratory movements of primeval and prehistoric people. Remote sensing methods were also increasingly used in archaeological research. Archeology has developed into a composite science. The research of the prehistoric corpse found in 1991 in the Ötztal Alps ( Similaun-Mann / Ötzi ) is an example of this. With the help of the DNA analysis , the family relationships of 40 individuals from a Bronze Age burial site in the Lichtenstein cave could be reconstructed for the first time worldwide .

The New Archeology of the 1960s brought about the introduction of knowledge from the life sciences into archeology. The concept of carrying capacity comes from ecology and was used to investigate questions of population density and settlement development. Optimal foraging could explain reactions to climate change in the same way as seasonal migrations and land use forms. In addition, mathematical simulations and modeling and computer-aided geographic information systems were introduced into archeology as methods. The New Archeology was particularly strongly developed in the Anglo-Saxon cultural area and was never able to establish itself in the German-speaking area. The reason is that in the Anglo-Saxon tradition archeology traditionally belongs to anthropology , not to the history or cultural studies.

As a response to New Archeology, post-process archeology emerged in the 1980s , which placed methods from the cultural and social sciences more in the foreground. A key term is the agency , which comes from sociology, and which considers motives and options for action. If one also takes into account the inherent subjectivity of any interpretation of a culture from which only the material artifacts have been preserved, post-process archaeologists rely on hermeneutic on the one hand and self-reflective practices on the other. Today's descendants of the cultures to be examined are included in the work of archaeologists, as are previously neglected social perspectives.

21st century

Together with other memory institutions , archaeological finds and excavation sites are the particularly sensitive cultural memory and often the economic basis (e.g. tourism) of a state, a municipality or a region. Archaeological finds and excavation sites in particular are also politically explosive and, as part of the cultural heritage of many modern armed conflicts of the 21st century, are one of the primary goals and thus threatened with destruction and looting. Often the cultural heritage of the opponent is supposed to be permanently damaged or even destroyed, or archaeological finds are stolen and taken away. The International Committee of the Blue Shield (Association of the National Committees of the Blue Shield, ANCBS), based in The Hague , operates international and national coordination with regard to military and civil structures for the protection of archaeological finds and excavation sites . Extensive missions were carried out in 2011 in Egypt and Libya, 2013 in Syria, 2014 in Mali and Iraq and since 2015 in Yemen.

areas of expertise

Archeology is a collective term for many archaeological disciplines, which mostly designate certain periods or regions. The individual disciplines differ not only in the subject of research, but also in the methods used, e.g. B. in underwater archeology. In addition, archaeological methods form part of an independent science, for example in forensics . In subjects such as Ancient American Studies or Classical Archeology, the main focus areas can be of a non-archaeological nature.

According to epochs and regions

The disciplines of archeology differ thematically, temporally and spatially. The sources they use are correspondingly different. While there are no or very few written sources in prehistoric archeology and the material legacies of this period are mainly referred to, other archaeological disciplines can also evaluate written sources.

Prehistoric archeology deals with a period that begins with the first stone tools around 2.5 million years ago and ends with early history (Migration Period, Roman Empire, early Middle Ages) and the first written sources.
This specialty is located at the interface between prehistory and early history and classical archeology. Research is aimed at the Roman provinces using the methods of prehistory and early history.
Classical archeology focuses on the legacies of the ancient world. More precisely, the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans in historical times (roughly between the 2nd millennium BC and the 5th century AD). Classical archeology also includes Etruscology and the Aegean prehistory , which deals with Cycladic , Minoan and Mycenaean finds.
  • Medieval archeology or archeology of the Middle Ages
Medieval archeology begins smoothly at the end of early history (around the 9th century) and theoretically ends with the transition to modern archeology (around the 16th century). In contrast to prehistoric archeology, it works in a period over which written sources are increasingly available. In addition, there is often a rising building stock, which the archeology of the Middle Ages examines using the methods of historical building research (building or monument archeology).
Historical archeology is a term that describes the parallel transmission of material archaeological sources and written transmission. On the one hand, it is used pragmatically for the archeology of the Middle Ages and the modern era or only that of the modern era. In the methodological-phenomenological sense, on the other hand, it aims at cultures or epochs with so-called dense (written) tradition worldwide.

The following disciplines represent geographical focuses:

Egyptology deals with ancient Egypt (around 5th millennium BC to 4th century AD). The Coptic Studies , which examines the culture of the early Christians in Egypt, is a part of Egyptology.
This subject area emerges from the predominantly philologically oriented ancient oriental studies and is dedicated to the ancient cultures of the Middle East , essentially the area of ​​Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan ( Babylon , Assyria , Sumer , Akkad , Elam , Hittites and Urartu ), but also with the successor states. The examined period extends from the 11th millennium BC. BC to the 7th century AD
The Near East Archeology is closely related to Biblical Archeology , which researches the settlement and cultural history of Palestine and Egyptology , since in some epochs Egypt ruled the area of ​​today's Israel and Lebanon, at other times oriental empires incorporated Egypt.

