History of the Canton of Nidwalden

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Nidwalden flag, 14th century

This article describes the history of the canton of Nidwalden in Central Switzerland .

Illustration of the pile dwelling settlement Kehrsiten
The pile dwellers in Kehrsiten on Lake Lucerne

Early history and antiquity

The first human traces

Archaeological find in Stans: a girl's skeleton from the Iron Age (2nd century BC)

The first traces of human existence in the area of ​​the canton of Nidwalden date from the Neolithic Age . Remains of a pile dwelling settlement in Kehrsiten in Stansstad testify to settlement activity on Lake Lucerne during the period between about 4000 and 3100 BC. Chr. Another Neolithic permanent settlement can be in the so-called Loppburg show in Stansstad. The square also served as a settlement site in the Late Bronze Age . Other Bronze Age settlement sites that were not used all year round are known at the Renggpass in Hergiswil and at the Rotzburg in Ennetmoos . At least the Renggpass seems to have been committed as early as the Neolithic. The grave of a ten-year-old girl that was found in Stans dates from the Latène period . This find and a few other stray finds indicate that there was permanent settlement in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. Seem likely. The structure of the settlements and forms of life of this Celtic population remain in the dark.

Roman time

No written documents have survived in Nidwalden from Roman times, only some knowledge can be gained from archaeological finds and site names. The area of ​​today's cantons Obwalden and Nidwalden has been permanently settled since Roman times at the latest. A Gallo-Roman population , i.e. a Roman-Celtic mixed population in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, is attested by fire graves in Buochs and Oberdorf and by an estate (villa) on the way to the Brünig Pass in Alpnach . Based on traditional site names with Celtic and Latin roots, it can be said that at least the triangle between Oberdorf, Buochs ​​and Hergiswil was permanently inhabited in Nidwalden. After the fall of the Roman Empire , the people remained in the area, such as the traditional local and field names show with voralemannischen roots.

middle Ages

Immigration of the Alemanni

The Alemanni , a Germanic tribe, immigrated to the area of ​​today's Nidwaldens from the 8th century. Using Alemannic field names, the Alemannic land acquisition in the valley and on the mountains can be understood to some extent. First, the Alemanni settled in the already populated area in and around the Stans plain before advancing into the Engelbergertal and the Alps. Immigration was probably peaceful. The Alemanni mixed with the already resident Gallo-Roman population. The church in Stans, which dates back to around 600, is older, as archaeological evidence shows. When and how far the Gallo-Roman population was Christianized cannot be said, however. It seems likely, however, that the Alemannic immigrants encountered a population that was at least partially Christianized. The Stans church remained the only one in the valley until the 10th century when the Buochs ​​church was built. The parish probably encompassed the whole of today's canton area and Engelberg .

State expansion in the High Middle Ages

From around the 12th century the population grew, and new farmland and pastures were cleared. Especially aristocratic families and monasteries from the Central Plateau and the Alpine foothills organized this so-called state expansion: the noble houses of Lenzburg , Sellenbüren - Regensberg , Habsburg and Brienz-Ringgenberg - Raron as well as the monasteries of Muri and Murbach-Lucerne . Land expansion was not just an increase in the agricultural area. The expansion and "densification" of the aristocratic rule were just as important. The rule of the noble houses over the possessions in Nidwalden was only superficial. Local administrators, the so-called noblemen , acted officially on behalf of the noble families, but in reality they ruled quite independently. Many of the noble estates disappeared again. Until 1283 , most of the possessions were given to the monasteries through donations, sale or exchange. In the 13th century only the two monasteries Murbach-Luzern and Engelberg and the noble family of the Habsburgs remained as larger lords in the valley. The possessions of the monasteries were organized on a manorial basis: the individual farms were administered from administrative centers, the dinghouses . In the 14th century, the Murbach-Luzern monastery still had such a Dinghof in Stans with 18 dependent inheritance rights and 30 interest-bearing goods. Engelberg Monastery had a slightly smaller Dinghof in Buochs.

