History of Québec

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The history of Québec , a province of Canada , dates back to the end of the last ice age in terms of human settlement . The natural spatial conditions required extremely different ways of life. Regional cultures focused on the lower St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes . The oldest grave site is 7500 years old, copper production can be proven at a similarly early stage. The transition from a nomadic to a more sedentary horticultural economy began as early as 6000 years ago, but did not begin until after 1000 BC. Dominant in the woodland area. The production of pottery is also characteristic.

About 4250 years ago Inuit came to the north, whose way of life, similar to that of the Innu and other Indian peoples, was adapted to the harsh conditions. These groups lived nomadically and specialized in hunting seals and other marine mammals on the coast and caribou in the hinterland .

The first Europeans came to the region before 1500, which remained controversial between the French and British until 1763. In doing so, both sides took advantage of long-standing opposites and tied them into their alliance systems in wars that were being waged parallel to European conflicts. The British divided the colony Quebec, where from Lower Canada ( Lower Canada ) has its own province called Quebec was the emergence of Canada 1867th This province stood out not only for the French language, but also for a different social structure, the Catholic denomination and separatist tendencies. On the other hand, this fact forced Canada to be more tolerant of culturally deviant domestic societies. In the last few decades, this opened up a view of the connecting historical roots of society.

Early history

Archaeological exploration of pre-Columbian cultures did not begin in Québec until the 1960s. In 1961 the Center d'Études Nordiques was established at Laval University in Québec , in 1963 McGill University opened an anthropological department in Montréal , in 1965 the Société d'archéologie préhistorique du Québec was founded, and in 1966 two chairs for archeology were established at the Université du Quebec . At the same time, research is much more dependent on private companies and local initiatives, as well as on the support of the First Nations . With the help of the Ministry of Culture, a record of all excavation sites began. Archaeological research is predominant before the actual historical work on written sources for the period from about 1535 onwards can begin. One of the earliest written sources are the reports of the Jesuits who, in order to be able to evangelize more effectively, learned the languages ​​and tried to understand the cultures. Partly beginning earlier, but from a different perspective, the records and reports of the explorers and the early fur traders began.

In today's Québec there are three groups of indigenous people, the Inuit , members of the Algonquian language family and the Iroquois , whereby a distinction is made between Iroquians , the speakers of Iroquois languages, and the Iroquois , i.e. the Iroquois in the narrower sense. When the European written sources began in the 16th century, the Iroquois lived on the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes , the Algonquin north of it, between around the 49th and 55th parallel, and the Inuit north of it. In addition to archeology and the late-onset written tradition, the oral tradition of the indigenous people, which goes astonishingly far back, plays an important role, especially since it is often the only source type that enables the appropriate interpretation of finds.

The Iroquois fell into two groups, the actual Iroquois - these included the tribes of the Mohawk , Oneida , Onondaga , Cayuga and Seneca - and the Hurons who were enemies with them, which in turn included the Hurons in the narrower sense, then the Petun (also Tobacco Nation ), the Neutrals , the Erie (also Cat Nation ), the Wenros and the Susquehanna .

To a certain extent, the Algonquians only form the eastern edge of a large language family in North America. In Québec, they include the Innu (often still called Montagnais ), Naskapi , Micmac or Mi'kmaq (which the French initially called Souriquois ), the Maliseet , Abenaki , Cree , Algonkin , Saulteaux and Assiniboine .

The Inuit (formerly called Eskimo) came relatively late, around 2250 BC. BC, after Labrador. Their self-names are Yuit, Inuit, Inuvialuit, Inupiat, etc.

Oldest finds

The oldest finds in Québec go back to around 8000 BC. BC back. They were found on Lac Mégantic near the Maine border and point to a culture of hunter-gatherers who used Folsom- type projectile points .

Archaic cultures

Presumably the Plano people coming from the west followed the large herds of caribou eastwards, always along the icing line. Esker offered paths through the impassable landscape here. A projectile point from New England , dated 6000-5000 BC. BC, probably belongs to the same culture as that in Vermont (John's Bridge Site, approx. 6000 BC), where drills and especially house tracks were excavated. Regional cultures focused on the lower St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes . The first larger monuments are burial mounds, the Burial Mounds . The oldest site that gave evidence of religious beliefs is the L'Anse Amour Site on the east coast of Labrador ( Newfoundland and Labrador Province ). It is a grave from around 5500 BC. Apparently a more or less stable hierarchy had developed within these societies along the St. Lawrence River. Whether this was a contiguous cultural region (also called Proto-Laurentian ) is controversial. Therefore, we speak rather of complexes ( complexes ). Their artifacts range from around 5500 BC. Until 1000 BC Chr.

The groups assigned to this culture are called Maritime Archaic People (an early - 6000 to 4000 BC - and a middle period - 4000 to 1000 BC - are distinguished) or as Red Paint People , which refers to the use of red Ocher goes back.

Between 2000 and 1500 BC Labrador cooled down considerably, from which the northern coastal cultures were badly affected. The before 4000 BC Groups resident in central Labrador evacuated the area. Around 2250 BC Chr. Subjected Inuit who by 3000. BC coming from Asia had reached North America, as far south as these regions. Inland hunters also reached the coast. Around 2000 to 1700 BC In addition, peoples seem to have moved north from the south to New Brunswick ( Susquehanna Archaic People ), but perhaps only techniques were passed on northwards here.

The Middle Great Lakes-St. The Lawrence culture (or Laurentian Archaic ) centered around what is now Quebec and Ontario . It reached until 4000, maybe until about 5500 BC. BC back. The Ottawa Valley is considered a center of copper production, a metal that was used for arrowheads, awls, but also axes, etc. Apparently, holy places, initially burial places, were also tended; Burn is detectable. Periodontal disease , arthritis in the elderly, and broken bones were the most common diseases. Peoples probably advanced from the south, but the Laurentian , like the Middle Archaic complex, is initially difficult to grasp archaeologically. A crescent-shaped knife, the ulu , is characteristic here. Denser populations and more complex cultures, however, gradually lead to an increase in finds and greater clarity of assignment.

The South: Woodland

The three most noticeable changes in the period from around 1000 BC The climatic stabilization is at about today's level, as well as the introduction of two new technologies. One, the manufacture of clay pots, reached what is now Canada probably on the long journey from South America via Florida . The other, bow and arrow, came from Europe or Asia and was probably first used by the Paleo-Eskimos.

