Jews in the United States
There are between 5.3 and 9 million Jews in the United States - 6.2 million in Israel . The wide range between the respective data results from the different parameters according to which people of Jewish faith or origin are defined and counted. Depending on the method of counting, most Jews worldwide either live in the United States or in Israel, with around 130,000 Jewish Israelis living in the United States and around 170,000 American Jews living in Israel.
Although the first Jewish immigrants to the continent were of Sephardic origin, today 90 percent of the total Jewish-American population is Ashkenazi . All major movements in Judaism are represented in the United States , from the ultra-Orthodox Haredim to conservative and liberal to a purely secular Judaism , although liberal Judaism in particular traditionally represents the strongest trend.
New York state lived between 1.7 and 2 million Jews in 2016, or 9 percent of the total population. Thus, before Tel Aviv , it represented the largest metropolitan area of people of Jewish origin worldwide. The same applies to New York City , which in turn is also the city with the largest number of Jewish people in the whole world.
history
After Sephardic Jews in particular arrived in the USA in the 17th century, Jewish immigration only increased significantly in the 19th century. Since the beginning of the 19th century, numerous Jews from Germany emigrated to the USA, including many merchants and shopkeepers. By 1880 the number of Jews in the United States had grown to 250,000, many of whom were middle-class. Because of the persecution in parts of Eastern Europe , Jewish immigration increased dramatically in the 1880s, with many new immigrants coming from Russia and Poland . Over two million Jews arrived between the late 19th century and 1924 when immigration regulations were tightened. Many of these immigrants settled in and around New York City .
At the beginning of the 20th century these newly arrived Jews lived mainly in the urban immigrant districts and created a network of bases consisting of numerous small synagogues and “Landsmannschaften” (associations of Jews from the same hometown). Jewish American writers during this period pushed for assimilation and integration into broader American culture, and Jews were quickly becoming a part of everyday American life. 500,000 American Jews (half of all Jewish men between 18 and 50) fought in World War II, and after the war, Jewish families joined the new trend of suburbanization . There, Jews increasingly "assimilated", both with regard to interreligious marriages with non-Jews and the tendency towards secularization. At the same time, new centers of the Jewish communities formed, the number of pupils in Jewish schools doubled between the end of the Second World War and the mid-1950s, while membership in the synagogue community rose from 20 percent in 1930 to 60 percent in 1960.
population
According to the US Census, there were 6.19 million Jews in the US in 2000, less than 2 percent of the total population. People of Jewish background settled in the USA primarily in and near capital cities, initially in the northeast and midwest, and in recent decades increasingly in the south and west of the country. The urban agglomerations with the highest Jewish population are listed in descending order:
Greater New York (2,051,000), Miami (498,000), Los Angeles Area (668,000), Philadelphia (285,000), Chicago (265,000), San Francisco (218,000), Boston (254,000) and Baltimore- Washington, D.C. (166,000) .
Miami's Jewish community has the highest average age of any US community because it consists primarily of retirees (which is put into perspective by recent immigration of Jews from Latin American countries such as Argentina , Cuba, and Brazil ). Other capital cities have a high proportion of Jewish populations, such as Cleveland , Baltimore and St. Louis . Areas of the Sunbelt near Florida and California (both states always had important Jewish communities) are also seeing a significant increase in the Jewish population. These include Houston , Dallas , Phoenix , Charlotte and especially Atlanta and Las Vegas . In many cities, the majority of Jewish families have moved to the suburbs .
General population development
The fundamentally successful social and cultural characteristics of the United States have facilitated the economic, political, and societal success of the American Jewish community and also contributed to " assimilation, " a controversial and significant issue in the modern American Jewish community. On the one hand, the high number of interreligious marriages is seen as problematic insofar as the possible dwindling of the American-Jewish community is up for discussion. On the other hand, it also serves as a starting point to plead for more openness in dealing with interreligious couples and for a looser conversion practice . In general, questions about religious and ethnic identity are considered based on this starting point.