Specialties

Experimental archeology: replicating everyday objects using the working techniques of the time
According to phases and aspects of cultural development
According to special sites
Special objects of investigation
Special issues
Special methods
Auxiliary sciences
Analysis of animal bones, pollen and plant finds to reconstruct the environmental conditions. The objects of investigation include soil samples as well as stomach contents, garbage pits and latrines.
Paleopathologists perform medical examinations on human bones and tissues to determine the age and gender of individuals and to infer their health. Paleopathology enables knowledge about living conditions, eating habits and diseases. Furthermore, conclusions can be drawn about the medical care and social cohesion of our ancestors.
  • Archaeoastronomy or astroarchaeology , also paleoastronomy (interface to astronomy)
Archaeoastronomy is required to analyze prehistoric places of worship. For example, the solstice points of a certain time are calculated in order to identify the possible astronomical significance of sites.

Neighboring disciplines

Research methods

Archaeological research methods are divided into those of source identification and those of interpretation. The public usually only takes note of the indexing of the sources. The typological and chronological evaluation is also part of the source indexing. The historical interpretation only follows after the sources have been identified and processed.

Source indexing

The excavation is the best known research method, but only a small part of the archaeological work. The documentation, evaluation, conservation and archiving of the finds represent by far the largest part of the archaeological activity. In addition, the excavation must be carefully prepared.

Prospecting and preliminary investigations

Prospecting encompasses non-destructive methods that enable the investigation of potential or known sites. This includes the site inspection (survey), aerial archeology and geophysical methods ( geoelectrics , electromagnetic induction, geomagnetic mapping as well as ground radar and LIDAR ). Phosphate analysis can also be used prospectively .

An excavation is initiated by preliminary archaeological investigations. Search trenches, magnetic probes, soil resistance measurements, aerial photographs and other methods of soil research are used here. The preliminary investigations serve to get an idea of ​​the potential excavation site in order to better plan the actual excavation.

excavation

Example of an archaeological profile (Augsburg, Inneres Pfaffengässchen)

Most of the sites are discovered today through construction work. The archaeological monument preservation tries to evaluate these findings before they are finally destroyed by means of emergency excavations , also known as rescue excavations . Research excavations are rarer in which archaeological sites can be selected for the excavation with primarily scientific interests and examined without external time pressure.

Various excavation techniques are used during the excavation . A modern excavation is finding-oriented, i. H. the findings can be related in their spatial and temporal integration to findings.

Since every excavation leads to the destruction of a finding, exact documentation should make the site of the find, at least on paper, reconstructable in detail later on. The most important tools of the excavation are, besides the trowel , "paper and colored pencil".

Building research

Building research is an essential part of both classical and medieval archeology ; whereas it only played a subordinate role in prehistory and early history due to the lack of structures that have been preserved. One of the documentation methods is photogrammetry .

evaluation

The very popular example of the glacier mummy Ötzi shows that the excavation represents only a fraction of the archaeological work. The find, discovered in 1991, has been scientifically investigated to this day.

Typology

Typology is the classification of objects according to criteria of shape and material. It is fundamental for the classification of the find material, as it enables comparisons with find situations at other sites and becomes the basis of combination analyzes (for relative chronological dating as well as for socio-economic classification) and distribution analyzes.

Material regulations

As with prospecting and age determination, modern scientific techniques are also used for material determination (see archaeometry ). For the identification and detailed examination of artifacts, among other things, the microscopy , infrared - and scans , x-ray , chemical analysis, spectral analysis and laser scans.

Age determination

Dendrochronology : A "calendar" of the annual rings is used to date wood.

One focus of the find analysis is the dating of the findings (e.g. grave) on the basis of the finds (e.g. grave goods ). When determining the age, a distinction is made between absolute chronology and relative chronology .

The relative chronology puts one find in relation to another. Is he younger, older or even at the same time? JJ Winckelmann's “comparative vision” is one of the first methods of relative chronology.

In the case of absolute chronology, an absolute date (year, century) is assigned to a find

interpretation

The methods of interpretation tend to be more humanistic. For prehistoric archeology, the conclusion by analogy is the essential possibility of interpretation. In historical archeology (e.g. classical archeology or archeology of the Middle Ages) it is the comparison with information from other sources, such as written or pictorial tradition.