The Early or Initial Woodland period also extends to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River v of about 1000th BC to AD 500. The period is characterized by the proliferation of pottery, a previously unknown technique. The Iroquois go back to this culture , but also some of the Algonquin tribes. For a long time, the transition from a hunter-gatherer society to a horticultural society was emphasized too much. Nevertheless, the importance of the pumpkin increased more and more, albeit apparently very slowly. Pumpkins were discovered as early as 4000 BC. In Maine .

The archaic phase also ended on the east coast with the early woodland period. The ethnic groups behind the artifacts of the later cultural phases are believed to be the ancestors of today's Mi'kmaq , Maliseet (in Canada Welastekwíyek , people of the Saint Lawrence River) and Passamaquoddy (who are not recognized as First Nation in Canada) . From an archaeological point of view, numerous ceramic vessels already deliver before 500 BC. BC considerably more features and finds. A distinction is made between the decorations on the vessels: those applied by a kind of stamp in the north and those in the south that were created by pressing a ribbon (e.g. between Trois-Rivières and Québec). In New Brunswick , which has been better researched, it shows that sedentariness had prevailed in the cold season (with the shell midden sites , rubbish hills mainly made of mussels), some villages were probably inhabited all year round. The importance of shellfish increased significantly, although some finds show that they were of great importance much earlier. The region took over some of the burial practices from the Adena culture , which is around 1700 km away , but also participated in its development itself, as the Miramichi River site shows, which was considered sacred to the Mi'kmaq until historical times. This would mean that their oral tradition would go back 2500 years.

The north: Innu, Inuit, Naskapi

The oldest find in the north was made at the north end of the Kamestastin Narrows . It is a blade that dates back to 5200 BC. Was dated. The site of Pess, which belongs to the Tshumushumapeu Complex (approx. 5000 BC), is similarly old , the quartzite blades of which may be even older. Most of the finds in Labrador come from the area around the caribou hunt, on which the regional culture depended. Stone axes, storage pits, stone blades from spears (dating back to around 3000 BC), scratches for the caribou skin also come from Kamestastin (approx. 3000 BC).

The earliest phase is known as the Early Maritime Archaic (approx. 6000 to 2500 BC). The first inhabitants hunted walruses and seals , as well as fish and game, especially caribou. Quartz and quartzite blades as well as triangular blades are characteristic of this early phase, along with small round scratches, stone axes and chisels. Burial places were found on the coast of Labrador and Québec, the Belle-Isle road at Blanc-Sablon and at L'Anse-Amour . There the skeleton of a 12-year-old boy was found lying on his stomach, with a large rock on his back, plus tools and a flute (approx. 5500 BC). This early phase can also be detected in the north of Labrador, in Nain .

It was followed by the late Maritime Archaic (approx. 2500 to 1500 BC), to which numerous sites between Petit Mécatina and Blanc-Sablon belong. In addition to the tools mentioned, the Ramah Chert , a translucent type of rock that only exists in northern Labrador, is characteristic. Now mounds no longer prevailed , but cemeteries containing red ocher and broken tools - possibly to release their “ghosts”. Several families already lived in long houses. Since life was apparently different from that of neighboring areas, such as Labrador, it is called the Mecatina complex here .

Between 500 BC Chr. And the birth of Christ there was the strongest cooling in the post-ice age, so that Inuit , who led an appropriately adapted life, moved to the south of Labrador. Some of their descendants even traded with the Basques of Mécatina, who went whaling there , until the 18th century . Its southernmost point was the area around Hopedale . In this culture, the tiny stone blades known as microblades are particularly noticeable. Rather, they lived in tent houses lit with the fat of mammals, not wood. Their culture was superseded by the Dorset culture for about 500 years . But their influence did not extend westward beyond St. Paul. Around 500 this culture died out in southern Labrador, but persisted in the north until around 1300 when it was ousted or absorbed by today's Inuit.

Overlapping is the so-called Intermediate Indian Period (approx. 1500 BC to the birth of Christ), which was in the interior of Labrador and partly on the St. Lawrence estuary. A group that probably immigrated from the west slowly displaced the Inuit cultures northwards. Their culture was less concentrated on the seashore than on rivers and lakes. Worn-in blades, leaf-shaped knives, scratches with enlarged ends and knock-off blades now predominated - still from the exotic Ramah Chert . For the first time, commercial objects appear, e.g. B. made of copper.

The Late Indian Period or Innu Culture began around 2000 years ago. The area of ​​North Québec, Labrador and Newfoundland now seems to have been a relatively unified cultural area again. During this period, the Inuit are difficult to pin down or differentiate from other ethnic groups because they have adapted their lifestyle, but they seem to have cooperated with the Basque whalers arriving in the 16th century.

Regions

Due to differences in natural space and historical roles that depend on them, such as transport routes or raw material deposits, tundra with large herds of game or dense forests, groups shaped by different cultures and alliance systems, around ten cultural regions can be distinguished for the pre-European period.

The people living in the Abitibi-Témiscamingue region , which is very cold in winter, were nomads . Their traces can be traced back to about 6000 BC. Their main prey was the caribou. Around 1000 they began producing pottery, an activity that was long considered the distinguishing feature of the woodland cultures that existed further south, on St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. By 2006, 15 excavation sites between Lac Duparquet and Lac Abitibi, Lac Simon (near Val-d'Or ), Lac Opasatica ( Rouyn-Noranda ) and Lac Chicobi ( Amos ) had been developed.

The lower St. Lawrence and the Saint John River , which connects the region with Fundy Bay on the Atlantic, form a network of transport routes. The region was much more forested than it is today and accordingly offered different opportunities to live. Since the water volumes, which declined in the post-ice age, gradually lowered the river level, terraces were created that offered inexpensive storage areas. Hunting here included fish ( salmon , sturgeon , smelt , also herring and cod ), numerous ducks and geese . There were also seals, possibly harbor porpoises , on land the extinct woodland caribous , elk etc. Already around 8000 BC. First traces of settlement appear. One of the oldest sites is Squatec, around 100 km inland from Rimouski , where finds from the time between 8700 and 8000 BC. Were made. The people living there used tools made of stone, which came from more southern areas - in contrast to most other sites in the region - and so it is assumed that these people did not live long in the region, and therefore with the conditions in it Trap stone bearings, were not yet familiar. They were late Paleo-Indians who also left traces on Bic, Rimouski and Métis. They must have come from the west, their culture goes back to the Plano culture there. Flint stores were later intensively exploited, as the Témiscouata site showed. In the late Woodland period, the lower St. Lawrence was a region of intensive contacts between the Iroquois, Algonquin and the Maliseet who later resided there. The Iroquois lived on the islands of Île aux Corneilles, Île Verte and Île aux Basques until around 1600.