The number of interfaith marriages increased from about 6 percent in 1950 to about 40 percent - 50 percent in 2000. Only about a third of interfaith couples raise their children in the Jewish religion. Coupled with the relatively low birthrate of the Jewish community, this resulted in a 5 percent decrease in the U.S. Jewish population in the 1990s. In addition, the average age of the Jewish community is higher than that of the general American population.
However, Jewish upbringing in interfaith families is more intense in areas with high Jewish populations, such as the metropolitan areas of New York City, Los Angeles , Philadelphia , Detroit , Baltimore, Washington, DC, Chicago, and Cleveland (which has the highest Jewish-American population in the smaller US capitals).
In contrast, some American Jewish communities, such as Orthodox Jews , have significantly higher birthrates and lower interfaith marriage rates and are growing rapidly. Daniel Pipes noted in an essay in 2005 that the proportion of Jewish Orthodox synagogue members had increased from 11 percent in 1971 to 21 percent in 2000, while the total number of Jewish communities declined.
Religious Statistics
Jewish religious practice in America is diverse. Among the 6 to 8 million American Jews are more than 60 percent in some way established with Judaism connected and practice this from Passover - Seder through to the use of a menorah .
According to censuses from 2013, at least 38 percent of the synagogue members are Reform Jews , 33 percent Conservative Jews , 22 percent Orthodox , 2 percent Reconstructionists and 5 percent others. The census found that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest were generally more observant of religious norms than Jews in the South or West. At the annual Passover Seder or Hanukkah ceremonies in the White House, the organization of the festivals is alternately assigned to other currents within Judaism.
In the past, there was a tendency in the USA for secular Jews to reorganize their way of life according to the religiously orthodox rules , which is commonly referred to as Baal Teshuwa . Although it is not clear how common or demographically relevant this phenomenon is.
Reform Judaism
Today Reform Judaism in the United States is the direction with the greatest number of members. The beginnings of the trend lie in Germany in the 19th century and were developed and conceived , among others, by the scholars Abraham Geiger , Samuel Holdheim and David Einhorn . Decisive for this direction is the division of the Jewish commandments into ethical and ritual laws as well as the view that the ethical laws are timeless and immutable, whereas the ritual laws can be changed in order to adapt them to the respective living environment. In contrast to Orthodox Judaism , Reform Judaism is based on a progressive revelation of God in history. Revelation is understood as a dynamic and progressive ("progressive") process that originates from God and is mediated by humans and not as a one-off act in which Moses literally reads the Torah ("written teaching") and all interpretations ("oral Doctrine ”, later written down in the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature ). From this the obligation to preserve the Jewish tradition, but also to its constant renewal, is derived. The texts of the Tanach are not withdrawn from historical-critical research . Instead of waiting for the coming of a personal messiah, one hopes for the dawn of a messianic time.
The current was also the first within the United States to allow women to study the Torah and to open the rabbinical office to Jewish women. With Sally Priesand , the first female rabbi in the history of the United States was ordained on the part of Reform Judaism in the 1972nd Reform Judaism is also characterized by the fact that exogamous marriages are also concluded within the community, and children or descendants of Jewish fathers are also defined as Jewish and accepted as full members in the synagogue community.
Conservative Judaism
The term Conservative Judaism was coined in the USA for a movement within Judaism that split off from Reform Judaism to form an independent denomination alongside orthodox. In Israel and Europe, conservative Judaism is called “masorti” ( Hebrew for traditional ). The Hebrew term is also used outside of Israel by individual conservative Jewish communities, especially in Great Britain, but also in Germany. Today, after Reform Judaism, it is the second strongest current in American Judaism. Conservative Judaism is of the opinion that the revelation of the written Torah (Hebrew teaching ) and the oral Torah ( Mishnah and Talmud ) was not given by God “ literally at Sinai ”, but was made by people over a longer period of time.
