Religious dietary rules

Religious dietary regulations are rules within certain religious communities that relate to the selection of foods ( food taboo ), their preparation, their consumption or non-consumption ( fasting ). Meat consumption in particular is regulated by dietary regulations in many religions. Some religions demand or favor a certain slaughter method: slaughtering ( Judaism , Islam ), Jhatka ( Hinduism , Sikhism ), suffocation ( Tibetan Buddhism ). Temporary or permanent abstinence from meat is rated positively in Christianity , Hinduism, Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism . When the preparation of the food becomes the subject of precise eating regulations, the people working in the kitchen have a special responsibility; this is particularly the case in Judaism, Hinduism and Jainism. In Judaism and Hinduism, special regulations apply to cooking and eating utensils.

The dietary rules are related to other religiously motivated actions related to eating and drinking, such as grace , giving hospitality, helping the poor.

Food regulations as a topic in religious studies

Food regulations create identity. With the choice of food, a culture creates an image of itself and thus confronts other cultures (Philippe Borgeaud). It is typical that opposites are created by dietary regulations:

• What is forbidden as food in one religion is preferred in another religious community. Example: Wine has an important and positive meaning in the Jewish and Christian ritual, but like all alcohol it is forbidden for Muslims.
• What is otherwise permitted and customary may not be eaten in a special situation. Example: nothing leavened ( Chametz ) is consumed during the Jewish Passover festival ; during the rest of the year, leavened foods (bread) are a normal part of the diet.

Food laws are often associated with concepts of purity; you eat pure food and find yourself in a state of purity. In most religious communities, however, this purity is not conceived as a permanent state, but rather as an ideal that one approaches and that would be achieved by following all the rules. Around the core of the dietary rules there are often other commandments that serve to keep a distance from strangers while eating.

Dietary rules in Christianity

See also : Biblical Food Commandments

The Christian religion knows a sacred food ( Eucharist ), which was initially combined with a common meal ( agape ). In order to establish table community , it was necessary in the early community to agree on the nutritional styles of Christians of different cultural backgrounds, especially of Jews of different observance and non-Jews. In the so-called Antiochene Incident , this different approach to the Jewish diets became clearly visible, and the Apostolic Council formulated a compromise solution, the James Clauses . In the old church , the taboo contained therein on the enjoyment of blood was observed, as Tertullian emphasized: “That is why, if you want to put Christians to the test, you also present them with sausages filled with animal blood, obviously in the certainty that theirs They are forbidden to enjoy it. ” Given the choice of blood consumption or death by the Persian King Shapur II in 379, Christians chose martyrdom. The church historian Christoph Markschies sees the observance of the blood taboo as a feature that clearly distinguishes Christians from their everyday neighbors. Clemens of Alexandria and John Chrysostom made various arguments in favor of the blood taboo, according to Markschies an indication that it was not easy for ancient Christians to remain faithful to the rules of their religion with regard to the very popular blood sausages (botuli cruore distenti) .

The early Middle Ages was a period in which various Christian authors dealt with the biblical dietary laws:

• Boniface asked Pope Zacharias which food taboos the new converts in the Franconian Empire had to adhere to. The latter wrote to him (751) that jackdaws , crows and storks should never be eaten, any more than beavers , hares and wild horses .
• Books of penance attributed to Theodor of Tarsus imposed a ban on eating meat from animals that were suffocated or that had died from injuries.
• In Ireland the Liber ex lege Moysi was compiled, a compilation of legal material from the Five Books of Moses . In addition to the prohibition of blood consumption, these include, for example, the following food orders: Lev 7.19  EU , Lev 7.24  EU , Lev 11.33  EU .
• The Roman bishop Eleutherus (late 2nd century AD) was assigned a letter in the pseudoisidoric decretals in which he called on Christians in Gaul to no longer adhere to the Jewish dietary laws. This fiction had a certain plausibility because the historical Eleutherus dealt with Montanists and Enkratites who propagated an ascetic diet.

Sale of fasting foods (fish, frogs and snails) at the Council of Constance (Council chronicle of Ulrich von Richental around 1464, fol. 25r)

A regular fasting of the early Christian community already mentions Mk 2,18-20  EU . It is related to the crucifixion of Jesus (thus probably a Friday fast) and is differentiated from the Jewish fast. The desire to fast differently from Jews becomes even clearer in the Didache . Now Wednesday is named as the second fasting day of the week. Christianity took up impulses from Stoicism and Platonism in antiquity and propagated a moderate diet, so that the spirit is neither weakened by gluttony nor by excessive fasting.

Fish was a feast in the ancient Mediterranean and only developed into a classic lent in post-ancient times . Isidore of Seville referred to the fact that Jesus Christ ate fish with the disciples after his resurrection ( Lk 24.43  EU , Joh 21.13  EU ). A fish meal, according to Isidore, symbolically establishes a relationship with the risen One. This idea was taken up especially in monasteries. Whales , dolphins and porpoises were thought to be fish, and their salted, fatty meat was a delicacy. B. the papal court in Avignon was supplied. According to the zoology of the time, the barnacle goose and the beaver were also considered aquatic creatures that could be eaten during Lent. What else was available as a fasting dish varied from region to region. During the Council of Constance , lent dishes were offered on the city market, which were unusual in the region, but sought-after by the council visitors: "You have och fail hoppatzger (frogs) and snails, they koften the Walchen (Italians)" - so the chronicler.

In the Middle Ages there was little protest against the fasting discipline; that changed when humanists re-emphasized the ancient ideal of temperance in the Renaissance . Disproportionate to this were the dispensations that individuals or groups of the population could acquire to facilitate fasting ( butter letters ), and which in the late 15th century simply represented a source of church income.

Catholicism

→ Main article : Obligatory fast day

Against the criticism of the reformers, the Council of Trent emphasized the binding nature of the commandments of fasting. On the one hand, this resulted in a high level of fasting discipline in some orders (e.g. Mauriner ) and, on the other hand, a quasi-modern discourse on the approval of individual fasting foods.

• The monks of the Benedictine Abbey of Saint Martin Le Tréport on the Norman Atlantic coast viewed the puffin as an aquatic animal that could be eaten during Lent. The Archbishop of Rouen forbade this practice in 1698. However, the Benedictines did not simply accept the ban, but rather carried out a scientific study of the puffin lifestyle. The archbishop then withdrew his ban.
• In Spain in 16./17. Century wrestled over the classification of drinking chocolate : Was it a (permitted) drink or a (prohibited) liquid food? Theologians of the Jesuit order , active in the chocolate trade, argued for their permission, while theologians of the Dominican order contradicted them. The question was put to several Popes; Gregory XIII. , Clemens VII. , Paul V , Pius V , Urban VIII. , Clemens XI. and Benedict XIV allowed chocolate, but there was no official teaching decision. The question therefore remained undecided. In the 19th century, an accepted habit had developed to enjoy drinking chocolate with little milk once a day during Lent.

For the wealthy, Lent could be made quite comfortable as a change in diet, while it was tough for the poor. Enlightenment authors such as Voltaire criticized it sharply: “The rich few ... fast for six weeks with sole , salmon , turbot , and sturgeon . […] It is different with the poor. Not only do they sin seriously when they eat a piece of tough mutton for four sous, they look in vain for such miserable food. So what are they eating? Chestnuts , rye bread , cheese ... and a few eggs from your poultry. Some churches forbid them to have eggs and milk. What then is left for them to eat? Nothing at all."

In the 17th and 18th centuries, responsibility for fasting shifted from pastors to medical professionals. Doctors now decided whether a person was able to fast. In 1647, the city council of Paris gave doctors the right to prescribe bouillon (then the epitome of a tonic for the sick) to their patients during Lent, and in 1774 the French government allowed meat to be sold all year round. Studies of the dangers and benefits of fasting led to a better understanding of human metabolism in the 18th century.

Catalan Good Friday meal: cod with eggs and raisins

The church's abstinence laws are the background for the still widespread practice of eating fish dishes on Good Friday and Ash Wednesday. During the week, meatless dishes (except fish and pastries) are on the menu of Catholic educational institutions and similar institutions on Fridays and sometimes also on Wednesdays. The tradition of serving a fish dish, especially carp , on Christmas Eve stems from the fact that the Vigil Day of Christmas used to be a day of penance and fasting.

The Roman Catholic Church reorganized the practice of fasting after the Second Vatican Council . An abstinence requirement applies on all Fridays that are not a public holiday, as well as on Ash Wednesday : meat consumption is prohibited, eggs and dairy foods are permitted (Apostolic Constitution Paenitemini , 1966). However, the Bishops' Conferences are authorized to regulate according to the church and can, in addition to abstinence from meat, permit other forms of abstinence from consumption and the Christian way of life ( Friday sacrifice ).

orthodoxy

→ Main articles : Philip's Lent , Mary 's Lent  and Maslenitsa

In Orthodoxy, Wednesdays and Fridays are considered weekly fasting days, and there are several weeks of fasting in the church year, the most important being the 40-day pre-Easter fasting period. There are three categories of fasting:

1. No animal products and neither oil nor wine;
2. No animal products, but oil and wine;
3. No animal products, but oil, wine and fish.