The Estrie region (English Eastern Township ) on the border with the USA was a low mountain range with extensive forests and numerous bodies of water. The oldest finds - this was only revealed by an excavation in 2003 - date from around 10,000 BC. BC (between Lac Mégantic and Spider Lake). Humans may have hunted mammoths and other large mammals that later became extinct. The stone for their blades came partly from Munsungun Lake in Maine , in other cases from New Hampshire . The Abenaki lived here in pre-European times, but they shared the area with the Saint Lawrence Iroquois , who had disappeared around this time, until 1600 .

The Saguenay estuary is a separate region . In this northern coastal area, seal hunting was predominant, and in many places it was the only food. Thanks to three different seal species, it was possible to hunt all year round, which made settlement possible in the first place. Remnants of beavers and birds have also been found in other places. Presumably the ancestors of the Montagnais or Innu already lived here . The oldest traces were found at Cap-de-Bon-Désir, 36 m above the Goldthwait Sea , a steadily shrinking, post-glacial lake that left the terraces on St. Lorenz. They are around 8100 years old.

North American brown lemming

The Gaspésie region also has one of the oldest sites. Around 6000 BC The peninsula was a tundra over which caribou herds moved. Using traces of blood on spearheads, it could be determined that in addition to seals and walruses, lemmings ( Lemmus trimucronatus , also called North American brown lemmings), hare and salmon were hunted. In the region, the Paleo-Indians developed a particularly sophisticated processing technique for flint . Radiolarite , an approx. 450 million year old mineral , was processed frequently . In 1998 blades of the Paleo-Indian tradition were found in La Martre . Of the 25 sites found in the vicinity of the place, at least 12 are related to Paleo-Indians. In historical times, Mi'kmaq lived and still live there , such as the Micmac de Gespeg or the Micmacs of Gesgapegiag , who successfully defended their area against the Iroquois.

Montérégie , in the catchment area of ​​St. Lorenz, is one of the most favorable regions for human settlement. Around 500 AD, the residents there became increasingly sedentary as they stayed longer and longer at certain fishing spots such as Pointe-du-Buisson, which had been around since at least 3000 BC. Was visited. The trapping site was an exception when it came to the hunted prey, but hunters and gatherers also increasingly settled elsewhere . The people of Pointe-du-Buisson, however, made very different pottery than their neighbors. The ancestors of the Iroquois began to live from horticulture around 1000, mainly from pumpkin and corn and beans . It can be stated that access to fresh water was the dominant factor in choosing a location for a village, but military aspects were soon added. The builders preferred elevated locations. The Droulers site , a village over 7 km from Lac Saint-François, was the largest village discovered to date around 1350. It covered an area of ​​1.2 ha. In the comparatively densely populated region, over 300 sites are now known.

Here Nunavik in the north of the province is the counterpart. In the sparsely populated region, a distinction is made between a Paleo-Eskimo period (approx. 2000 BC to 1000 AD) and a Neo-Eskimo period (from 700 AD). The former is associated with the pre-Dorset and Dorset populations, with the latter the Thule Eskimos from Alaska . The pre-Dorset people lived in tents four to five meters in diameter, but their villages were not as large as on Baffin Island . They also adapted their prey range to the comparatively southern areas and also hunted birds, but primarily caribou. The Dorset people increasingly hunted seals and were accordingly less nomadic. Around 1000 the climate warmed up for several centuries. After 1300, whale hunters immigrated, whose prey had benefited particularly from the warming. They hunted in ocean-going kayaks, the umiaks . These neo-Eskimos, the ancestors of the Inuit, soon dominated Nunavik.

The Ottawa Valley was as densely populated as the St. Lawrence Valley . However, the dense forest area was not suitable for caribou hunters like the Paleo Indians. Therefore, the settlement did not start until 4500 BC. A. The inhabitants developed an extensive trading system over the rivers and lakes early on, so that their stone blades were made of Onondaga flint, which was found south of Lake Ontario . White quartzite also came from the area around Lac Mistassini , or otherwise from Hudson Bay . On the Isle aux Allumettes and on Morrison Island traces of copper processing were found, which in the Laurentian Archaic indicate a copper industry. This is how arrow heads, needles and awls, flutes and hatchets made of copper were created here. The naturally pure copper was hammered flat and processed into tubes from which the desired shapes could be made. In addition, more than 60 graves were found on the two islands. The oldest is from around 3300 BC. Characteristic of the subsequent Woodland period is clay, from which vessels were made (from 1000 BC).

Between Québec and Cap Tourmente is one of the regions that, although densely populated, was explored late. Cap Tourmente is one of the places where Jacques Cartier traded furs in 1535. Further up he counted four Iroquois villages, Ajoaste, Starnatan, Tailla and Sitadin, and finally Stadacona near what later became Québec. In the early 1980s, an Iroquois village was actually discovered, albeit west of Québec. But soon, in addition to numerous fish camps, a village was finally found downstream, which is now called “Royarnois” and lies on a terrace. The site contained at least four longhouses, but from different times. Nowhere else have so much pottery from the late Woodland phase (1000 to 1600) been found as here. Possibly it is the "ajoaste" mentioned by Cartier. The village was first built around 1300 at the latest. During this time, the Iroquois began to depend increasingly on horticulture, especially on the Triassic corn, pumpkin, and beans. Still, they deviated from their western neighbors, who settled down, in that they continued to conduct seasonal migrations. In Cartier's time, the people of Stadacona moved downriver to Tadoussac and into Gaspé Bay. Until 1989, practically only the main square of Québec, the Place Royale , was systematically excavated in the Québec area . As early as the first excavation campaign, 20 sites were found up to Cap Tourmente alone.

Finally, the Saguenay – Lac-Saint-Jean region should be mentioned as an archaeological focus . It forms the center of various communication networks that linked the settlement areas with one another. The main settlement areas were the Saguenay River and Lac Saint-Jean . Nevertheless, the region was divided into two parts from an ethnological point of view: Between Tadoussac and Chicoutimi , Iroquois, connected with the St. Lawrence Valley, lived on the Saguenay, while the ancestors of today's Ilnus lived further upstream and on the said Lake Algonquin. These lived much more on the plants and animals of the mainland, while further down the river the focus was on fish and other aquatic animals. The banks on the river are often so steep that larger settlements were only possible in places like the mouth of the Rivière de Sainte-Marguerite. Presumably moved in the Archaic period from about 4500 BC. People upstream.

With the Europeans, who appeared more and more frequently from around 1500, the fur trade began , which completely changed the economy of the tribes and made them increasingly dependent on European goods, while the apparently inexhaustible animal populations slowly declined.