Members of the conservative movement are stopped, the dietary laws ( kashrut ) and rest requirements for Shabbat with some regulations are designed somewhat milder than in Orthodoxy comply. Conservative congregations also largely adhere to the traditionally preserved form of the liturgy. There are further differences to orthodoxy in the understanding of gender roles: In addition to the neological currents, the new conservative Judaism advocates consistent equality between men and women; the conservative rabbinical seminary in New York has been allowing women to study rabbis since 1984. Amy Eilberg, originally from Pennsylvania, was ordained the first female rabbi of the conservative Jewish current that same year. In recent years, voices from prominent rabbis have repeatedly been heard within America's conservative Jewish community, who have pleaded that descendants of Jewish fathers should also be accepted into the synagogue communities, although unlike in Reform Judaism, there is no broad consensus in favor of the Patrilinearity could emerge, but individual synagogue communities also accept children of Jewish fathers as members with equal rights.
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism is based on the doctrine handed down in writing and orally, which is recorded in the Torah and Talmud . It continues to develop these principles in the subsequent works of rabbinic Judaism to this day. In Orthodox Judaism, the entire Torah is the authoritative word of God, but its interpretation is developed and increasingly unfolded over time. The authority of the Torah is formative for the orthodox Jewish life, which is understood as a holistic worship service.
Orthodox Jews live their lives according to the Halacha . Innovations are interpreted by the rabbis based on the Halacha, the Jewish law . Orthodox Judaism is thus able to react to changes without changing anything in the traditional written regulations. The consistent observance of the Shabbat , the kosher diet , and the rules on marital relationships (Taharat Hamishpacha) are of particular importance .
In the United States, the centers of Orthodox Judaism are primarily found in New York City ( Brooklyn ; Borough Park, Williamsburg, and Crown Heights) and in Rockland County , upstate New York . Overall, 13 percent of all American Jews consider themselves Orthodox.
education
American Jews are generally more educated than the American public as a whole. According to this, 55 percent of Jewish adults have at least a bachelor's degree and 24 percent have a higher academic degree. In the general population, just over 25 percent have a bachelor's degree and 6 percent have a higher academic degree.
There is also a vibrant Jewish school system with an extensive network of Jewish schools, colleges and universities. Jewish education is also generally offered at the synagogues in the form of Hebrew supplementary schools. In this context, one should mention the Schechter Day School Network, which is led by the conservative Jewish community in America and operates a total of 45 schools in the United States and Canada. There are a total of 861 Jewish day schools in the United States, which in turn are attended by around 255,000 children between the ages of four and twelve.
The Brandeis Private University was also founded in 1948. Although it has an interdenominational focus and is open to students of all nationalities, religions and political orientations, it is also specifically committed to strengthening the Jewish-American community. On the other hand, the Yeshiva University , which seeks to combine the study of Torah and Talmud with the humanities and natural sciences, is located in New York City .
Until the first half of the 20th century, Jewish students at American universities were often subject to quota systems that were intended to limit the proportion of Jewish students. Thus, for example, the proportion of Jewish students at the Harvard School of Medicine fell between the two world wars from initially 30 percent to 4 percent. In 1943, the literary scholar Harry Levin was appointed Harvard University's first Jewish professor in the Faculty of English, although the future Nobel Prize winner Paul Samuelson was not appointed as a professor by the Faculty of Economics in 1948. Since the 1950s there have been officially no quotas for Jews at American universities, and so in 2017, for example, 27 percent of all students at Yale University and 25 percent at Harvard University are of Jewish origin, this proportion at Columbia University in New York City and at Cornell University in Ithaca is 20 percent each.
Well-known Jewish presidents of American universities included the economist Rick Levin , president of Yale University between 1993 and 2012 , and from 1994 the psychologist Judith Rodin , president of the University of Pennsylvania , and the economist Lawrence Summers between 2001 and 2006 , President of Harvard University , and Harold Schapiro , President of Princeton University between 1992 and 2000 .