Finds

Archeology in Germany

In Germany, the archaeological preservation of monuments ( ground monument preservation ) is one of the tasks of the federal states ( state archaeologist ), usually organized as a separate department within the monument office . Larger cities often have their own urban archeology . The majority of excavations today are carried out in the context of emergency excavations for monument preservation purposes, either by the relevant offices themselves or by specialist companies commissioned to do so within the framework of company archeology. Targeted research excavations are the exception, since unnecessary soil encroachment is avoided here too and funding is only possible through third-party funds. Several institutions support researchers and projects through archeology prizes . The German Research Foundation is an important donor for research excavations .

German excavations abroad, on the other hand, are carried out as part of research projects at universities, the German Archaeological Institute or the Roman-Germanic Central Museum .

Archeology outside Europe

Archeology in America

Archeology in America belongs to anthropology (ethnology) and for this reason has a completely different orientation than European research. This is mainly due to the fact that at the time of the colonization of the new world, ethnographic studies were carried out on the aboriginal people who still existed. The rather sparse pre-Columbian finds are another reason for the focus of American archeology on research into cultural processes.

A pioneer of American archeology is Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), who examined some burial mounds from 1784 to determine their age. Jefferson used a method for the first time that can be regarded as the forerunner of dendrochronology : he counted the annual rings of the trees on the burial mounds.

The first major excavations in Central America were carried out in the Mayan center of Copán at the end of the 19th century . In 1911 Hiram Bingham discovered the Inca city of Machu Picchu .

In 1990, near Mexico City , archaeologists found over 10,000 artifacts from the time of the Spanish conquest of the country. Not only human bones were found, but weapons, clothing, household appliances and items from the personal belongings of Hernán Cortés were also found . The site of Tecoaque (pre-Hispanic name: Zultepec ) was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .

Archeology in India and China

In 1863, the Archaeological Survey of India was founded in India . In 1921/1922 one of the oldest high cultures of mankind was discovered, the Indus culture . Excavated were inter alia. the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro .

Archeology in China began with the Swedish geologist J. Gunnar Andersson (1874–1960), who discovered a Neolithic cave near Yang Shao Tsun in Honan in 1921 , thus proving that China was inhabited in prehistoric times. Anyang , the capital of the Shang dynasty of the 2nd millennium BC , was excavated in 1928 . Chr.

In 1974 the terracotta army was discovered around the tomb of the Chinese Emperor Qin Shihuangdi near Xi'an .

Archeology in Africa

Africa is not only the cradle of humanity in paleoanthropological terms, but also that of our culture. Only in Africa are stone tools that are 2.5 million years old and the manufacture of which is associated with the first homo species of our species. The tools in question - simple oldowan- type rubble tools , later hand axes, to name the main shapes - are also found in other parts of the world, only they are much younger there. In Europe, the oldest places date back to a million years. New, around 3.3 million year old finds in Lomekwi 3 , Kenya, are interpreted as evidence of an independent archaeological culture , suggested as Lomekwian .

Since the 17th century , the north-east of Africa has been the subject of intensive research by Egyptology and Coptic Studies . This region of the continent is well documented in an international comparison. However, since the oldest written sources in sub-Saharan Africa do not go back further than 600 years, archeology is of particular importance here. Due to the short research tradition in comparison to Central Europe, however, this is often still at the beginning.

Preparation for the public and protection

The communication of archaeological research results takes place in different ways:

The protection of archaeological finds for the public against disasters, wars and armed conflicts is also increasingly being enforced internationally. This happens on the one hand through international agreements and on the other hand through organizations that monitor or enforce protection. Blue Shield International, with its archaeologists and local partner organizations, is a global example . The importance of archaeological finds in relation to identity, tourism and sustainable economic growth are emphasized again and again. The President of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg , explained during a cultural property protection mission in Lebanon in April 2019 with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon : “Cultural property is part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place . If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland. "

Archaeological Institute

Movie

literature

Book publications

(sorted chronologically)