Agriculture in the High and Late Middle Ages

Ürtebücher of Ürtekorporation Dallenwil

In the High Middle Ages, the land in Nidwalden was used in various ways: Alpine and pasture farming, simple arable farming and gardening. Agriculture served the self-sufficiency , the trade was little. However, a Zelgen constitution ( three-field economy regulated by a cooperative ), as was common in other areas, could not arise. The different forms of use and the poorly developed rule opposed this. As in other Alpine valleys, specialization in agriculture can be observed from the 14th century . Livestock farming and cheese production were expanded until other forms of farming, such as agriculture, almost completely disappeared in the 16th century . The increasing demand for meat and cheese in the northern Italian cities made the export of cattle and cheese across the Alps lucrative, while falling prices made it possible to import grain from southern Germany. In addition to Zurich , Lucerne's importance as a market place for grain increased. However, the change also led to conflicts between large and small farmers about the increasingly scarce grazing space for cattle .

Development of Ürten (cooperatives)

The economic change strengthened the Ürten, as the local agricultural cooperatives in Nidwalden are called. Ürten had been around for a long time, but it was only during the course of agricultural change in the late Middle Ages that they grew into bodies in which local politics took place. Cooperative elements can first be found in the villages of Stans and Buochs, where common Wuhr buildings (protective dams) on the Engelberger Aa also played a role. From the 14th century, parallel to the specialization of agriculture towards export-oriented livestock farming, the Ürten became more common. Their political importance increased steadily, and the Ürten developed into a kind of forerunner of today's political communities . Examples are Buochs' village opinions from 1399 and 1433, in which questions of agricultural use were regulated and conditions for the acceptance of new villagers were formulated. The Ürten remained a key element of the state organization until the 19th century.

Unterwalden, Obwalden and Nidwalden

Matthäus Merian's map "Das Landt Unterwalden" from 1650

Until 1999, Obwalden and Nidwalden, together with the two Basels and the two Appenzell, were officially half-cantons. While the origins of the Basle and Appenzell half-cantons are well known, the origins of Unterwald, or Ob- and Nidwalden, can only be sketched in gaps due to the lack of sources in the late Middle Ages. It is certain that the names Unterwalden as well as Ob- and Nidwalden go back to the late Middle Ages, although the name "Unterwalden" is older than the two rural towns of Obwalden and Nidwalden. The name Unterwalden originally means "located in the forest" and first appeared in Latin form (inter silvas) in the 12th century as a name for the monastic possessions in the region. "Unterwalden" goes back to the Habsburgs and above all to the Imperial Bailiwick of Waldstätte . In 1291 King Rudolf von Habsburg bought the possessions of the Murbach-Lucerne monastery in the two valleys (especially the manorial rights to the monastery courtyards in Stans, Alpnach and Giswil ). Together with bailiwick rights over the locally wealthy monasteries Engelberg, Beromünster and the upper bailiwick over Murbach-Lucerne, a power bracket was created over large parts of both valleys. However, this remained a mere claim, the local service nobility probably governed quite independently. After the death of the Hapsburg King Albrecht made King Henry VII . from these rulership rights 1309 "Unterwalden", granted him imperial freedom and made it the newly created imperial bailiwick of Waldstätte. He entrusted Count Werner von Homberg with the administration of the Reichsvogtei - a procedure that was directed against the Habsburgs, the direct rivals of Henry VII. Unterwalden was originally the legal topographical term for part of the Reichsvogtei Waldstätte, it was neither an autonomous municipality nor a canton. The old legal relationships within the Reichsvogtei Waldstätte were, however, preserved in the emerging Confederation . From then on, the name Unterwalden still appeared in the federal alliances, although Unterwalden and the Reichsvogtei fell apart after 1330. The federal provinces of Obwalden and Nidwalden, which were just emerging in the Unterwalden region, “inherited” Unterwald's voting rights, which were divided into two half-votes. Until 1798, Nidwalden and Obwalden together had only one vote and could only send their envoys alternately to the Federal Diet . This regulation repeatedly led to more or less violent disputes over the distribution of federal rights. Such division of existing voting rights can also be observed in the later split into half-cantons: When the Appenzell estates in 1597 and Basel were divided into half-cantons in 1833, the newly formed half-cantons each inherited half of the previous voting weight.