A total of around 110 researchers, scientists, thinkers, writers and politicians of Jewish-American origin have been awarded the Nobel Prize for their work and work since it was introduced in 1901 .
Jewish-American culture
Many aspects of Jewish American culture gradually became part of the general culture of the United States.
nutrition
Some specialties of Jewish cuisine have been adopted into the American dominant culture; such as bagel and lox (smoked salmon) and, to a lesser extent, corned beef , pastrami , knish and bialy . Also sandwiches and "Pickles" ( pickled vegetables ) owe their present distribution mainly Jewish immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe. Initially, these foods were ingested as part of New York culture and then spread across America. Bagels were a specialty of Jewish and non-Jewish New Yorkers for decades, but hardly spread "west of the Hudson " until the 1980s . The “deli” (also: “delicatessen”, a combination of kosher grocery and fast food), which can be found mainly in large cities, is an institution that is also popular with non-Jewish Americans.
language
Although the majority of American Jews are English speakers, many Hasidic Jews grew up speaking Yiddish . Once the mother tongue of millions of European Jews who immigrated to the United States, Yiddish has had some influence on American English. The following examples were borrowed from Yiddish: chutzpah (“impertinence”, “cheek”), nosh (“snack” from German: naschen), schlep (“to carry heavily”) or schmock (“ stupid ”).
Many American Jews also study Hebrew , the language of most Jewish devotional literature, Tanakh (Bible), Siddur (prayer book), and the modern State of Israel . Some American congregations of Iranian Jews , notably the large group in and around Los Angeles, California, and Beverly Hills , speak mostly Persian at home and in church services, and read Persian newspapers.
In the 1970s and then again in the 1990s, large numbers of Jews immigrated to the United States from the Soviet Union . These Jews tend to live in their own communities, especially in and around Los Angeles, Washington D.C., and especially New York City (best known: Brooklyn , near Brighton Beach ). As a group that is far more secular than other American Jews, they speak Russian as their mother tongue.
Literature and media
Classical prose writers with Jewish topics specific to the United States of America include Philip Roth , Saul Bellow , Chaim Potok , Leon Uris , Cynthia Ozick , Jonathan Safran Foer , Nicole Krauss and Bernard Malamud in the period after the Second World War .
The Jewish Week is the largest-circulation Jewish weekly newspaper in the United States. The publication is in demand in the New York area and worldwide. In addition, there is Forward Magazine and Tablet Magazine, which has existed since 2012, which can be attributed primarily to the liberal wing of the Jewish-American media landscape.
Institutions of Jewish-American personalities
Since the 19th century, numerous institutions have been established by Jewish-American women and men in the United States, which over time have developed into museums, schools, hospitals and cultural institutions of great national importance:
The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City
The Neue Galerie in New York City founded by Ronald S. Lauder
Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City (Central Park)
The Center for Jewish History (Leo Baeck Institute) at Columbia University
The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey
In this context, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum , which was built by the New York Guggenheim family , the Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, the Neue Galerie founded by Ronald S. Lauder on the Upper East Side in Manhattan, the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, or the B'nai B'rith organization founded by German-American Jews , which claims to promote welfare, tolerance and global humanism.
In 1930 was in Princeton in the US state, New Jersey , the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) by the Jewish entrepreneur Louis Bamberger and the Jewish scholar Abraham Flexner which especially the last academic workplace launched, Albert Einstein international fame attained. At the center of the research institute was the will to conduct independent research, so the scientists from the humanities and natural sciences associated with the IAS have considerable resources at their disposal to be able to develop individually scientifically beyond student courses, exams or institutional pressure. Although the institute, which is only open to doctoral researchers, is associated with Princeton University , it remains independent and self-financed.
Furthermore, in 1955 the scholars Hannah Arendt , Gershom Scholem , Martin Buber , Ernst Simon and Robert Weltsch founded the Leo Baeck Institute with headquarters in New York City, Jerusalem and Berlin , with the aim of restoring the largely destroyed legacy of the German and Austrian To be able to cultivate and maintain Judaism anew.