In detail, the fasting customs of the Orthodox churches are different, and fasting is individually adapted for each believer. The religious eating habits of the rural population in Greece were examined several times in the 20th century (see Mediterranean diet ). A field study on the island of Chios in the years 1988 to 1990 showed z. B. that in the mountainous and relatively poor north of the island two thirds of women fasted 50 days or more a year. They typically assigned certain dishes to the individual days of the week outside of Lent: meat or poultry on Sunday and Thursday, fish on Saturday and Tuesday, cooked vegetables on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. This fixed order made it easier to observe Wednesday and Friday as fasting days. In more affluent parts of the island, the practice of fasting varied from person to person; a third of the women surveyed said they fasted 50 days or more a year. Fasting was significantly less common among the men of Chios: only one in six said they fasted over 50 days and the majority of those surveyed fasted less than 25 days a year.

Fasting meals in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church: lay people fast about 180 days a year; Clerics, monks and nuns fast for about 240 days. That means completely abstaining from meat, fat, eggs and dairy products and only one meal a day.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has a special position . Members obey the biblical commandments by not eating pork and the meat of other “unclean” animals; Animals suitable for consumption are slaughtered by the Christian butcher , making the sign of the cross over the animal for slaughter and speaking the formula "In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, one God". The Christian Ethiopians traditionally differed from their Muslim neighbors in that they did not consume camel meat (cf. Lev 11.4  EU ), khat or coffee. In 1540, the Portuguese cleric Francisco Álvares described the slaughtering and pork taboo of the Ethiopians. For him, the latter was at odds with the proper Christian diet, in which pork played a central role. In a text published in 1661, an Ethiopian author, probably Emperor Gelawdewos , defended his church's dietary regulations against criticism from Roman Catholic missionaries. In 1956, Edward Ullendorff advocated the thesis that the points of contact between Ethiopian Christianity and Judaism went back to a Jewish community in Ethiopia that had already been located in the region before Christianity arrived. However, Maxime Rodinson was able to show in 1964 that the spread of Christianity in Ethiopia was older than the Jewish communities in Ethiopia and Yemen. The Ethiopians adopted the biblical food commandments and other elements, such as the Sabbath and circumcision , because they saw themselves as the chosen people .

Protestantism

The Zurich sausage meal had a similar signal effect for the Swiss Reformation as Luther's posting of the theses for the Wittenberg Reformation. The food regulations of the medieval Latin church are thus among the subjects that were re-evaluated by the reformers. Article 26 of the Augsburg Confession deals with the “differentiation of food” (De discrimine ciborum) and teaches: “... fasting is not rejected, but the fact that it is a necessary service for certain days and dishes , to the confusion of conscience. ”Fasting was shifted to the private, individual area. Fasting in the early Christian way was a hallmark of early Methodism , namely as a weekly abstinence from food and drink from Thursday evening to Friday afternoon.

Many members of Protestant free churches do without the luxury goods tobacco and alcohol. The members of the Salvation Army take a vow when they join, obliging them to abstain from "alcoholic beverages, tobacco, non-medically prescribed drugs ... and everything that could make my body, soul or spirit dependent".

The Seventh-day Adventist Church attaches great importance to a healthy diet, but does not prescribe a uniform diet for its members. If the members eat meat, the biblical dietary laws are obeyed and only clean animals are consumed. Ellen G. White was shaped by her reading of the Old Testament. Although she had sympathy for a vegetarian diet, she then allowed the meat of pure animals and warned against pork. About a third of the members are lacto-ovo vegetarians . 10% are vegan and 10% are pescetarians . General conference advises people to avoid meat, fish, and poultry and a diet based on whole grains, vegetables, fruits, grains, and nuts. Abstinence from tea, coffee and beverages containing caffeine is recommended but not mandatory. Hot spices and intensely tasting cheeses such as Roquefort are often avoided. Refraining from producing, trading and consuming alcohol is part of the baptism promise.

Mormonism

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints generally advises healthy eating habits, but also teaches specific dietary prescriptions based on a new revelation ( Word of Wisdom ). It is mandatory to refrain from alcohol, coffee, tea, tobacco and drugs. In the 19th century these bans were of minor importance, but in 1901 the church began promoting them. In 1921, compliance with it became a requirement for admission to the temple . There are different opinions about energy drinks and caffeinated soft drinks .

Food regulations in Judaism

→ Main articles : Kashrut , Yom Kippur  and Seder

Maimonides (12th century) saw rules of a healthy diet in the dietary regulations of his religion, while Nachmanides (13th century) explained that following these do's and don'ts has a positive effect on the psyche. Other Jewish commentators stress that the kashrut prevents assimilation and therefore helps to ensure the continued existence of Judaism in the diaspora . Overall, however, the dietary regulations apply as so-called bondage requirements: "It is not personal taste or any other logical reason that determines this way of life, ... but only God's will that we curb our temporary desires, urges and desires - because he wills it," explains Israel Meir Lau .

Two motives came together in the development of the Jewish dietary rules in antiquity:

• Mary Douglas developed a widely accepted interpretation of the biblical food commandments ( Purity and Danger , 1966). The holiness of the people of Israel requires that they distinguish themselves from non-Israelites; This is served by the observance of food taboos with the special emphasis on the pork and blood taboo.
• The rules for the consumption of sacred food (sacrificial meat) by Jewish priests were related to the consumption of profane food by lay people. In the Torah (or from a historical-critical point of view: the priestly scriptures), the contamination of this sacred food through contact with unclean things was strictly forbidden in the event that lay people carried sacrificial meat out of the temple area in order to consume it ( Lev 7:19 21  EU ). Jacob Neusner advocated the much-received thesis that the Pharisees' religious party in the 1st century AD extended this special case, where priestly purity laws applied to lay people, to every meal. “Therefore, one had to eat secular food (normal, everyday meals) in a state of ritual purity, as if one were a priest in the temple . The Pharisees assumed the status of temple priests - and with it all Jews - and performed acts that were reserved for priests on the basis of this status. " B. the ritual cleaning of the hands ( Netilat Jadajim ) and the dishes. Jesus of Nazareth and the early church rejected this. According to the Gospel of Mark ( Mk 7.3  EU ), ritual washing of hands before eating was a Jewish identity marker or boundary marker and therefore a widespread practice. After Roman legionaries destroyed the temple in AD 70, there was no longer any sacred food, and the special way of life of the Jewish priesthood could only continue to be practiced on a rudimentary basis. The rabbinic Judaism transformed the purity regulations in a concept of holiness, which also had no temple stock.

In the Ashkenazi Jewish kitchen, not only should dairy and meat dishes come into contact with each other, the respective kitchen utensils are also permanently separated from each other. It was created in the early modern period and is first recognizable in Antonius Margaritha's work Der gantz Jüdisch Glaub (1530). This system was fully developed in the kitchen in the 18th century. Behind this is a high standard that was probably represented by Jewish women. They saw kosher food preparation as a religious duty ( mitzvah ), for which they had special expertise. There is also a symbolic connection between kitchen work and temple service, which can be seen in the mitzvah, which is used to separate the dough . This mitzvah is one of the few commandments that are specifically mandatory for women.

Another step in development was the technical progress in the field of optical instruments. Traditionally, the principle was: “The Torah did not forbid that which cannot be seen with the naked eye.” ( Aruch haSchulchan , Jore Dea 84,36) But now one received knowledge of microorganisms that were classified as “swarming” ( Lev 11.43  EU ). The resulting uncertainty led to an intensification of the kashrut.

Orthodox Judaism

Kosher grocery store and bakery in Vienna's Leopoldstadt

Kaschern of kitchen utensils before Passover ( Tel Aviv , 1950)

The rabbinical tradition specified the biblical lists of clean and unclean animals at several points. Instead of the sometimes difficult to understand lists of unclean birds in the Torah z. B. comes a traditional knowledge (mesorah) , which poultry can be eaten. A pure animal, such as cattle, sheep or poultry, is slaughtered . An expert examines the internal organs for abnormalities (bedikah) , in this respect flawless meat is given the predicate smooth kosher . Certain blood vessels, nerves and pieces of fat are cut out (nikkur) . Then z. B. removed the blood by salting and rinsing. The Kosher certificate ( Hechscher ) guarantees the consumer that these processing steps have been carried out correctly. Kosher poultry eggs are kosher if they have no traces of blood, which is a great way to convince yourself by whipping them before using them in the kitchen. In the case of milk, the majority believe that the state quality standards are sufficient to be considered kosher, but both hard and soft cheese need a kosher certificate. Fish that have scales are eaten, but no seafood. A special kosher certificate is not required for fish, but to make sure that the fish has fully developed scales, you buy fillet with skin. Like all processed foods, smoked fish can be problematic.