Development of the rural town of Nidwalden

After the fall of the imperial bailiwick and the loss of aristocratic rule (withdrawal of the Habsburgs to Austria ), the forest site continued to develop independently after 1320, and independent federal rural locations emerged in Obwalden and Nidwalden, which were integrated into the emerging Confederation. From the 1330s onwards, Nidwalden grew into an independent rulership, the federal country town of Nidwalden. At the same time, wealthy large farmers such as the Amstein or Zelger families gained greater political influence due to agricultural change (expansion of large cattle breeding). In order to open up further grazing areas, they contested the grazing rights of Engelberg Abbey and the remaining noblemen. Various, sometimes violent, conflicts over pasture land and logging are known from this period. In contrast to the up-and-coming peasant families, who took their position from their economic strength, the reputation of the local nobility continued to be based on the fading structures of the Reichsvogtei Waldstätte and the relationship with the supraregional nobility. In 1382 the dispute escalated to the point that the noble families were banished from Nidwalden. By 1400 the manorial dinghies dissolved completely and the Ürten took their place: from then on, local politics was made in the Ürten. At the same time, the first signs of an independent Nidwalden rural village are visible: from 1398 a council and the rural community appear in the sources , and from 1389 a nine-man court, from 1400 an eleven court with representatives from all eleven places. In the 15th century , the Nidwalden were able to expand their rule at the expense of Engelberg Monastery in the Titlis region , and in 1417 they were given the right to punish capital crimes with the blood spell. Nevertheless, the state order remained so weak overall that Nidwalden had to rely regularly on federal arbitration courts to resolve internal conflicts. Only with the increased integration into the federal network of alliances, the expansion into Ticino (together with Uri and Schwyz ) and with the French pay pensions, the country town consolidated at the beginning of the 16th century.

Early modern age

Legends and identity creation

Winkelried monument in Stans

Arnold von Winkelried , who is said to have given the Confederates victory in the Battle of Sempach in 1386 with his heroic deed , is not documented in contemporary sources. He did not appear in heroic songs until the 16th century . Research today assumes that Winkelried was not a historical person. The myth of the battle hero Winkelried was nevertheless very important. Since the 14th century, an independent order had emerged in Nidwalden, which was still on uncertain feet and had to be consolidated. In this development, Winkelried served the Nidwalden - and the Confederates - from the 16th century as a model and as a figure of identification. This also explains why Winkelried appears in heroic songs at that time, but not in lists of the fallen. The legends of origin and coat of arms, which appear in chronicles, songs and sagas in the 16th century, played a similar role for the self-confidence of the Nidwalden people. These tell how the Nidwalden descended from noble Romans and received the key as a coat of arms a long time ago in the fight for the Pope . In 1512, Pope Julius II gave these legends of origin a quasi-official character by allowing the Nidwalden residents to use the double key in their coat of arms and thereby "confirming" the legends.

Counter-reformation

During the Reformation , Nidwalden, along with all of Central Switzerland, remained loyal to the Catholic religion and supported the Counter-Reformation . In particular, Landammann Melchior Lussi , the leading Nidwalden politician in the 16th century, was involved in the Counter Reformation. He was a friend of Carlo Borromeo and from 1562–63 envoy of the Catholic places at the Council of Trento . The church reforms of the Council of Trent initially had to be implemented in Nidwalden against the will of the people. The Capuchin Order , which Melchior Lussi had brought to Stans in 1582, finally helped them achieve their breakthrough .