Europeans and Indians, British-French rivalry

First contacts, trade

In all likelihood, fishermen from the Basque Country and England visited the Newfoundland Bank as early as the 15th century , and between 1530 and 1600 Basques were still cutting whales in Red Bay on the coast of Labrador. The first European whose landing in North America is tangible in the sources was Giovanni Caboto (known as John Cabot). He landed in 1497 at a point on the east coast that could not be determined with certainty and took three Mi'kmaq with him to England. From 1501 at the latest, the Mi'kmaq had frequent contact with Spanish, French, British and Irish fishermen.

From 1519 the fur trade began and the coastal tribes exchanged fur for European products, especially metal goods such as knives, axes, hatchets and kettles. The report by Jacques Cartiers , who anchored in Chaleur Bay in 1541, where his ship was surrounded by a large number of Mi'kmaq canoes, whose crew waved beaver pelts, is indicative of the growing interest in exchange . These Indians were afflicted by diseases unknown to them in 1564, 1570 and 1586. The tribes of the east coast began to change, soon they were at war among themselves because of the trade contacts. Cartier had also exchanged furs with the Iroquois on the upper St. Lawrence (1534/35) and for a long time trade flourished despite the lack of infrastructure in the sense of trading bases. A network of rivers and paths on which Indians traded had existed for a very long time. They traded in copper, walrus ivory, various types of stone for tools, weapons and jewelry, with the buttery fat of the candle fish , covering dog hair , etc.

Samuel de Champlain (until 1635)

Algonkin, or Susquehannock and Montagnais , asked Samuel de Champlain to support the Iroquois as early as 1601 when he landed near Tadoussac . In 1609 the French supported the Hurons against the neighboring Iroquois, with whom they had been at war for generations. This decision, never reversed despite several occasions, turned the Iroquois against the French, and they allied with each of their opponents. These were initially the Dutch around Fort Orange , later mainly the British.

Jacques Cartier came across the two Iroquois villages of Stadacona and Hochelaga where Québec and Montréal are today . However, they were gone in Champlain's time. One of the most important allies of the French continued to be the Hurons, who apparently had ousted the Iroquois in this area.

In 1604 a naval expedition, in which Samuel de Champlain also participated, built the first settlement on Saint Croix Island at the mouth of the St. Croix River . However, it was relocated to Port Royal a year later . Other fortified structures soon followed, such as Fort La Tour on Saint John, where the Maliseet now also exchanged European goods. But the relocation of the colony to Port Royal in the Mi'kmaq area had consequences. As early as 1607 there was a war between the Penobscot under their Sagamore Bashabes , who had gained great power through French weapons, and the Mi'kmaq. This Tarrantine War , which was an expression of their rivalry in the fur trade, lasted eight years.

Map by the Abbé Claude Bernou, ca.1681, showing the French discoveries

In 1608, Champlain founded the city of Québec with 31 settlers, of whom only nine survived the first winter - and that only with the help of the surrounding Indians. In 1613 the traders from Port Royal had to retreat to the more northerly Tadoussac because the English had burned their colony. In the same year, Champlain moved up the Ottawa to negotiate with the Algonquin chief Tessouat about an island in the river, the Isle des Allumettes , which seemed suitable as a fort. After he returned to France and published his travelogues, he gave an area of ​​around 30% of the area of New France to the Jesuits in the form of a seigneury , a kind of manor . When Champlain attacked an Onondaga fortress in 1615 , however, he was repulsed and spent the winter in the region. In the following years he had forts built and negotiated a peace treaty with the Iroquois.

In 1627 Champlain traveled to Paris and convinced Cardinal Richelieu that it was worth supporting the colony. In the middle of the Thirty Years' War , the Society of 100 Associates was founded to encourage emigrants. In 1630 Québec had just 100 inhabitants, but their number rose to 359 by 1640. However, the royal protection meant that the feudal system was transferred to the colony. This paved the way for the land to be divided into mansions that were farmed by people who were in a service and tax relationship with a landlord. The Jesuit mission was also financed in this way and provided with food and building materials. In addition, the principles that emerged from the denominational wars were valid, meaning that only Catholics were allowed to live in New France. Since Scots had already come to Acadia in 1628 and the English to Newfoundland around 1630 , the first military conflict ensued, during which Québec was conquered by the English in 1629.

The reconquest succeeded in 1632. In 1634, Champlain Sieur de Laviolette sent up the St. Lawrence, who set up a trading post at Trois-Rivières . Champlain, who founded Québec in 1608 and Montreal in 1611, reached Lake Huron in 1615 , and French missionaries set up posts along the Great Lakes . As "General Governor in New France", he concluded the alliance with the Wendat (Hurons) in 1609 . In return, the Iroquois, who were enemies with the Wendat and especially with Champlain, entered into an alliance with the English.

The Hurons were actually a confederation of four or five tribes in what is now Simcoe County, north of Toronto . The total number of inhabitants in their 18 to 25 villages is estimated at around 20,000 people. The Petun around Collingwood is estimated to be around 6,500 people in 1615, but over 10,000 in 1623. They lived in seven to nine villages. The neutrals lived on the Niagara Peninsula . Their confederation consisted of around 30 villages and around 40,000 people. They not participated in the wars between the Hurons and the New York Iroquois in part, that the tribes of the Seneca , Cayuga , Onondaga , Oneida and Mohawk , but she still warred marketed by them Algonquian, which at that time as Fire Nations were called .

Anglo-French competition

The English explorer Henry Hudson spent October 1609 exploring Hudson Bay, which was later named after him . He took possession of the bay for England. Champlain's English opponents, with whom he refused to engage in fur trade, looted various posts and eventually even ended up in their captivity in 1629. Québec became British by 1632. Champlain did not return to New France for four years. Again he moved against the Iroquois and had a trading post built at Trois-Rivières . However, he died in 1635.

The resulting power vacuum was filled by the Bishop of Québec. In 1642 he had settlers under the leadership of Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve , a utopian Christian settlement project, to found the Ville-Marie, the starting point of Montréal .

Coureurs des bois (rangers) were soon sent out to live among the Indians, while the trading agents turned their forts into centers of exchange. The few navigable rivers, such as the St. Lawrence and Ottawa, played an important role. Tribes like the Kichesipirini claimed a monopoly on them as early as 1630. In addition, as early as 1660, large quantities of fur came from the Upper Lake area and from the Lakota .

In 1669 a station on James Bay delivered the first furs to London , a trade that gave rise to the Hudson's Bay Company . Since around 1660, the Frenchman Médard Chouart des Groseilliers and his brother-in-law Pierre-Esprit Radisson tried to reactivate the fur trade that had collapsed after the destruction of the Hurons. But at the same time New France tried to monopolize the fur trade under Frontenac . To do this, they put on the first permanent European settlement in Ontario, a fort on the site of today's Kingston . The fur trading group refused to accept the levy and turned to London, which they generously privileged. In 1670 it became the Hudson's Bay Company. They smuggled furs past Fort Frontenac on a large scale, damaging the French colony.