Raw fruit and vegetables are allowed for consumption, provided they have been examined for pest infestation. Kosher wine, which plays an important role in the domestic ritual, requires rabbinic supervision of the entire manufacturing process. This also applies to grape must, brandy and cognac. (In contrast, alcoholic beverages that are not made from grapes can also be obtained from non-Jewish producers.) There is also rabbinical monitoring and certification for bakeries.

When it comes to processed foods, the concept of kosher cooking is important. In private households, with the exception of vegetarians, this means that there are two sets of kitchen utensils for meat and poultry on the one hand and dairy products on the other. They are also cleaned separately. If kitchen utensils come into contact with unclean food, they themselves become unclean and must be buried: metal by high heat, glass by water bath; In the case of electrical devices (oven, dishwasher, microwave), the casement takes place in several stages.

In a non-kosher environment (hotel, office), the usual dinnerware, including porcelain, can be used for cold kosher dishes. Eating dishes made of plastic, cardboard, glass are considered unproblematic. A hot beverage could be drunk from a glass, but a disposable cup would be preferable.

Hasidic Judaism

Hasidic Jews in the United States have a particularly strict interpretation of kashrut. The adaptation to the American majority culture is perceived as a threat to one's own identity, the kashrut as protection against it. Only foods with a Hasidic Kosher certificate are used in the kitchen, and the certification is being extended to include foods that the majority believe do not need them, such as vegetables or milk.

Liberal Judaism

The Conference of Rabbis of Reform Judaism , convened by Kaufmann Kohler in New York, decided in 1885 as one of its principles in the Pittsburgh Platform : “We are convinced that all Mosaic and rabbinical laws regulating diet, priestly purity and clothing, in times and have emerged under the influence of ideas that are completely alien to our contemporary mentality and spirituality. They do not fill the modern Jew with the idea of ​​priestly holiness; its observance in this day and age is more of an obstacle than an aid to modern spiritual elevation. "

Since then, the reform movement has moved closer to traditional positions. However, food regulations are a matter of personal or family decision, whereby various aspects play a role: Identification with the worldwide Jewish community and Jewish tradition, ethical discipline when eating in view of the scarcity of food worldwide, an open house in which everyone Jewish guest can attend the meal.

Jewish Renewal

The concept of Eco-Kaschrut goes back to Arthur Waskow , which connects Jewish dietary regulations and sustainability : “Is it eco-kosher to eat vegetables and fruit that were grown when the soil was soaked with pesticides? Is it eco-kosher to drink Shabbat Kiddush wine from plastic cups that are not biodegradable? ”Waskow first developed this argument in 1987 in an article for the magazine Reconstructionist as“ ethical kashrut ”. The concept of Eco-Kaschrut comes from Zalman Schachter-Shalomi , who in the 1970s discussed the question of whether one-way bottles really corresponded better to kashrut than reusable bottles, as the halacha assessed at the time. With the exception of the haredim , eco-kashrut is now included in most Jewish denominations. Groups in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism have developed their own kashrut certificates for food that was produced without cruelty to animals.

Food regulations in Islam

→ Main articles : Alcohol ban in Islam , Halal  and Ramadan

Muslims follow the example of the prophet when it comes to eating. B. use the right hand (here a table community in Morocco)

The source of the Islamic dietary regulations are the Koran as a revelation and the Hadith , texts that describe the behavior of the Prophet Mohammed. They contain the basic provisions that pork, blood, carrion (meat from an animal that has not been ritually slaughtered) and alcohol are prohibited for consumption. In the usage of the Koran, the terms ḥalāl (permitted) and ḥarām (forbidden) refer not exclusively to the subject of food, but also to other human activities.

In the area of ​​dietary regulations, the Koran differentiated itself from the eating habits of pre-Islamic Arabs and at the same time placed itself in the Judeo-Christian tradition; the similarity to the biblical food commandments is striking. But the Koran also distances itself from the kashrut (Sura 6,146 and Sura 4, 160 ). The Jewish dietary regulations, which are more difficult than Islam, are actually referred to as divine punishment for Jews. Wine is important in both Jewish and Christian rituals, here Islam makes a clear distinction with the ban on alcohol. In the Southeast Asian region, Islam has another unique selling point: the same dietary regulations apply to all believers. This is not the case in Hinduism, as in Buddhism.

The Koranic prohibitions on food are, in the order of their revelation: Sura 6,145 , Sura 16,115 , Sura 2,173 and Sura 5,3 . It is striking that the Koran does not justify the prohibition of blood and pork. Sura 5.3 distinguishes the Muslim practice from ritual slaughter in pre-Islamic Arabia. In all of this, the Koranic information is flexible, and the prohibitions may be broken in times of need.

The Sharia demands with regard to the ritual slaughter (Dabh) that the butcher Muslim is that the knife used is extremely sharp that the cut is properly carried out through the throat of the animal and the formula Bismillah speak confidently in front of the action. On the other hand, it is abhorrent to first knock the animal down and then sharpen the knife, sever the head of the animal, start dissecting while the animal is still showing signs of life, use a blunt knife, or kill the animal before slaughter to watch other animals for slaughter.

The Qur'an delves deeply into intoxicating drink which the Commentaries interpreted as wine (ḫamr) ; in chronological order: Sura 6.145 , Sura 16.65-67 , Sura 56.16-21 , Sura 16.65-67 , Sura 37.43-48 , Sura 83.22-26 , Sura 2.219 , Sura 4.43 , Sura 47.15 and Sura 5.90-91 . If the intoxicating drink is initially counted among the good gifts of creation and the joys of paradise , the evaluation of the suras revealed in Medina changes at a time when Muhammad was busy building up the Muslim community. The most critical statements are found in Sura 5, 90-91, revealed two years before the death of the Prophet. Now alcohol consumption has been compared to pagan animal sacrifice and labeled as a temptation by Satan. This final revelation replaces earlier, more positive texts.

The table manners that the Prophet himself followed and that were recorded by his contemporaries are exemplary (mandūb) : he washed his hands before and after eating, he sat down to eat, said grace and took the food with his right hand . He advised eating the food that could best be reached from where you were sitting and not drinking the water straight from the jug. Mostly you could see that he sat down first before he drank.

Halal kimchi from Malaysia

There has been a globalized market for halal food since the late 1990s. Traditionally, the population in Islamic states assumed that the foods they could buy were kalāl , and there was a tendency to identify one's own regional cuisine with kalāl . No particular attention was paid to halal labels on food packaging. The fact that this has changed fundamentally has to do with globalization. Halal foods have been removed from their local context (delocalized halal food) . Malaysia and Singapore have a leading role in supplying the global market because the state here exercises control over religion and particularly Islam. Technoscience , Halal standards, economy and state converge. "In both countries, Halal is tied into complex networks of political, ethnic and national significance and is at the same time propagated as an example of the compatibility of the ethnicized state, modern Islam, the economy and correct Islamic consumption."

Another understanding of Islamic dietary rules is represented by Muslims who refer to the Koranic term ṭayyib . In contrast to the religious law term ḥalāl “permitted food”, ṭayyib means “healthy, good food.” Asmaa El Maaroufi explains that the Halal discussion is devoted to all the details of the slaughter process, but the question of how the animal is raised, nourished or treated with medication has been neglected.

Sunni Islam

The hare is classified as permitted for consumption (mubāḥ) by all four Sunni schools of law . The Malikite school forbids the consumption of horse meat (ḥarām) , while Shafiites and Hanbalites allow it; Hanafis are undecided. Fish with scales are allowed by all Sunni law schools. The sturgeon is also allowed, with reservations . Shrimp are allowed by Malikites, Shafiites and Hanbalites, but forbidden as ḥarām by Hanafis . Crabs , lobsters and lobsters are allowed for Malikites and Hanbalites, but forbidden for Hanafis. Shafiites are undecided on this. Squids , mussels and oysters are allowed by Malikites, Shafiites and Hanbalites, but forbidden by Hanafis.

Shiite Islam

Some researchers believe that the peculiarities of Shiite diets are due to the influence of Zoroastrianism . The Shiite law school of the Jafers declares the consumption of rabbit meat forbidden ( rabbit taboo ). Horse meat is judged differently. The consumption of fish with scales is problem-free for Shiites. Among the seafood, shrimp are allowed (mubāḥ) , all others are, however, ḥarām . The sturgeon is deprecated as a food fish ( makrūh ) . Iran is one of the largest producers of caviar . If the sturgeon is haram , so is the caviar. The Pahlavi government marketed the caviar despite the concerns of the Shiite clergy. In the first years of the Islamic Republic all trade in haram products was supposed to cease, but caviar was economically attractive. Ayatollah Khomeini staff then examined the three species of sturgeon found in the Caspian Sea in Qom and found that they had small scales and fins near the caudal fin. Khomeini then issued a fatwa stating that all fish with fins and scales are allowed for consumption. Some Shiites rated this flexibility as an advantage of their denomination over Sunni Islam, which is perceived as static.