There are a total of around thirty Jewish museums throughout the country that document the history, religion, and social development of American Jewry. The City of Philadelphia also houses the National Museum of American Jewish History , which was established in 1976 by the Smithsonian Educational Institution in Washington, DC .
In the religious context, mention should be made of the various organizations into which the various currents of religious life in American Judaism are divided, i.e. the Union for Reform Judaism , the United Synagogue for Conservative Judaism and the Orthodox Union .
Distribution of Jewish Americans
The Jewish population in the USA is concentrated in a few enclaves and is found especially in the urban centers, in Boswash (especially Boston , New York City and Baltimore ), in Los Angeles and northern California around San Francisco as well as in southeast Florida , and also in Nevada .
The numbers in the following table of US counties with the largest Jewish populations come from the Glenmary Research Center, which studies the composition of religious communities in the US. The 50 counties (as of 2000) with the highest proportion of Jewish citizens, as a percentage of the total population.
| space | county | Number of Jewish residents |
Percent of the population |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rockland County , New York | 90,000 | 31.4% |
| 2 | New York County , New York (Manhattan) | 314,500 | 20.5% |
| 3 | Falls Church , Virginia | 1,800 | 17.4% |
| 4th | Fairfax , Virginia | 3,600 | 16.7% |
| 5 | Nassau County (New York) | 207,000 | 15.5% |
| 6th | Kings County (New York) (Brooklyn) | 379,000 | 15.4% |
| 7th | Palm Beach County (Florida) | 167,000 | 14.8% |
| 8th | Broward County, Florida | 213,000 | 13.1% |
| 9 | Queens County , New York | 238,000 | 10.7% |
| 10 | Monmouth County , New Jersey | 65,000 | 10.6% |
| 11 | Westchester County , New York | 94,000 | 10.2% |
| 12 | Sullivan County, New York | 7,425 | 10.0% |
| 13 | Essex County, New Jersey | 76,200 | 9.6% |
| 14th | Bergen County , New Jersey | 83,700 | 9.5% |
| 15th | Montgomery County, Maryland | 83,800 | 9.1% |
| 16 | Baltimore, Maryland | 56,500 | 8.7% |
| 17th | Fulton County, Georgia | 65,900 | 8.1% |
| 18th | Montgomery County, Pennsylvania | 59,550 | 7.9% |
| 19th | Middlesex County, Massachusetts | 113,700 | 7.8% |
| 20th | Richmond County, New York (Staten Island) | 33,700 | 7.6% |
| 21st | Marin County, California | 18,500 | 7.5% |
| 22nd | Camden County, New Jersey | 36,000 | 7.1% |
| 22nd | Morris County, New Jersey | 33,500 | 7.1% |
| 24 | Suffolk County (New York) | 100,000 | 7.0% |
| 25th | Denver County (Colorado) | 38,100 | 6.6% |
| 26th | Oakland County , Michigan | 77,200 | 6.5% |
| 27 | San Francisco County , California | 49,500 | 6.4% |
| 28 | Bronx , New York | 83,700 | 6.3% |
| 29 | Middlesex County, New Jersey | 45,000 | 6.0% |
| 30th | Los Angeles County , California | 564,700 | 5.9% |
| 30th | Norfolk County, Massachusetts | 38,300 | 5.9% |
| 32 | Atlantic County , New Jersey | 14,600 | 5.8% |
| 32 | Bucks County , Pennsylvania | 34,800 | 5.8% |
| 32 | Union County, New Jersey | 30,100 | 5.8% |
| 35 | Cuyahoga County , Ohio | 79,000 | 5.7% |
| 35 | Philadelphia County , Pennsylvania | 86,600 | 5.7% |
| 37 | Clark County , Nevada | 75,000 | 5.5% |
| 37 | Miami-Dade County , Florida | 124,000 | 5.5% |
| 39 | Baltimore County , Maryland | 38,000 | 5.0% |
| 39 | Pitkin County , Colorado | 750 | 5.0% |
| 39 | Plymouth County, Massachusetts | 23,600 | 5.0% |
| 42 | St. Louis County, Missouri | 47,100 | 4.6% |
| 43 | Boulder County , Colorado | 13,200 | 4.5% |
| 43 | Washington, DC | 25,500 | 4.5% |
| 45 | Cook County (Illinois) | 234,400 | 4.4% |
| 45 | Fairfield County, Connecticut | 38,800 | 4.4% |
| 45 | Orange County (New York) | 15,000 | 4.4% |
| 48 | Alexandria (Virginia) | 5,400 | 4.2% |
| 49 | Albany County (New York) | 12,000 | 4.1% |
| 49 | Alpine County , California | 50 | 4.1% |
| 49 | Sarasota County , Florida | 13,500 | 4.1% |
See also
literature
- Eli Lederhendler: American Jewry: A New History. Cambridge University, Cambridge 2016, ISBN 978-1-3166-3262-8 .