The rivalry between the French and English escalated again. In 1686 the French tried to burn down the English trading post. To this end, new fur trading partners were sought from the Indians who had settled westward. Although the search for the western border of the continent failed, contacts were made with Indians as far as the upper Mississippi , and for a short time even as far as Santa Fe in the Spanish region.

War for trade monopolies

In 1650 the Iroquois League succeeded in driving the members of the once powerful Wendat (Huron) Confederation from their homes. They benefited from the fact that the Dutch around Fort Orange supplied them with weapons, while the French only occasionally gave weapons as gifts to their allies. But this armament had another effect: the beavers in the Hudson Valley disappeared and the Iroquois hunted further and further north, to where the fur trade was increasingly concentrated. In 1641 they offered the French peace, but they did not want to drop their Huron allies, who in turn were infected with serious diseases such as measles , flu and the like by their French allies . They are likely to kill around 60% of the Wendat (Hurons) have cost.

The Iroquois tried to cut off the trade of the Wendat (Hurons) over the St. Lawrence. In 1648 the Dutch began selling rifles directly to the Iroquois. In the following year they won a victory over the Hurons, in which not only numerous opponents, but also a group of Jesuits were killed. The Hurons fled and sought the help of the Anishinabe Confederation in the Great Lakes. The closely allied with the Wendat and related petun (Petun) -Konföderation not escaped the military campaigns and was destroyed in 1650, the neutrals 1655. Many of them village as attracted to the winners, the five nations of the Iroquois, others went to Christian Iceland in the protection of the Jesuits, but they had to flee the next year. Other dispersed groups joined the survivors of Wendat (Hurons), fled north, then west, and ended up in northeastern Oklahoma , where they form today's Wyandot.

Samuel de Champlain called the tribal group of the Algonquin still Algoumequins . Their language was a comprehensive trader's language, the name of which was eventually transferred to all the tribes of this language family. In 1620 he sent Jean Nicollet to the Kichesipirini on Morrison Island or the Isle des Allumettes in the Ottawa River, who had succeeded in establishing a trade monopoly there. With the loss of Québec to the British in 1629, they lost this monopoly for a short time, but five years later the French fur traders dominated the region again. In 1636 the Kichesipirini tried to bring together a coalition with the Hurons , Algonquin and Nipissing against the Iroquois, but Nipissings and Bear Nation refused to support.

The vacuum in trade with the French soon filled the Odawa or Ottawa (also Odawa , Odaawaa , shortened to Daawaa - 'Those men who trade, or buy and sell', dt. 'Those who trade, or buy and sell'), which together with the Anishinabe (also Ojibwa , Ojibwe or Chippewa ) and Potawatomi (also Boodewaadamii , Pottawatomie or Pottawatomi ) the combative and famous Anishinabe Confederation or the Council of three fires (dt. Council of the three fires , also known as People of the Three Fires or Three Fires Confederacy ). Finally, the Iroquois began under the leadership of the Mohawk and a tribal coalition around the Mahican and Mohegan - they provided the model for the fictional tribe of the Mohicans James Fenimore Coopers - to attack the French directly. Even Montréal was no longer safe in 1660. In the west, the Seneca were leaders. They drove out the Attawandaron or "neutrals" in southern Ontario. Then they destroyed the root of Erie , which at the eastern southern shore of Lake Erie had lived.

From New France Society to Colony, Iroquois Wars (1663 to 1701)

From 1628 to 1663 the French territories were under the trading company Compagnie de la Nouvelle France and not directly under the French crown. However, this was not able to militarily protect the colony against the attacking Iroquois groups from the south. So France sent the Carignant-Salières regiment, which comprised more than a thousand men. In 1663, however, France not only intervened militarily in local conditions, but also set up a supreme administrative body that was subordinate to the French Minister of Maritime Affairs. It consisted of the governor, who was responsible for politico-military operations, a superintendent who was responsible for the actual administration, jurisdiction and the economy, and the Bishop of Québec. First, however, power struggles between Chevalier de Mercy and Bishop François de Laval paralyzed the colony.

This only changed under the artistic director Jean Talon (1665 to 1672). He tried to settle as many of the soldiers as possible in the country and otherwise supported the settlement policy. Within ten years, the population grew by around 9,000 people until 1673. In addition to immigration and a young population, the fact that marriages between French colonists and Indian women were encouraged made a significant contribution. The descendants of the settlers, who had to work off their crossing, and who were thus debt servants, were viewed as lower in society and referred to as "engaged". In addition, Paris tried to intensify the trade, which was carried by four to five, occasionally six ships per year with an average of 165 tonneaux (42 Paris cubic feet or 1.44 m³) or 237.6 m³ loading capacity. An annual cargo space of 1000 to 1500 m³ was sufficient. While this traffic doubled, it was negligible compared to the hundreds of ships that headed for the fishing grounds around Newfoundland.

Hudson's Bay Company, Wars for New France

From 1670 onwards, the trading power of British traders was combined with the founding of the Hudson's Bay Company . Against the growing British influence, the French built numerous forts, including Fort Frontenac in 1673 (today Kingston on the eastern edge of Lake Erie ). The French managed to conclude a peace treaty with the Iroquois in 1667, but now all men between 16 and 65 had to do military service. The situation calmed down for some time, but in 1683 another war began, which the French now waged according to the guerrilla style they knew from the Iroquois.

There was a decisive motive for converting to this type of warfare: the colony struggled to raise money for soldiers. This money was usually sent from France along with merchandise in the summer. But in 1685 the money did not arrive until January, eight months late, so that the soldiers had to hire themselves out with settlers and had to be “paid” with playing cards. Only with the arrival of their pay could they exchange the playing cards for coins. What initially worked well was practiced annually from 1690, but led to a decline in value, so that inflation for 1713 is estimated at 400 percent. Attempts were now made to make do with loans, but cash became so scarce that in 1729, at the request of the merchants of New France, the king once again permitted the issue of playing cards. But by 1755, confidence in monetary policy was finally exhausted. Trade was reduced to barter, all other transactions were severely hindered. In addition, the population began to hoard and hide the few coins in order to protect them from confiscation.