Food Regulations in Hinduism

Marwadi Thali , restaurant in Delhi

The Hindu dietary rules show great diversity. By being born in one of the numerous sub-boxes ( jati ), a Hindu also takes on the dietary rules applicable in this group. The sub-boxes are family groups, made up of several large families, they live close together and form a dining community: You can eat meals that are cooked together (kacca) , which is problematic beyond the limits of sub-boxes. McKim Marriott has proposed, in view of the variety of concepts of purity and impurity in Hinduism, to abandon an overarching definition of these terms and instead concentrate on the interactions between sub-boxes (interaction model): who takes food from whom, which people eat together? The hierarchy of the sub-boxes is not a rigid system, but here an improvement of one's own status is negotiated, among other things by offering and refusing food. Vegetarianism is another possibility for the individual Hindu to claim a higher purity status than given by birth.

The brahminic purity norms presented in the following are on the one hand ideals that are more or less socially agreed, on the other hand they are seldom strictly followed. "Those who implement them meticulously are mostly exposed to ridicule." ( Axel Michaels )

There are regionally different criteria for the classification of food (raw / cooked, wild / cultivated, growing above the ground / growing underground, etc.). In general, raw foods that have not yet come into contact with water, fat or spices are unproblematic and can be passed on from one person to another with almost no restrictions. Undiluted, uncooked milk and water are considered so pure that they transmit little or no impurity. The drinking vessel is different: that's why water is often drunk from the (right) hand.

The dishes are often classified as "cold" (kacca) or "hot" (garam) :

• Kacca: e.g. B. cooked rice, milk, ghee , honey, lentils, many types of fruit and vegetables. They are associated with abstinence, calm, and meekness.
• Garam: e.g. B. fried or deep-fried foods, meat, eggs, onions, mangoes and underground vegetables. They are associated with desire and aggressiveness.

Street Selling of Fried Food ( Andhra Pradesh )

For a Brahmin, the consumption of garam foods outside the home is less of a problem than that of kacca foods; therefore garam dishes are also more often offered at snack bars.

The kitchen is a separate area from which potential polluters are kept away. Menstruating women are not allowed to prepare food. Raw food is changed in its condition during cooking through contact with water, oil and spices: a process that is highly susceptible to contamination. Water, oil and spices endanger the purity of the food. Is it prepared with ghee, "the highest nutritional substance of the highest animal, the cow"? B. fried, the food is immunized against impurity. As a result, there is a twofold ideal of nutrition that most Hindus cannot achieve:

• an ascetic diet of raw vegetables, fruits, water, and milk;
• ritually immunized dishes made with ghee that only an elite can afford more often; for the majority, this is food on feast days.

In the domestic sphere, the women in a family often work in the kitchen, i.e. members of the same caste; Brahmins are often employed as cooks in restaurants that cater to guests of different castes. This is because members of all castes can easily accept the food prepared by a Brahmin. Generally the higher rank gives food to a lower rank, not the other way around; whoever accepts food from everyone has a very low status.

Cooking and eating utensils made of wood or clay are more difficult to clean than metal and are therefore more often considered to be unclean. Eating utensils that are only used once and then thrown away would be completely pure. Traditionally, a banana leaf or several tree leaves are used as such. Among the reusable dinnerware, metal has the greatest prestige, followed by stone, ceramic, clay.

Eating together as an expression of conviviality is not a common concept in Hinduism. “You eat alone, in a ... previously cleaned place ( cauka ,“ square ”). Orthodox Brahmins sometimes change clothes for this. ... One eats with the right hand, the left side of the body is considered unclean, especially the left hand, because it is used to cleanse after defecation . ”Leftovers from another person are considered to be highly unclean. Eating them is an act of submission (respect-pollution) . In the temple, food is offered to the deity and then consumed by the believers as its leftover food ( prasāda ) . The concept of respect-pollution is characteristic of Hinduism and refers to the fact that a person usually does what is polluting intentionally and as a show of humility. By cleaning his dining area with cow dung, a Brahmin shows his admiration for the cow. By eating up her husband's leftovers, the wife shows him respect.

In modern India, Brahmanic standards of purity can hardly be followed consistently. One example is mobility: the traveler cannot determine who prepared the food he is eating, and cooking himself on the go or getting fried food everywhere is also not very practical. “At the same time, one must note that the purity standards in the house remained strict. If you sit next to each other in the canteen, you don't sit down at a table at home. Side by side is not togetherness. "

The preparation methods in a European kitchen often contradict the dietary regulations of Hinduism. It starts with the fact that the kitchen can be entered with street shoes and that pets (dogs) are tolerated in the kitchen and near the dining table. Using a spoon to season the food and then using it to stir the food is very offensive. "Hindus, who ... allow only running water to wash food and dishes, find it unacceptable that cooking utensils should be washed in standing water and dried immediately."

Dietary rules in Buddhism

Lay people give food as alms to Buddhist monks (Thailand)

The distinction between members of the order ( saṃgha ) and lay people is fundamental . The dietary rules of Buddhism mainly concern the diet of members of the order. None of the five lay rules (pañcaśīla) explicitly refer to food. That is why the diet of lay people was mostly treated "liberally and optionally".

Theravada Buddhism

Dining tray for Buddhist monks, including chicken and pork, Don Det Temple, Laos

Order members can eat meat when given as alms. An early commentary on the monastic rules (vinaya-vibhaṅga) defines what "threefold pure meat" is:

1. The monk did not see the animal being slaughtered.
2. He didn't hear the slaughter.
3. He has no reason to believe that it was because of him that the animal was slaughtered.

All of this is given when it is z. B. is the remains of a family feast of lay people. Such meat can easily be eaten by monks.

In the Theravada Buddhist countries , vegetarianism is respected but not very widespread, “with laypeople arguing that even the monks eat meat; One can hardly ask laypeople to adopt a vegetarian diet. ”In Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia, Buddhists often eat fish in various ways. Thai Buddhists eat pork, beef, water buffalo, poultry, but also seafood, snails and - especially in the rainy season - frogs. In Thailand and Myanmar, cracking eggs is considered reprehensible; this is why, according to Marvin Harris , eggs that are "accidentally" cracked are on the market.

Mahāyāna Buddhism

According to Peter Harvey, it is shocking for Buddhist monks with Chinese characteristics to see Theravada Buddhist monks eat meat. Presumably through contact with Hindu-Brahmanic diets, vegetarianism in Mahāyāna Buddhism became a hallmark of the Buddhist way of life, both of monks and nuns as well as of committed lay people.

A key text for the assessment of meat consumption in Buddhism with Chinese characteristics was the review of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra there . This raises the question: How does the monk behave when he is offered meat as alms? The answer is: he accepts the meat, but then removes it, cleans the alms bowl with water, and only eats the other food that he has received as alms. The concept of "three times pure meat" was only an educational tool with which the Buddha had prepared the monks for a vegetarian way of life. The apocryphal Śūraṅgama-sūtra claims that the Buddha fed the monastic community with magically pure meat, so he could - apparently - allow meat to be consumed, but this magical meat is no longer available at the present time, so meat consumption is forbidden. In a late update of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra , the arguments against meat consumption are compiled:

• All living beings are related to one another and have been family members or friends in earlier incarnations;
• The smell of a meat eater is offensive
• Buddhists who eat meat give their religion a bad name;
• Meat is smelly;
• Consumption of meat, onions, garlic and alcohol hinders progress in meditation;
• Anyone who eats meat sleeps poorly and lives unhealthily. It is good for the karma and also for the body healthy to consume grains, beans, honey, oil, ghee , molasses and sugar.
• Eating meat leads to a rebirth as a predator or a lower caste person, vegetarianism leads to a good rebirth.
• If meat is not eaten, no living being will be killed.

In China, Buddhism met cults such as Taoism , in which dietetics played a major role. In this environment, Buddhism developed its own mandatory food regulations for religious and laypeople. Beyond vegetarianism, abstinence from alcohol and avoidance of the five strong-smelling vegetables onions, garlic, ginger, leeks and shallots (Sūtra von Brahmas Netz, Fànwǎng jīng ) meant . The fact that Buddhist ascetics also renounced the "five types of grain" (wǔ gǔ) rice, wheat, millet, barley and beans is an adoption of a corresponding diet from Daoism. Daoism thus distanced itself from typical products of civilization, which it classified as gross and heavy in contrast to the ethereal, light Qi . In China there are Buddhist lay groups for whom vegetarianism is central. This is derived from the first lay rule (“not taking life”).

Vegetarian meal in a Buddhist temple ( Nagano , Japan)

In Japan, Buddhism with Chinese characteristics influenced the way of life of the entire society and this justified extensive renunciation of meat. When the Meiji government allowed Buddhist priests to eat meat in 1872, it was done to weaken discipline within the Buddhist clergy and undermine their reputation among the population.

Although Tibetan Buddhism belongs to Mahāyāna Buddhism, meat has always been a common food in Tibet, and monks performed rituals to enable the slaughtered animals to be rebirthed cheaply. Since one avoids spilling blood, death by suffocation is preferred. It is also better to kill a large animal as a meat supplier than several small ones, since in this case only one living being would have to die.