- Hasia R. Diner: The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000. University of California Press, Berkeley 2006, ISBN 978-0-520-24848-9 .
- Jonathan D. Sarna: American Judaism. Yale University Press, New Haven 2004, ISBN 0-300-10197-X .
Web links
- Resources> Jewish communities> America> Northern America The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Feinstein Center . Comprehensive collection of links to Jewish American history, organizations, and issues.
- United Jewish Communities of North America . The population survey statistics site.
- Jews in America Jewish Virtual Library.
- American Jewish Literature
- Jewish-American History on the Web
- Jewish American Hall of Fame
- The Jewish Week - Highest-circulation Jewish publication in the United States
- Ben Stein on the important Jewish element in Hollywood
- The Jewish Impact on America
- Jewish success in the American media
- A Portrait of Jewish Americans Statistics of Jewish-American population, according to a survey by the Pew Research Center in 2013 (Engl.)
- National Jewish Population Survey 2000-2001 statistics of the Jewish-American population (Engl.)
- Jews in Los Angeles. Weimar on the Pacific, idyllic palm trees by the sea. By Tekla Szymanski
Individual evidence
- ^ How many Jews are there in the United States? In: Pew Research Center . October 2, 2013 ( pewresearch.org [accessed April 21, 2017]).
- ↑ Debra Nussbaum Cohen: How Many Israelis Are There in America? Let Us Count the Ways to Answer That . In: Haaretz . June 20, 2015 ( Haaretz.com [accessed April 29, 2017]).
- ^ Judy Maltz: 60,000 American Jews Live in the West Bank, New Study Reveals . In: Haaretz . August 27, 2015 ( Haaretz.com [accessed April 29, 2017]).
- ↑ More Ashkenazi Jews Have Gene Defect that Raises Inherited Breast Cancer Risk . In: The Oncologist . tape 1 , no. 5 , October 1, 1996, ISSN 1083-7159 , p. 335–335 ( alphamedpress.org [accessed April 23, 2017]).
- ^ A Portrait of Jewish Americans. In: Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. October 1, 2013, accessed April 23, 2017 .
- ^ Jewish Population in the United States, by State. Retrieved April 21, 2017 .
- ↑ Population Tables: Table 10: Metropolitan Areas With Largest Jewish Populations, 1/1/2002. (No longer available online.) Jewish Agency , archived from the original on November 22, 2011 ; accessed on September 13, 2012 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Cengage Learnig: JEWS: Religious, Cultural, and Communal Life
- ^ A b c Larry B. Stammer: American Jews See Population, Birthrate Drop. The Jewish Federation, September 11, 2003, archived from the original March 17, 2006 ; accessed on August 18, 2015 .