One of the most important barter goods, beaver fur, was also only available with strong fluctuations. France tried to make Montréal the only fur trade center. However, this was not acceptable for the Iroquois, whose leaders themselves now depended on bartering, because they gained recognition and prestige by giving away coveted goods, which they received mostly in exchange for furs. For the leadership groups among the Indians, the question of the fur monopoly became a question of existence. In 1687 they attacked Montréal.

The establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company also challenged the French for their monopoly on the British side. Because they were able to take New Amsterdam from the Dutch in 1664 , the English now slipped into their role and were able to supply the Iroquois with weapons that they needed against the French as needed. These in turn founded their own trading posts on Hudson Bay from 1682 and thus took New France militarily and economically into pincers.

The fronts between the French and the British in North America were clear. When the King William's War broke out (1689 to 1697), a chain of proxy wars was triggered, which the two colonial powers fought with the help of their Indian allies in North America. In the Battle of Quebec , the attacking New England troops were defeated. At the end of the King William War, negotiations began in 1698 and peace was concluded with the Iroquois in 1701 ( Great Peace of Montreal ). What the War of the Palatinate Succession was as a European war in this case was, in the case of the subsequent Queen Anne's War, from 1702 to 1713 a proxy war during the War of the Spanish Succession . The same applies to the King George's War (1740 to 1748) and the War of the Austrian Succession . Finally, during the Seven Years' War from 1756 to 1763 in North America, war broke out between the British, French and Indian groups .

New France, summary of territories between 1504 and 1803

During the peace phase between 1713 and 1740, New France succeeded in expanding its trade despite the loss of monopoly and its precarious infrastructure - the St. Lawrence Estuary was only open as long as Louisbourg , a fortress town with several thousand inhabitants, could withstand. The construction of a road, the Chemin du Roy , between Québec and Montréal created a safer connection. Québec became an independent colony within New France in 1722; its population had risen to 24,594. This phase of intensified trade ended abruptly when William Shirley , the governor of British Massachusetts , attacked Louisbourg in 1745. Although the fortress had to be returned in the Treaty of Aachen in 1748, Governor General Comte de La Galissonière assessed the situation in such a way that the British were just waiting to finally take New France into their possession. The Ohio Company was founded as early as 1749, the aim of which was to settle British colonists in the Ohio Valley claimed by France . With the beginning of the Seven Years' War, the tension that had built up over the years escalated. The approximately 50,000 French were now against around a million British settlers. In 1759 the British conquered Québec. In 1760 the colony surrendered, and in 1763 the Peace of Paris established the facts: New France became British.

British colonial rule

Quebec

Jeffrey Amherst, British Army Commander and First Governor of the Province of Quebec, v. Joshua Reynolds 1765

After the surrender of Montreal in 1760, New France was placed under a military government led by Jeffrey Amherst . He had succeeded in conquering Louisbourg , after which he was promoted to Commander in Chief of the British Armed Forces in New France. But he believed that he no longer had to maintain relations with the Indians, and in 1761 stopped giving gifts to the chiefs. As a result, they lost their position secured by giving them away, with which Amherst undermined the position of his tribal allies. Groups hostile to the colonial powers gained the upper hand. Their fears were confirmed by the fact that Amherst restricted the sale of weapons and ammunition, which in the long term amounted to disarmament. Amherst was subsequently involved in the Pontiac uprising , and did not hesitate to use smallpox as a weapon by corresponding about distributing infected blankets.

The Paris Peace of 1763 brought the formerly French territory formally into British hands. It was hoped to be able to prevent racist hostilities after the Pontiac uprising. The British government therefore made the vast area the province of Quebec in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , delimiting Indian and British land claims from one another. A considerable part of the French ruling class left the province for France, mainly Acadians were deported. The French goods were largely confiscated, the contact of those who remained with France was cut off. For its part, France supported the Americans' struggle against Britain in the War of Independence . As a result of the Indian uprising under Pontiac, the British government changed its policy against the French. In the Quebec Act of 1774, London guaranteed the French majority the protection of their mother tongue and religion. When American troops advanced into Montréal, the Franco-Americans did not take their side but defended Québec.

The French Catholic majority became a minority because after the end of the American War of Independence, more than 50,000 refugees, known as loyalists , had to be settled in the remaining parts of the British colonial empire in North America. The number of Francophones was 90,000.

Lower Canada

The British population grew so strongly that the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Quebec . This is how the mostly English-speaking Upper Canada and Lower Canada emerged , where a majority spoke French. Thus, 30 years after the defeat by the British, the French-Americans were again given an area with, albeit limited, autonomy.

In addition to the national language separation, large parts of the country were no longer reserved as a so-called clergy reserve . This land, which had served the upkeep of the Anglican clergy since 1791, became free for industrial use and settlement. The colonial administration ended a system that had been established in New France for over 150 years.

The seigneurie royale , the feudalistic order introduced in 1627, in which a feudal lord received land from the king and lent it on in exchange for services and taxes, continued to exist.

The Parti canadien , representing the francophone majority managed to prevent the decisions of the House were only recorded in English. Under the leadership of Pierre-Stanislas Bédard , it demanded that the seats in the upper house be filled by the elected Legislative Assembly , the lower house, where the Francophones were in the majority. In 1806 she founded the newspaper Le Canadien . In 1811, James Stuart succeeded Bédard, who had been arrested the previous year, as party leader. In 1815 Louis-Joseph Papineau became Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1822 he went to London with John Neilson and there submitted 60,000 signatures against the Union project . In 1826 the party was programmatically renamed Parti patriote (Patriotic Party) and was led by Papineau. In 1834 it presented a list of reform demands, the so-called ninety - two resolutions .

The influence of the USA, attempts at assimilation, responsible government

The tension between Great Britain and the United States , which had been declared independent in 1783, continued to smolder and was finally ignited by the fact that the British forced numerous Americans, whom they continued to regard as their subjects, into their fleet service. It was not until the Peace of Ghent that the British-American War ended with a certain delay in early 1815. Three years later, the war opponents settled further conflicts in the London Treaty .

A group of aristocratic families, the so-called Clique du Château, still dominated the economy and politics. But republican groups resisted this supremacy. In 1837 two uprisings broke out, both aimed at the introduction of self-government, the Lower Canada Rebellion led by Louis-Joseph Papineau and the Upper Canada Rebellion led by William Lyon Mackenzie .

Although the two uprisings were quickly put down, the British government dispatched Lord Durham to investigate the causes of the disturbances. He proposed extensive self-government, plus the unification of Upper and Lower Canada in order to gradually assimilate the French Canadians . London followed his suggestions and with the Act of Union , the first step was to unite the two colonies to form the province of Canada .