Food regulations in Sikhism

→ Main article : Langar

A free meal for everyone (langar) in the main Sikh shrine ( Harmandir Sahib , Amritsar)

The current code of conduct Sikh Rehat Maryada forbids all members of the religious community: "A Sikh may not consume hemp ( cannabis ), no opium , alcohol or tobacco, in short no intoxicants at all." At the initiation ( Amrit Sanchar ) into the brotherhood Khalsa Pandh undertakes a Sikh not to eat the meat of an animal that has been slaughtered in the Muslim way ( butchering ) and not to consume tobacco.

Most members of the Khalsa brotherhoods are strictly vegetarian, with the exception of special groups like the Nihang . If Sikhs eat meat, the animal should be killed as quickly as possible, namely with a single blow or shot ( jhatka ) . This arrangement is from Guru Gobind Singh . The contemporary background is the Muslim rule in India, during which slaughter was the only allowed slaughter method. In Sikhismus the shafts as is Kuttha referred derived from the Panjabi -Verb Kohna "torture". Guru Nanak disapproved of the fact that Hindus ate halal meat in his day, while in other respects they strictly adhered to their diets : “They eat goat meat that has been slaughtered kuttha and foreign words spoken, but they do not allow anyone to enter their cooking area. "

Jhatka is slaughtered in such a way that the animal is tied between two stakes and the butcher cuts off its head with a single blow with a heavy blade. Jhatka meat is offered by many butchers and vendors in India; it is rarely available outside of India. However, killing with a captive bolt, as is common in European slaughterhouses, is also considered a jhatka.

Beef is generally avoided in Sikhism.

Food regulations in the Bahaitum

The Bahaitum knows no dietary rules. Although 'Abdul-Baha' considered vegetarianism to be the healthier diet that also avoids cruelty to animals, he made no commitment to it. A general recommendation is to eat a simple and moderate diet. Before the New Year and Spring Festival, the Baha'i calendar provides for a nineteen day fasting period (it is similar to Muslim Ramadan and is also known as the "interval diet" among medical professionals). Drugs that go crazy are expressly forbidden in the Bahaitum.

Food regulations in Jainism

The dietary regulations of Jainism are based on the concept ahiṃsa “not to hurt”. It is therefore important not to kill or injure the multitude of visible and invisible living beings, which only an ascetic can consistently practice. But laypeople also follow very extensive dietary regulations in order to approach this ideal. Vegetarianism is a matter of course for Jain's various observances.

Jain dietetics is based on the principle that certain foods are abhakṣya "not to be eaten". In the 11th century Nemichandra compiled a list (Pravacanasāroddhāra) of 22 such foods, which modern Jains apply as a framework for their own diet. It contains various things : meat, honey, alcohol, butter, aubergines , seed-rich (bahu-bīj) vegetables and fruits, and unusual foods such as snow, hailstones, clay and poison. According to the Jains, most of these substances contain numerous individual souls. B. each seed in the eggplant as a living being.

According to the biology of the Jains, there are individual plants (praytek) and corporate plants (sādharān) ; the latter contain many souls and are mainly plants, from the edible part of which a new plant could arise. Examples include turmeric , garlic, onions, radish , carrots, and potatoes. Translated into modern practice, this leads to the rule not to eat root vegetables (khaṇḍ mūḷ bandh) . Another rule is not to eat after sunset (rātri-bhojan bandh) because in poor light it is difficult to see what you are eating , and since many insects are attracted to light sources, the risk of eating insects is with a meal with artificial light elevated. In general, the Jain diets are mainly followed by women and some particularly religious men, with the result that they are followed more in private households (where women are responsible for the kitchen) and less in public.

Further rules concern the consumption of green plants (līlu śākh bandh) , which ascetics do not eat at all and lay people do not eat on certain days of their lunar calendar, and the boiling and filtering of drinking water (garam pāṇī) . Some Jains pour some water on the metal plate they ate from at the end of the meal and drink it with the crumbs of the meal. The idea is that otherwise the crumbs would end up in the sink and many new, short-lived organisms would form. All of these rules make it clear that Jains cannot eat in a normal restaurant. That is why there are special Jain restaurants in the pilgrimage sites of the religious community and z. B. in Ahmedabad Jain departments in normal restaurants. Jain women's cooperatives in Ahmedabad make snacks that can be consumed on the go. Otherwise, traveling often means fasting for practicing Jains.

Religious dietary requirements and state legislation

Where a secular constitutional state provides for communal catering for population groups, it also seeks to uphold religious freedom. For this reason, various states have developed regulations on how religious dietary regulations are dealt with.

military

Some states have long had experience of feeding soldiers of different religions. During the First World War, the British military leadership made special efforts to ensure the loyalty of Indian soldiers. Your diet played a key role in this. Separate places were set up for the slaughter of animals: halal for Muslims, jhatka for Sikhs and Hindus. Vegetarians were given dal , gur and milk instead of meat. Hindus also had the opportunity to bake fresh chapati in the army . The soldiers from the British motherland, on the other hand, ate canned meat (bully beef) and biscuits. Even Austria-Hungary had belonged to Jewish and Muslim soldiers in the late 19th century, a multi-religious army to the non-Catholics and Protestants also numerous Greek Orthodox. Particular consideration was given to Jewish and Muslim dietary regulations. For Muslims z. For example, an ordinance from 1881 provided: “Food could be prepared separately if the supply point could not deliver it. They provided their own cookware. ”There was also a kosher kitchen. This multi-religious tradition broke off after the First World War.

Germany

The Bundeswehr ensures compliance with the Muslim food regulations at the locations with component catering and in action, but not on ships and boats of the Navy. A cleaning of kitchen appliances, cutlery and crockery that goes beyond the usual hygiene is judged not to be absolutely necessary and therefore rejected.

Austria

With regard to religion, the Austrian Armed Forces today differentiate between normal members and those who are devout and particularly devout. With Protestant, Old Catholic and Methodist soldiers there is only the category of membership, with Sikhs only the category of special orthodoxy. (Special) orthodoxy usually means being drafted to the Vienna Military Command, where there is a legal right to follow Jewish and Islamic food regulations:

• Kosher food is delivered to the barracks by a catering company, or kosher kitchen equipment is provided to soldiers and they prepare their own meals.
• The Maria-Theresien-Kaserne in Vienna provides halal food as standard, which is also aimed at by other barracks. Pork-free food that does not meet Halal standards is generally offered, but is sometimes not accepted by Muslim soldiers. This creates an incentive to declare oneself as a devout Muslim.
• Sikhs are given vegetarian or beef-free meals "as required".
• Dietary regulations (graduated fasting rules) applicable to Orthodox Christians are de facto not specifically taken into account in the armed forces. Since the orthodox principle kat'oikonomian allows a deviation from the rules, this is apparently handled flexibly by the orthodox soldiers.

Switzerland

The religious affiliation of the Swiss Army and civil service members has not been documented since 1995. In principle, you have the right to freedom of belief and conscience, as long as this does not affect the operation of the service. In concrete terms, this means: “Religious diets cannot be specifically considered in the troop budget. The catering is handled in the same way as the meat-free, vegetarian form of food (Vpf A, Section 1.2.2). “Orthodox Jewish soldiers have the option of eating kosher food they have brought with them; they receive a sum of money for it. Alternatively, it is also an option to do military service in the Israeli army , as the Swiss constitution allows multiple nationalities.

Penal system

Germany

Changes to hospital catering for religious reasons are regulated by Section 21 of the StVollzG : "The prisoner must be able to follow the food regulations of his religious community." The institution can comply with this by making religious food offers (e.g. halal food). The detainee has no right to the institution providing him with food prepared according to the rules of his religion. The institution must give the detainee the opportunity to procure this food himself. The example of Berlin shows how the subject is practically dealt with in prison: there is halal food for Muslim prisoners; Buddhist and Hindu prisoners are believed to be generally able to cope with institutional vegetarian meals. The Jewish Community of Berlin recommends the vegetarian institutional food for Jewish prisoners, although this does not fully correspond to the kashrut. The alternative of individual self-sufficiency is expensive. In 2015, the Moabit correctional facility was in conversation with the Chabad Lubavitch Jewish Education Center about organizing such a delivery service for kosher food.

Austria

The Islamic Law regulates in § 12 that in the penitentiary system “the food laws within the religious community must be taken into account.” However, this does not imply any obligation that the institutional food must comply with the religious food laws. It is sufficient that the food “can be brought along or brought in.” Since an asylum kitchen can hardly meet the requirements of the kashrut, the Jewish communities organize the supplies for the Jewish prisoners.

Switzerland

The basic right to freedom of belief and conscience (Art. 15 BV) also applies in Swiss penal systems. In 1987, the Federal Supreme Court ruled that the prison management should endeavor to ensure that all prisoners can practice their religion as well as possible. Smaller prisons tend to act on a case-by-case basis, while larger prisons strive to institutionalize their religious offerings. A special feature of Switzerland is that it uses experts ( imams ) with a view to Muslim dietary regulations to inform prisoners about the regulations of their religion, which for the prisoners are often combined with cultural customs to form a unit.