- ↑ DanielPipes.org: Daniel Pipes: The Future of Judaism , January 25, 2005
- ^ Jewish Identity. In: A Portrait of Jewish Americans. PewResearchCenter, October 1, 2013, accessed August 18, 2015 .
- ↑ BBC - Religions - Judaism: Reform Judaism. Retrieved June 23, 2017 .
- ↑ Sally Jane Priesand | Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved June 27, 2017 (English).
- ↑ Patrilineal Descent . In: ReformJudaism.org . ( reformjudaism.org [accessed June 29, 2017]).
- ↑ BBC - Religions - Judaism: Conservative Judaism. Retrieved June 23, 2017 .
- ↑ Amy Eilberg | Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved June 27, 2017 (English).
- ^ The Forward: Patrilineal Descent Jews Still Find Resistance: Denominations Stick To Traditional Definition Of Who Is Jewish . In: Huffington Post . April 4, 2012 ( huffingtonpost.com [accessed June 29, 2017]).
- ↑ BBC - Religions - Judaism: Orthodox Judaism. Retrieved June 23, 2017 .
- ^ Orthodox Judaism in America | My Jewish Learning . In: My Jewish Learning . ( myjewishlearning.com [accessed June 23, 2017]).
- ^ Samuel C. Heilman: Portrait of American Jews: the last half of the twentieth century . University of Washington Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-295-80065-3 ( google.ch [accessed April 30, 2017]).
- ↑ Will Schechter Schools Leave Conservatives? In: The Forward . ( forward.com [accessed June 27, 2017]).
- ^ A Census of Jewish Day Schools in the United States - 2013-14 (2014) »AVI CHAI. Retrieved June 27, 2017 (American English).
- ^ Office of Communications | Brandeis University. Retrieved April 30, 2017 (English).
- ^ Javier C. Hernandez: Betrayed by Madoff, Yeshiva University Adds a Lesson . In: The New York Times . December 22, 2008, ISSN 0362-4331 ( nytimes.com [accessed April 30, 2017]).
- ^ Yale University - Hillel College Guide. Retrieved June 28, 2017 .
- ↑ Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman: Jews in American Politics . Rowman & Littlefield, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7425-0181-2 ( google.ch [accessed April 30, 2017]).
- ^ Morton Keller: Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University . 2001, p. 472 .
- ^ The most heavily Jewish US college and other facts about Jews at American colleges . In: The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com . ( jpost.com [accessed June 23, 2017]).
- ^ Yale University - Hillel College Guide. Retrieved June 28, 2017 .
- ^ Columbia University - Hillel College Guide. Retrieved June 28, 2017 .
- ^ Cornell University - Hillel College Guide. Retrieved June 28, 2017 .
- ↑ https://www.thejc.com/news/world/a-remarkable-week-for-jewish-nobel-prize-winners-1.49544. Retrieved June 27, 2017 .
- ^ About Us - Tablet Magazine - Jewish News and Politics, Jewish Arts and Culture, Jewish Life and Religion. Retrieved July 6, 2017 .
- ^ History . In: The Forward . ( forward.com [accessed July 6, 2017]).
- ^ Institute For Advanced Study Frees Scholar From Class, Tests, Students | News | The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved June 27, 2017 (English).
- ↑ Home page . In: Institute for Advanced Study . ( ias.edu [accessed June 27, 2017]).
- ^ B'nai B'rith International. Retrieved June 27, 2017 .
- ^ Leo Baeck Institute | German-Jewish History. Retrieved June 27, 2017 .
- ↑ Prof. Israel Hanukoglu: Directory of Jewish Museum. Retrieved June 27, 2017 (English).
- ↑ NMAJH. Retrieved June 27, 2017 .
- ^ Jewish Virtual Library : Jewish Population of the United States by State
- ^ Mathew Isbell: Hanukkah Article: The Geography of Jews in America. In: MCIMaps.com , December 11, 2017 (English).
- ^ The Association of Religion Data Archives: US Congregational Membership: Reports