The colony received the right to self-government in 1848. For further distinction one spoke of Canada West and Canada East . The first governor was Charles Bagot (1841 to 1843). He felt compelled to admit the reformers Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine in the east and, at his pressure, Robert Baldwin . Bagot's successor Charles Metcalfe, however, refused any concession to the leaders of the reformist blocs, but he agreed to the rebel amnesty of 1837. In 1846, however, Colonial Secretary Lord Albert Gray determined that the lieutenant governor should not rule against the majority of the population. In 1848 he commissioned Baldwin and La Fontaine to form a government. In the same year, London changed its colonial policy on another crucial point, namely the mercantilist orientation of its economy. Accordingly, the Corn Laws were liberalized. The Tories in the east, which had benefited most from mercantilist regulations to date, reacted indignantly with a manifesto (the Montreal Annexation Manifesto) calling for entry into the United States. The conflict escalated in 1849 when a new tax was introduced to compensate the undecided insurgents of 1837. In Montréal, which was the provincial capital from 1843 to 1849, the English-speaking population broke out in street fighting for two days, during which the government building went up in flames on April 25, 1849. In the next few years Toronto and Québec alternated in the status of provincial capital. Queen Victoria ultimately decided that the capital of what would later become Canada, Ottawa , on the border between the French and English-speaking areas, should become the capital of the emerging Dominion Canada.

The two language areas continued to develop differently. In 1806, 430,000 people lived across Canada. In 1851 there were over 950,000 inhabitants in Canada West alone , 890,000 in Canada East and 2,436,000 in the whole of Canada. This was the first time that the English-speaking West had surpassed the French-speaking East.

In 1854, London agreed with the United States to abolish numerous protective tariffs so that wood, fish and grain could be exported there, a trade that was greatly encouraged by the construction of several canals and the Grand Trunk Railway to Montréal and on to Halifax . This intensified trade exchange with its emerging interest groups became one of the most important integration factors for the emerging Canada. On the other hand, the freedom of political decision-making began to have an effect that in West and East different political orientations repeatedly gained the upper hand. In 1858, for example, the West chose the Liberals and the East the Conservatives. A coalition government between John Macdonald and Antoine-Aimé Dorion fell after a few days. Alexander Tilloch Galt , the lieutenant governor who had urged the coalitioners to form a government, now called for the British colonies in North America to be united in order to oppose the United States.

In the same direction, the movement for a responsible government (responsible government), which was so called because it saw itself primarily responsible for the province, not for the British Empire . As early as 1840, the lieutenant governor, who had the right to collect majority decisions, tended to support them. In the case of the compensation for those among the rebels of 1837 who were never finally convicted, this even led to the fire in the Parliament of Montréal in 1848 (see above).

An insurmountable political stalemate between English- and French-speaking MPs as well as the fear of American aggression during the war of secession were decisive in the fact that the leading politicians in British North America agreed in several conferences to unite the various British colonies. The London Conference of 1866 also supported this line. With the establishment of the Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, the province of Canada was divided along the old borders into Québec and Ontario.

Québec as part of Canada (from 1867)

The beginnings of the province, ultramontanism , language dispute

With the constitutional law of 1867 , which came into force on July 1st of that year, the British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were united with the province of Canada to form the Canadian Confederation . The provinces should be represented in the lower house proportionally to the population, but each province was represented with 24 seats in the senate. The first Prime Minister was John Macdonald , who is considered one of the fathers of the Confederation . Similar to British Columbia in 1871 , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia made the construction of a railroad connection a prerequisite (see Intercolonial Railway ).

The Red River Rebellion of the French-speaking and Catholic Métis in Manitoba caused strong tensions within the confederation, because Ontario and Québec were opponents and supporters of the demands of the Métis leader Louis Riel . This was all the more serious as the two provinces had by far the largest population. How hardened the fronts were is shown by the behavior of Ignace Bourget , Bishop of Montréal from 1840 to 1876. He belonged to the ultramontane and even refused to bury some members of scientific societies because these societies owned books that were on the index . That was the case for the Institut Canadien de Montréal .

The conflict between the language nations and the denominations broke out again when Louis Riel led the Northwest Rebellion in 1885 , which demanded a separate province for the Métis. Numerous Protestants called for the death penalty for Riel. In the Manitoba school dispute between 1890 and 1896, the country split again along the language and denominational lines. With Regulation 17 in July 1912, Ontario restricted the use of the French language after the first year of school and even banned it after the fourth. This regulation remained in force until 1927 and the repeal was only carried out against the federal government for reasons of strategic alliance with the government of Québec.

While the conflicts, especially between Ontario and Québec, threatened Canada's cohesion again and again, the state expanded its national territory immensely , especially through the purchase of the Hudson's Bay Company ( Rupert's Land ) in 1870. Québec benefited from this in that it was able to more than triple its area. On June 13, 1898, the area up to the coast of James Bay was made a province, and on May 15, 1912, the Ungava district in northern Labrador . On March 11, 1927, however, Québec had to cede territories to the Dominion Newfoundland after an arbitration decision by the Privy Council's Judiciary Committee .

With industrialization, especially in Montréal, but increasingly also in other cities around 1900, urbanization increased and the population increased significantly. But the country's economic development, especially since the global economic crisis , has hardly been researched. Therefore, the effects of government action are still completely unclear. The question that has been discussed in many places as to whether Québec entrepreneurs acted rather “pre-capitalist” cannot be answered in the slightest.

An English-speaking group of industrialists still dominated the economy in Montreal, but the shift to natural resources also enabled the Francophones to participate more. Nevertheless, the francophone group remained rather rural and conservative and pursued isolationist to separatist goals. This division into culture and language blocks prevailed until the late 1950s.

separatism

In the course of the Silent Revolution ( révolution tranquille ), several political groups emerged that began to break away from the close provincial context. They acted as the regional arm of larger political movements. The Front de liberation du Québec (FLQ) carried out more than 200 bomb attacks and bank robberies between 1963 and 1970, the victims of which were mainly English-speaking Québecians, in order to turn the province into a Marxist state. The wave of terrorism culminated in the October Crisis , when the organization kidnapped a British diplomat on October 5, 1970 and, five days later, the Deputy Prime Minister of Québec, whom the police found strangled. On October 16, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declared a state of emergency and deployed seven army battalions to calm the situation in the province. This measure, as well as covert operations, led to the breaking up of the FLQ, which had intended to provide the initial spark for a revolutionary workers' uprising.