Other uses of religious dietary regulations

School lunch

With the spread of all-day schools , the question of whether school meals should be based on religious regulations has become more important . The national action plan IN FORM of the German federal government advocates responding to different religious diets in order to promote mutual acceptance in the school community. “The different dietary regulations of the religions can best be reconciled through the vegetarian kitchen . Although this does not cover all the requirements of the individual religions in detail, it is the greatest common and practicable denominator for the school canteen. "

In France, on the other hand, the separation of state and religion is constitutive. The state observatory for secularism (Observatoire de la laicité) states that school meals are not a mandatory offer and are therefore not linked to compulsory schooling. Therefore, the attendance of the school canteen is optional for the students. With the school lunch, the municipality only offers a voluntary public service and therefore does not have to meet any requirements. But it is desirable that students eat together. The Observatory therefore recommends offering different menus with and without meat to choose from. Religious regulations should not be taken into account, rather the offer of options is in the public interest.

Healthcare

Since the familiar diet can have a positive effect on the well-being of patients, many hospitals in Germany comply with religious dietary regulations (keyword: cultural sensitivity ): 23% offer food that meets religious standards, and 18% have a patient kitchen in which patients or their relatives can prepare or warm up food they have brought with them. Most institutions indicate whether a dish contains pork; 28% also declare alcohol. Changes to the opening times of the cafeteria in line with Ramadan are very rare (1.8%). Christian dietary regulations only play a rudimentary role in everyday hospital life: many Christians forego meat on Friday and especially on Good Friday . "With this tradition in mind, many health care facilities that offer communal catering serve fish dishes on these days."

In the Swiss health care system, a trans- and intercultural, quasi “religiously blind” approach is often pursued: every patient is therefore an individual with a diverse identity. Religion is therefore not considered more strongly in nursing than cultural influences or the like. A survey of the Swiss hospitals revealed: "Consider diet, in the case of devout Muslims avoiding pork or alcoholic food and drinks ... is only extremely rarely a problem the hospitals already have their (rarely religiously motivated) different eating habits as soon as the patients enter and offer at least vegetarian menus. "

In-flight catering for air travel

Kosher menu, Turkish Airlines

Halal menu, Emirates Airline

Cathay Pacific airline non-vegetarian Hindu menu

For airlines, the provision of special on- board catering , whether medically or religiously motivated, is associated with additional costs and is therefore rarely advertised. The first known on-board catering based on religious specifications was fish dishes, which Pan Am , Panagra and BOAC had already prepared for practicing Catholics on long-haul flights before 1939. In 1964, at a time when there were generally no options for catering on board, TWA regulated that an alternative fish dish was offered on "Fridays and fasting days".

The Israeli airline El Al had the right from the beginning to serve kosher meals to air travelers on request, so that with the start of their international flights (1950) caterers were sought worldwide. In the 1960s, Pan Am saw kosher on-board food be in greater demand - from non-Jewish passengers who had noticed that they were serving a full menu rather than just a sandwich like the standard food.

Air India was founded in 1950 . The airline offered on-board catering in accordance with Hindu food regulations on all routes. In line with Indian state policy, there was no information on the caste of the people who prepared the meals.

Today there are several religious menus for on-board catering. As a matter of principle, they are not prepared or processed on board, but delivered by a caterer :

• KOML Kosher meal : All components of the meal correspond to the kashrut and were prepared, packed and sealed under the supervision of rabbis. The microwave on the plane is not kosher. The flight crew therefore heats the kosher menu together with the packaging so that the passenger can find the rabbinical seal on the components of the menu.
• MOML Muslim meal : menu without pork and pig by-products (gelatine) and without alcohol. Whether or not the caterers follow the Halal standard for the Muslim menu is not transparent. With some airlines, all dishes on board are halal-certified, e.g. B. (As of 2017) Emirates , Qatar Airways , Malaysia Airlines .
• HNML Hindu meal : No beef, veal, pork, fish, neither smoked nor raw. Usually the Hindu menu is a curry .
• VJML Vegetarian Jain Meal : Vegan menu without animal products, also without onions, garlic and everything that grows underground. The menu is prepared in the Indian way and consists of fruits and vegetables that grow above the ground.

Web links

• Encyclopaedia Britannica: Dietary law (Religion)
• Evangelical Central Office for Weltanschauung questions : Diets