Introductions
overview
  • Paul G. Bahn (Ed.): Archeology. Cambridge Illustrated History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996. ISBN 0-521-45498-0 .
  • Reinhard Bernbeck : Theories in Archeology (UTB Science Volume 1964) . Francke Verlag, Tübingen, Basel 1997, ISBN 3-8252-1964-X , ISBN 3-7720-2254-5 .
  • Marion Benz, Christian Maise: Archeology. Theiss, Stuttgart 2006. ISBN 3-8062-1966-4 .
  • Manfred KH Eggert: Archeology. Basics of a historical cultural studies. Francke, Tübingen 2006. ISBN 3-8252-2728-6 .
  • Brockhaus archeology. High cultures, excavation sites, finds. FA Brockhaus, Mannheim / Leipzig 2008, ISBN 978-3-7653-3321-7 .
  • Alain Schnapp : The discovery of the past. Origins and Adventures of Archeology (from the French by Andreas Wittenburg). Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-608-93359-8 (review by Lutz Bunk Archaeological Detective Work ).
  • Jeorjios Martin Beyer: Archeology. From treasure hunt to science. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2010, ISBN 978-3-8053-4166-0 .
  • Matthias Knaut, Roland Schwab (Ed.): Archeology in the 21st Century. Innovative methods - groundbreaking results. Konrad Theiss, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8062-2188-6 .
  • Geoffrey John Tassie, Lawrence Stewart Owens: Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions , London 2010, ISBN 978-1-906137-17-5 .
  • Marco Kircher: Wa (h) re archeology. The medialization of archaeological knowledge in the field of tension between science and the public (series Historical Lifeworlds) , transcript. Publishing house for communication, culture and social practice, Bielefeld 2012, ISBN 978-3-8376-2037-5 .
  • Aedeen Cremin: Great Encyclopedia of Archeology. The most important archaeological sites in the world. Konrad Theiss, Stuttgart 2013, ISBN 978-3-8062-2753-6 .
  • Bruce Trigger : A History of Archaeological Thought . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990. ISBN 0-521-33818-2 .
  • S. Wolfram and U. Sommer: Power of the past - who makes the past. Archeology and politics. In: Contributions to the prehistory and early history of Central Europe. Volume 3 Beier & Beran, Wilkau-Hasslau 1993
Archeology in Germany
Archeology in Europe
  • Barry Cunliffe : Illustrated Pre- and Early History of Europe. Campus, Frankfurt / Main 2000. ISBN 3-88059-979-3 .
  • Peter F. Biehl, Alexander Gramsch, Arkadiusz Marciniak (eds.): Archaeologies of Europe. History, methods and theories. Tübingen Archaeological Pocket Books Vol. 3 (2002). Waxmann Münster ISBN 3-8309-1067-3

Series of publications

Archaeological journals

Dictionaries

Online publications

Literature research

Web links

Commons : Archeology  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wikisource: Archeology  - Sources and Full Texts
Wiktionary: Archeology  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Associations and organizations

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Sonia Harmand, Jason E. Lewis, Craig S. Feibel, Christopher J. Lepre, Sandrine Prat: 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya . In: Nature . tape 521 , no. 7552 , May 21, 2015, ISSN  0028-0836 , p. 310-315 , doi : 10.1038 / nature14464 ( nature.com [accessed May 27, 2017]).
  2. ↑ See MKH Eggert: Archeology: Fundamentals of a Historical Cultural Studies , Tübingen / Basel 2006, UTB 2728
  3. ↑ Hansjürgen Müller-Beck: The Stone Age - The way of people in history. CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 22.
  4. ^ Andreas Grüner: Archeology as capital - The media strategies of Cyriacus of Ancona (1390-1452) . In: Munich Yearbook of Fine Arts . tape 63.2012 , January 1, 2012, p. 7–36 ( digizeitschriften.de [accessed December 13, 2016]).
  5. ^ David Rice McKee: Isaac De la Peyrère, A Precursor of Eighteenth-Century Critical Deists . In: PMLA . tape 59 , no. 2 , January 1, 1944, p. 456-485, p. 459 , doi : 10.2307 / 459339 , JSTOR : 459339 .
  6. ^ History and equipment of the institute - the beginning of prehistory in Europe. Institute for Prehistory & Historical Archeology at the University of Vienna, archived from the original on October 20, 2013 ; Retrieved February 3, 2015 .
  7. ↑ See homepage of the US Committee of the Blue Shield; accessed on October 26, 2016. Isabelle-Constance v. Opalinski: Shots at civilization . In: FAZ , August 20, 2014. Hans Haider: Misuse of cultural goods is a criminal offense . In: Wiener Zeitung , June 29, 2012; Aisling Irwin: A no-strike list may shield Yemen`s ancient treasures from war. In: New Scientist. Daily news of January 23, 2017 (accessed September 17, 2017).
  8. ^ Karl von Habsburg on a mission in Lebanon. Retrieved July 19, 2019 .
  9. ↑ Jyot Hosagrahar: Culture: at the heart of SDGs. UNESCO courier, April – June 2017.
  10. ^ Rick Szostak: The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media, 2009, ISBN 9783540922827 .
  11. ^ Corine Wegener, Marjan Otter: Cultural Property at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed Conflict. In: The Getty Conservation Institute, Newsletter 23.1, Spring 2008.