The supporters of the Parti Québécois under the leadership of René Lévesque , who relied on political dialogue, were more successful . As early as 1974 they were able to get French to be the only official language. They pursued independence as a further goal. In 1976 they formed the provincial government for the first time and in 1977 the use of English was suppressed with the Charter of the French Language . Nevertheless, the Quebec party did not succeed in breaking away from Canada, as 59.6% of voters voted against independence in the 1980 referendum. To date, Québec has still not ratified the 1982 constitutional law despite Ottawa trying to accommodate the province. The Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord recognized Québec society as a “differing society”, but these constitutional revisions in 1989 and 1992 failed due to Anglo-Canadian resistance.

The Parti Québécois won another election in 1994 and initiated a second independence referendum in 1995 . With 50.58% to 49.42%, Quebec decided with a wafer-thin majority to remain with Canada. The fact that the federalists not only spent a multiple of what the separatists raised on their campaign, but also used state money in the process, did not change anything. In 1998 the Supreme Court ( Renvoi relatif à la sécession du Québec ) ruled, at the request of the government, that a province could not unilaterally declare itself independent.

This created an even more complicated situation because this decision of the Court of Justice is not binding, but it has never been contradicted. Furthermore, if a successful separation referendum should come about in Québec, responsibility would be transferred to the other provinces, which could then decide whether to enter into negotiations. The adversaries were also aware of this, and so an attempt was made in the Clarity Act of March 15, 2000 to determine the conditions under which the federal government could enter into negotiations. Furthermore, the provinces have the right to referendums on the separation issue, but they are only called for negotiations with a “relevant” majority, in which all prime ministers of the provinces and the federal government must be involved. In addition, the constitution may need to be amended.

Stephen Harper's conservative federal government stated to the Quebecers on November 27, 2006, in this now very narrow framework that they recognized them as a “nation within a united Canada”, but that its unity could not be questioned. The law was due to be repealed in 2011 on the initiative of MP André Bellavance, but this was rejected in 2013.

Remarks

  1. ↑ The find was only made in 2003. Cf. Claude Chapdelaine: Présences autochtone de l'âge glaciaire à aujoud'hui Des chasseurs de la fin de l'âge glaciaire dans la région du lac Mégantic: découverte des premières pointes à cannelure au Québec, in: Recherches amérIGEnes au Québec 30 ( 2004).
  2. ↑ This and the following from William W. Fitzhugh: The Gateways Project 2003-2004, Surveys and Excavations from Hare Harbor to Jacques Cartier Bay , Artic Studies Center, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
  3. ^ Charles A. Martijn: La présence inuit sur la Côte-Nord du golfe St-Laurent à l'époque historique , in: Études / Inuit / Studies 4, n. 1-2 (1980) 105–125 ( The Inuit of Southern Québec Labrador ).
  4. ↑ I am largely following the information on the website Echoes of the Past, Université de Montréal's Exhibit Center , created by the University of Montreal .
  5. ↑ Pierre Dumais, Gilles Rousseau: Of Silt, Sand and Paleoindians at Squatec (ClEe-9): An Early Holocene Occupation in a Changing Landscape of Southeastern Quebec , Ottawa 2002.
  6. ^ SG Pollock, ND Hamilton, R. Bonnichsen: Chert from the Munsungun Lake Formation (Maine) in Palaeoamerican Archaeological Sites in Northeastern North America: Recognition of its Occurrence and Distribution , in: Journal of Archaeological Science 26/3 (March 1999) 269 -293.
  7. ↑ Virtual Museum of Canada. Echoes from the Past. Lower St. Lawrence ( Memento of the original from November 12, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.virtualmuseum.ca
  8. ^ Sites archéologiques de Pointe-du-Buisson . There is now an archaeological park, which represents 16 sites and offers over 4000 artefacts.
  9. ↑ The Archaeological Site Interpretation Center Droulers-Tsiionhiakwatha at an excavation site on the south side of St. Lawrence gives an idea of ​​the longhouses of the 15th century . (See Tsiionhiakwatha / Droulers archaeological site interpretation center ).
  10. ↑ See: Basque Whaling in Red Bay, Labrador . One of the ships, the San Juan , sank in port in 1565.
  11. ↑ For those who want to take a closer look at details: Carte de l'Amérique du Nord .
  12. ↑ After Roy Dalton, The Jesuit Estates Question 1760-88, University of Toronto Press, 1968, p 60th
  13. ↑ Mario Boleda was able to prove that this hardly succeeded, showing that of the 27 to 29,000 French colonists only a good 31 percent remained ( Les Migrations au Canada sous le régime francais , Diss., University of Montréal 1983). Also: Peter N. Moogk: Reluctant Exiles: Emigrants from France in Canada before 1760 , in: The William and Mary Quarterly , Third Series , Volume 46, No. 3, July 1989, pp. 463-505.
  14. ↑ JF Bosher: The Imperial Environment of French Trade with Canada, 1660–1685 , in: The English Historical Review , Volume 108, 1993, pp. 50–81, here: p. 50.
  15. ↑ See Canada's Playing Card Money. A historical parabola on inflation and deficit spending .
  16. ↑ See Jeffrey Amherst's letters discussing germ warfare against American Indians .
  17. ↑ The manifesto is available in Wikisource: Montreal Annexation Manifesto .
  18. ↑ For the population statistics of Canada cf. Population, Québec et Canada, 1851–2006 ( Memento of May 21, 2013 in the Internet Archive ).
  19. ↑ Gilles Paquet: Entrepreneurship canadien-français: mythes et réalités, in: Mémoires de la Société royale du Canada (1986) 151–178.
  20. ↑ cf. Pabst, Martin: Québec - self-confident francophone nation in Canada between federal partnership and sovereignty
  21. ↑ An Act to repeal the Clarity Act : government website .

literature

  • John A. Dickinson and Bryan Young: A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective , Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman 1988.
  • Beverley Diamond, M. Sam Cronk, Franziska von Rosen: Visions of Sound: Musical Instruments of First Nations Communities in Northeastern America , University of Chicago Press 1994.
  • Klaus-Dieter Ertler (ed.): Of black coats and witch masters = Robes noires et sorciers: Jesuit reports from New France (1616–1649), Berlin: Reimer 1997.
  • Jean Hamelin: Histoire économique du Québec, 1850-1896 , Hamelin and Roby 1971.
  • Gilles Havard, Cécile Vidal: Histoire de l'Amerique Française , Éditions Flammarion 2003.
  • Jacques Lacoursière: Histoire populaire du Québec , vol. 1 (from the beginnings to 1791), vol. 2 (1791–1841), vol. 3 (1841–1896), vol. 4 (1896–1960), vol. 5 ( 1960-70), 1997 ff.
  • Jacques Rouillard (ed.): Guide d'histoire du Québec du Régime français jusqu'à nos jours , annotated bibliography, Montreal: Méridien 1991.

See also

Web links