literature

• Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011.
• Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith: An Encyclopaedia of Food Culture in World Religions , 2 volumes, Santa Barbara 2017.
• Michal Friedlander, Cilly Kugelmann (ed.): Kosher & Co .: about food and religion . An exhibition by the Jewish Museum Berlin , October 9, 2009 to February 28, 2010. Nicolai Verlag, Berlin 2009.
• Johanna-Elisabeth Giesenkamp, ​​Elisabeth Leicht-Eckardt, Thomas Nachtwey: Inclusion through school meals . How the consideration of religious and nutritional aspects can contribute to social inclusion in everyday school life . LIT Verlag, Berlin 2013.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c} Philippe Borgeaud: Art. Food Laws / Food Prohibitions / Food Laws I. Religious Studies . In: Religion Past and Present . Volume 7. Mohr Siebeck, 4th edition Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-16-146947-X , Sp. 1550 f.
2. ↑ Christoph Markschies: The ancient Christianity. Piety, ways of life, institutions . CH Beck, 2nd edition Munich 2012, p. 134. Cf. Tertullian: Apologeticum IX, 14: "Denique inter temptamenta Christianorum botulos etiam cruore distensos admovetis, certissimi scilicet illicitum esse penes illos."
3. ↑ ^{a b} Christoph Markschies: The ancient Christianity. Piety, ways of life, institutions . CHBeck, 2nd edition Munich 2012, p. 134.
4. ↑ ^{a b} Abigail Firey: The Letter of the Law. Carolingian Exegetes and the Old Testament . In: Jane Dammen McAuliffe et al. (Ed.): With Reverence for the Word: Medieval Scriptural Exegesis in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam , Oxford University Press 2010, pp. 204–224, here p. 205.
5. ↑ Michael Tangl (ed.): The letters of the holy Bonifatius and Lullus ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica ), Weidmann, Berlin 1916, p. 196. “In primis de volatilibus, id est graculis et corniculis atque ciconiis. Quae omnino cavendae sunt from esu christianorum. Etiam et fibri atque lepores et equi silvatici multo amplius vitandi. "
6. ^ Sven Meeder: The Liber ex lege Moysi: Notes and Text , p. 202.
7. ↑ 2. Pseudoisidorical Decretal Letter . In: Real and Fake Papal Letters, Volume 1: from Linus to Pelagius. (= Library of the Church Fathers, 1st series, Volume 31), Kempten 1875, p. 264 and note 1.
8. ↑ Cf. the Liber pontificalis (6th century): And he (Eleutherius) again affirmed that Christians, especially believers, should not reject any food that God created, provided that it is reasonable and suitable for people . "Et hoc iterum firmauit, ut nulla esca a Christianis repudiaretur, maxime fidelibus, quod Deus creauit, quae tamen rationalis et humana est." Liber Pontificalis § XIV.2 .
9. ^ Peter Dschulnigg : The Gospel of Mark . Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 102.
10. ↑ Ken Albala: Historical Background to Food and Christianity . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 7-20, here p. 13 f.
11. ^ Isidore of Seville: De Ecclesiasticis Officiis (= Migne, Patrologia Latina . Volume 83), 1st book, chap. 45: "Piscem sane, quia eum post resurrectionem accepit Dominus, possumus manducare."
12. ↑ Guido Fuchs : Mahlkultur: grace and table ritual . Pustet, Regensburg 1998, pp. 263-265. Klaus Bergdolt : How did the fish get into the hospital? In: Artur Dirmeier (Hrsg.): Eating and drinking in the hospital: nutritional culture between festive days and fasting days . Pustet, Regensburg 2018, pp. 11–22, here p. 15.
13. ↑ Barbara Ketcham Wheaton: Savoring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789 , Touchstone, New York 1996, p. 12.
14. ↑ Quoted from: Thomas Martin Buck, Herbert Kraume: The Council of Constance: Church politics - world events - everyday life . Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2013, p. 280.
15. ↑ Ken Albala: The Ideology of Fasting in the Reformation Era . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 41-58, here pp. 45 f.
16. ^ Sydney Watts: Enlightened Fasting. Religious Conviction, Scientific Inquiry, and Medical Knowledgein Early Modern France . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 105-124, here pp. 105 f.
17. ↑ Ken Albala: The Ideology of Fasting in the Reformation Era . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 41-58, here p. 50. Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith , Volume 1, Santa Barbara 2017, p. 340.
18. ^ Giulia Meloni, Johan Swinnen: Chocolade Regulations . In: Mara P. Squicciarini, Johan Swinnen (Eds.): The Economics of Chocolate . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2016, pp. 268–306, here p. 274 f.
19. ^ Sydney Watts: Enlightened Fasting. Religious Conviction, Scientific Inquiry, and Medical Knowledgein Early Modern France . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 105–124, here p. 107.
20. ↑ Voltaire: Dictionnaire Philosophique , Art. Carême : “Le petit nombre de riches… jeûnent pendant six semaines avec des soles, des saumons, des vives, des turbots, des esturgeons. […] Il n'en est pas de même des pauvres. Non seulement, s'ils mangent pour quatre sous d'un mouton coriace, ils commettent un grand pêché; corn ils chercheront en vain ce misérable aliment. Que mangeront-ils donc? ils n'ont que leurs châtaignes, leur pain de seigle, les fromages qu'ils ont pressurés du lait de leurs vaches, de leurs chèvres, ou de leurs brebis, et quelque peu d'oeufs de leurs poules. Il ya des Églises où l'on a pris l'habitude de leur défendre les oeufs et le laitage. Que leur resterait-il à manger? rien. "
21. ^ Sydney Watts: Enlightened Fasting. Religious Conviction, Scientific Inquiry, and Medical Knowledgein Early Modern France . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 105-124, here pp. 110-114.
22. ↑ Guido Fuchs: Mahlkultur: grace and table ritual . Pustet, Regensburg 1998, p. 259 f.
23. ^ Constitutio Apostolica Paenitemini III, III § 1: "Abstinentiae lex vetat carne vesei, non autem ovis, lacticiniis et quibuslibet condimentis etiam ex adipe animalium."
24. ↑ Stephan Haering et al .: Handbook of Catholic Church Law , Pustet, 3rd revised edition Regensburg 2015, p. 1118.
25. ↑ Orthodoxy in Germany: Fasting in the Orthodox Church
26. ^ Antonia-Leda Matalas, Eleni Toulouki, Chrystalleni Lazarou: Fasting and Food Habits in the Eastern Orthodox Church . In: Ken Albala, Trudy Eden (Ed.): Food and Faith in Christian Culture . Columbia University Press, New York 2011, pp. 189-204, here p. 200.
27. ^ The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Faith and Order: Religious Holidays and Calendar
28. ↑ Kai Merten: Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: An Attempt to Understand (= Studies on Oriental Church History . Volume 44), LIT Verlag, Berlin 2012, p. 88 f.
29. ↑ Thomas Guindeul: What do Christians (Not) Eat: Food Taboos and the Ethiopian Christian Community (13th-18th Centuries) . In: Annales d'Éthiopie 29 (2014), pp. 59–82, here p. 66.
30. ↑ Thomas Guindeul: What do Christians (Not) Eat: Food Taboos and the Ethiopian Christian Community (13th-18th Centuries) . In: Annales d'Éthiopie 29 (2014), pp. 59–82, here p. 72.
31. ↑ Thomas Guindeul: What do Christians (Not) Eat: Food Taboos and the Ethiopian Christian Community (13th-18th Centuries) . In: Annales d'Éthiopie 29 (2014), pp. 59–82, here pp. 69 f.
32. ↑ Thomas Guindeul: What do Christians (Not) Eat: Food Taboos and the Ethiopian Christian Community (13th-18th Centuries) . In: Annales d'Éthiopie 29 (2014), pp. 59–82, here p. 59. Cf. Edward Ullendorff: Hebraic-Jewish elements in Abyssinan (monophysite) Christianity . In: Journal of Semitic Studies 1 (1956), pp. 216-256; Maxime Rodinson: Sur la question des 'influences juifs' en Ethiopie . In: Journal of Semitic Studies 9 (1964), pp. 11-19.
33. ↑ Our Faith. The confessional writings of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Issue for the community. Published by the Lutheran Church Office on behalf of the church leadership of the United Evangelical Lutheran Church in Germany ( VELKD ). Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 6th, completely revised edition, Gütersloh 2013, p. 81. Cf. BSLK , p. 106: “Itaque non damnantur ipsa ieiunia, sed traditiones, quae certos dies, certos cibos praescribunt cum periculo conscientiae, tamquam istiusmodi opera sint necessarius cultus. "
34. ↑ Kenneth Cracknell, Susan J. White: An Introduction to World Methodism . Cambridge University press, Cambridge 2005, p. 160 f.
35. ↑ Matthias Pöhlmann, Christine Jahn: Handbuch Weltanschauungen, Religious Communities, Free Churches , Gütersloh 2015, p. 118.
36. ↑ Christie Davies: Coffee, tea and the ultra-Protestant and Jewish nature of the boundaries of Mormonism . In: Douglas J. Davies (Ed.): Mormon Identities in Transition . Proceedings of the Conference of Mormon Studies held in April 1995 at the University of Nottingham. Cassell, London 2006, pp. 35–45, here p. 38.
37. ^ Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith , Volume 1, Santa Barbara 2017, p. 495.
38. Jump up ↑ Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith , Volume 1, Santa Barbara 2017, p. 15.
39. ↑ Christie Davies: Coffee, tea and the ultra-Protestant and Jewish nature of the boundaries of Mormonism . In: Douglas J. Davies (Ed.): Mormon Identities in Transition . Proceedings of the Conference of Mormon Studies held in April 1995 at the University of Nottingham. Cassell, London 2006, pp. 35–45, here p. 36.
40. ^ Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith , Volume 1, Santa Barbara 2017, p. 376.
41. ↑ Israel Meir Lau: How Jews Live: Faith - Everyday Life - Festivals . Recorded and edited by Schaul Meislisch. Translated from the Hebrew by Miriam Magall. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 1988, pp. 74–76, quotation p. 76.
42. ^ ^{A b} Encyclopaedia Britannica: Dietary law. Rules and customs in World religions: Judaism .
43. ^ Jacob Neusner: From Politics to Piety: The Emergence of Pharisaic Judaism, p. 83.
44. ↑ Ulrich Luz : The Gospel according to Matthew, Mt 8-17 (= EKK I / 2, 3rd edition Neukirchen-Vluyn et al. 1999, p. 420f .; Joachim Gnilka : The Gospel according to Markus, Mk 1-8,26 (= EKK II / 1), Neukirchen-Vluyn et al. 1978, pp. 274–289. “As is appropriate to the form of the dispute, the criticism is linked to a concrete behavior of the disciples. They ... eat the meal without having to go first The reproach does not affect the violation of a hygienic, but a cultic-Levitic custom and calls into question their piety. Just like the disciples, according to Lk 11:38, Jesus "(ibid., p. 279 )
45. ↑ Christina Eschner: Eating in ancient Judaism and early Christianity: Discourses on the social significance of table community, food bans and purity regulations . Brill, Leiden / Boston 2019, p. 599.
46. ↑ Desirée Schostak: Art. Food laws, Jewish . In: Enzyklopädie der Neuzeit , Volume 12, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Stuttgart 2010, Sp. 327-330, here Sp. 328 f. Margaritha's work has an anti-Jewish tendency (the author was a convert), but in this case it is the earliest evidence of the cuisine described.
47. ↑ David Kraemer: Art. Dietary Laws, D: Modern Judaism . In: Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception . Volume 6, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2013, Col. 811–814, here Col. 812.
48. ↑ Zushe Yosef sheet: Kosher Food Production , Wiley-Blackwell, 2nd ed Hoboken 2008 S. 138th
49. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Orthodox Union : The Kosher Primer .
50. ↑ Israel Meir Lau: How Jews Live: Faith - Everyday Life - Festivals . Recorded and edited by Schaul Meislisch. Translated from the Hebrew by Miriam Magall. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 1988, p. 83 f.
51. ↑ ^{a b} Avichai Apel: Two stoves, one refrigerator. Cutlery, crockery and microwave: The dietary laws also apply to kitchen appliances and accessories . In: Jüdische Allgemeine , December 1, 2014.
52. ^ Orthodox Union Kosher Staff: Mission Not Impossible: The Kosher Jew in a Non-Kosher Milieu . About the use z. B. of glass plates exist different views.
53. ↑ Central Conference of American Rabbis: Article Declaration of Principles , No. 4: “We hold that all such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet, priestly purity, and dress originated in ages and under the influence of ideas entirely foreign to our present mental and spiritual state. They fail to impress the modern Jew with a spirit of priestly holiness; their observance in our days is apt rather to obstruct than to further modern spiritual elevation. "
54. ^ My Jewish Learning: Kashrut & Reform Judaism. A look at what, if any, aspects of this practice are relevant for modern Reform Jews . Statement by the Central Conference of American Rabbis in: Gates of Mitzvah: A Guide to the Jewish Life Cycle (1979).
55. ^ Arthur Waskow: Eco-Kashrut: Standards for What and How We Eat . In: my Jewish Learning, Commentary on Parascha Schmini.
56. ↑ Clary Rooda: Eco-kashrut and Jewish Tradition. How the Food on our Table can Atone for us , p. 21.
57. ↑ Melanie Aron: Eco-Kosher's Biblical Roots . In: ReformJudaism.org, Commentary on Parascha Reeh.
58. ↑ David Kraemer: Art. Dietary Laws, D: Modern Judaism . In: Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception . Volume 6, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2013, Col. 811–814, here Col. 814.
59. ↑ Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, p. 4.
60. ↑ Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, pp. 21 f.
61. ↑ Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, p 13 f.
62. ↑ Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, p. 14
63. ^ Mian N. Riaz, Muhammad M. Chaudry: Halal Food Production , CRC Press, Boca Raton 2000, pp. 18-20.
64. ↑ Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, p 14-17.
65. ↑ Mohammad Hashim Kamali: The Parameters of Halal and Haram in Shari'ah and the Halal industry . International Institute of Advances Islamic Studies, Kuala Lumpur 2013, p. 27.
66. ^ Marlis Gilette: Muslim Foodways . In: Jakob A. Klein, James L. Watson (eds.): The Handbook of Food and Anthropology , Bloomsbury Academic, London et al. 2016, pp. 48–73, here pp. 57–59.
67. ↑ Johan Fischer: Islam, Standards, and Technoscience: In Global Halal Zones (= Routledge Studies in Anthropology . Volume 28), Routledge, New York 2016, p. 198.
68. ↑ Johan Fischer: Islam, Standards, and Technoscience: In Global Halal Zones (= Routledge Studies in Anthropology . Volume 28), Routledge, New York 2016, p. 199.
69. ↑ Asmaa El Maaroufi: Meat consumption does not end with the question about "halâl" (Sura 2 verse 168) . In: Deutschlandfunk: Koran explains, February 23, 2018.
70. ↑ ^{a b} Febe Armanios, Boğaç A. Ergene: Halal Food: A History , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, p 54th
71. ^ Marlis Gilette: Muslim Foodways . In: Jakob A. Klein, James L. Watson (eds.): The Handbook of Food and Anthropology , Bloomsbury Academic, London et al. 2016, pp. 48–73, here p. 52.
72. ^ Marlis Gilette: Muslim Foodways . In: Jakob A. Klein, James L. Watson (eds.): The Handbook of Food and Anthropology , Bloomsbury Academic, London et al. 2016, pp. 48–73, here pp. 57 f.
73. ↑ Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 192.
74. ↑ ^{a b} Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 206.
75. ↑ ^{a b} Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 202.
76. ↑ Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 205.
77. ↑ Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 201.
78. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Jakob Rösel: Indian food rituals and the food of the Lord of the world
79. ↑ Axel Michaels: Art. Food Laws / Food Prohibitions / Food Laws VIII. Indian Religions . In: Religion Past and Present . Volume 7. Mohr Siebeck, 4th edition Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-16-146947-X , Sp. 1557.
80. ↑ ^{a b} Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 200.
81. ↑ Axel Michaels: Art. Food Laws / Food Prohibitions / Food Laws VIII. Indian Religions . In: Religion Past and Present. Volume 7. Mohr Siebeck, 4th edition Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-16-146947-X , Sp. 1557 f.
82. ^ Edward B. Harper: Ritual Pollution as an Integrator of Caste and Religion . In: The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 23 (June 1964), pp. 151-197, here pp. 181-183.
83. ↑ Axel Michaels: The Hinduism: Past and Present . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 204 f.
84. ↑ Renate Syed: Food theories and food laws in Hinduism . In: Michal Friedlander, Cilly Kugelmann (eds.): Koscher & Co .: on food and religion , Berlin 2009, pp. 248–261, here p. 266.
85. ↑ ^{a b} Max Deeg: Art. Food Laws / Food Prohibitions / Food Laws VII. Buddhism . In: Religion Past and Present . Volume 7. Mohr Siebeck, 4th edition Tübingen 2004, ISBN 3-16-146947-X , Sp. 1556.
86. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 476.
87. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 480.
88. ^ Marvin Harris: Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture , Waveland Press, Long Grow 1998, p. 24.
89. ^ Peter Harvey: An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values ​​and Issues , Cambridge University Press, 3rd Edition Cambridge 2003, p. 164.
90. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 479 f.
91. ↑ Peter Harvey: An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values ​​and Issues , Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition Cambridge 2003, p. 163 f.
92. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 250.
93. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 249.
94. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 481.
95. ↑ Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine: Buddhism: manual and critical introduction . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 481 f.
96. ↑ Sikh Rehat Maryada, Sikh Code of Conduct and Conventions : Article XVI - Living in Consonance with Guru's Tenets , j).
97. ^ Sikh Rehat Maryada, Sikh Code of Conduct and Conventions : Article XXIV - Ceremony of Baptism or Initiation , p).
98. ^ Art. Jhatka . In: The Encyclopedia of Sikhism , ed. by HS Singha, Hemkunt Publishers, 2nd edition New Delhi 2005, p. 113.
99. ^ Art. Jhatka . In: The Sikh Encyclopedia (online).
100. ↑ Paul Fieldhouse: Food, Feasts, and Faith , Volume 1, Santa Barbara 2017, pp. 313 f.
101. ↑ Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair: Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed . Bloomsbury, London / New Delhi / New York / Sydney 2013, p. 171 f.
102. ^ Peter Smith: An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, p. 171.
103. ↑ John E. Cord: Jains in the World: Religious Values ​​and Ideology in India , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001, p. 128 f.
104. ^ John E. Cord: Jains in the World: Religious Values ​​and Ideology in India , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001, p. 129 f.
105. ↑ John E. Cord: Jains in the World: Religious Values ​​and Ideology in India , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001, pp. 130-132.
106. ^ Vikram Doctor: What made the British take extra care to feed Indian soldiers during World War I? In: The Economic Times, September 7, 2014.
107. ↑ Wolfgang Reiss: Dealing with Religious Minorities in the Austrian Army , p. 87.
108. ↑ Center for Inner Leadership: German Citizens of the Muslim Faith in the Bundeswehr , Koblenz 2011, p. 33.
109. ↑ Wolfgang Reiss: Dealing with Religious Minorities in the Austrian Army , p. 92 f.
110. ↑ ^{a b} Wolfgang Reiss: Dealing with Religious Minorities in the Austrian Army , p. 97.
111. ↑ ^{a b} Wolfgang Reiss: Dealing with Religious Minorities in the Austrian Army , p. 98.
112. ↑ Report of the Federal Council on the situation of Muslims in Switzerland with special consideration of their diverse relationships with the state authorities in fulfillment of postulates 09.4027 Amacker-Amann of November 30, 2009, 09.4037 Leuenberger of December 2, 2009 and 10.3018 Malama of March 1 2010. p. 34.
113. ↑ Leaflet of the army pastoral care: Compatibility of religious practice and military service (as of January 1, 2018), p. 1.
114. ↑ Peter Bollag: Comrades under oath . In: Jüdische Allgemeine, March 11, 2010.
115. ↑ Law on the execution of custodial sentences and custodial measures for reform and security (Prison Act - StVollzG) § 21 Institutional catering
116. ↑ Klaus Laubenthal : Strafvollzug, Springer, 8th edition Berlin 2019, p. 530.
117. ↑ Parliamentary question: How does Berlin ensure freedom of belief and belief in the provision of food in prisons?
118. ↑ Wolfram Reiss : Self-Contemplation Behind Bars: Naikan in Prison in Germany and Austria , Tectum, Marburg 2016, p. 82 f.
119. ↑ Report of the Federal Council on the situation of Muslims in Switzerland with special consideration of their diverse relationships with the state authorities in fulfillment of postulates 09.4027 Amacker-Amann of November 30, 2009, 09.4037 Leuenberger of December 2, 2009 and 10.3018 Malama of March 1 2010. p. 56, 59 f.
120. ↑ Multiculturalism in school catering
121. ^ Services de Premier ministre, Observatoire de la Laicité, Fiches pratiques: Fiche No. 2, La restauration scolaire .
122. ↑ Karl Blum, Petra Steffen: Inventory of the cultural sensitivity of hospitals . In: Faize Berger (Ed.): Kultursensenzen im Krankenhaus , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2014, pp. 103–116, here p. 112.
123. ↑ Christine Keller: PflegeWissen Nutrition . Elsevier, Munich 2013, p. 5.
124. ↑ Report of the Federal Council on the situation of Muslims in Switzerland with special consideration of their diverse relationships with the state authorities in fulfillment of postulates 09.4027 Amacker-Amann of November 30, 2009, 09.4037 Leuenberger of December 2, 2009 and 10.3018 Malama of March 1 2010. p. 42. 44 ..
125. ^ Richard Foss: Food in the Air and Space: The Surprising History of Food and Drink in the Skies , Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2015, p. 125.
126. ↑ Richard Foss: Food in the Air and Space: The Surprising History of Food and Drink in the Skies , Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2015, pp. 125–127.
127. ^ Richard Foss: Food in the Air and Space: The Surprising History of Food and Drink in the Skies , Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2015, p. 129.
128. ↑ Peter Jones: Flight Catering , Elsevier, Oxford 2004, p. 84 f. Colin C. Law: A Flight Attendant's Essential Guide , Brown Walker Press, Irvine 2019, p. 277.
129. ↑ Kemal Calik: Airlines: Halal food above the clouds . In: Halal-Welt, March 14, 2017.
130. ^ Jain Airline Meals

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