Population, economy and society until 1800

Unterwaldner Sennen making cheese

Overall, the population grew in the early modern period . At the end of the Middle Ages an estimated 7,000 people lived in all of Unterwalden, in 1799 the Swiss population census recorded 8,496 inhabitants in Nidwalden alone. In comparison with other regions, however, growth was rather low; the economy did not allow for greater growth. The sometimes high population losses due to the repeated plague epidemics were compensated relatively quickly. Wars and hunger crises did not have a lasting effect on population growth - with the exception of the so-called French attack of 1798. The livestock and alpine farming that had developed in the late Middle Ages remained dominant in the early modern period, so that Nidwalden was referred to as shepherd's land in the 18th century . In addition to agriculture, there are also small businesses and handicrafts in the larger towns. The modest beginnings of industry can be traced back to 1598 in Rotzloch (Stansstad), where, in addition to a paper factory, other businesses were established until 1626: oil trotting , sawmill , powder mill , tannery and iron smelter . However, the economy was not able to provide a livelihood for all residents. The only way out for many poorer men was probably to be enlisted in the salary and to serve in one of the numerous Swiss regiments abroad. Up until the end of the 18th century, "German schools" existed in all municipalities at least for the winter half-year. However, these were poorly attended because the parents often found them unnecessary. Upper-class boys first received private tuition from clergymen and then attended the Engelberg convent school or a Jesuit college, usually that of Lucerne, for a few years . In 1749 two clergymen founded the Stans Latin School, which was taken over by the Capuchins in 1788 .

Ancien Régime (1600–1798)

The pay alliances that the leading families concluded with Venice , Spain , Savoy, and especially France , brought rich money to the state treasury , but above all to themselves. Nevertheless, Nidwalden saw himself in the Ancien Régime as a popular status and a " democracy ", since every farmer from the age of 14 was entitled to vote in the rural community . However, the freedom of choice was limited to the suggestions of a small elite with close family ties. The leading families of the Zelger, Lussi / Trachsler, Leu / Achermann and Keyser, who divided the government offices among themselves, exercised actual power. They also tried several times to abolish or at least limit the rights of the country people to the rural community. Despite the smallest administration, the life of the country folk was rigorously regulated before the Enlightenment . The people were obliged to obey the authorities unconditionally , deviants or "restless" were relentlessly persecuted and severely punished - often with the approval of the people, as the witch trials show.

Modern

"Fight at Drachenried" (Allweg, Ennetmoos) during the French attack in 1798, graphic print around 1900

French invasion of 1798

Even after the fall of the Ancien Régime and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic in 1798, the ideas of the Enlightenment had hardly found an echo in Nidwalden. The Swiss constitution met with widespread opposition for religious and political reasons. Fanatized by ultra-conservative clergy, the Nidwalden troops rushed into a hopeless battle against the French army under General Schauenburg on September 9, 1798 . Around 100 Nidwalden and just as many French were killed in action, and a further 300 Nidwalden were killed in the subsequent massacres . The villages of Ennetmoos , Stansstad, Buochs ​​and Stans were badly devastated. Misery and distress of the survivors were large, were therefore collected in the whole of Switzerland, "gifts of love" for the suffering population. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi came to Nidwalden to take care of the orphans . The military occupation , coercive measures by the new Swiss authorities, arrests and deportations made the situation even worse and heightened public resentment.

Return to the old order and new thoughts

The Helvetic order did not last: after the withdrawal of the French troops from Switzerland in 1802, the Landsgemeinde was reintroduced in Nidwalden and gradually returned to the old order. In 1815, Nidwalden defiantly and politically awkwardly refused to approve the new federal treaty and even resigned from the federal government. Only after the invasion of federal troops did Nidwalden give in, but paid for his resistance with the loss of Engelberg to Obwalden. The resentment and unrest that followed shaped the first half of the 19th century and intensified the tensions between conservative and progressive forces in the canton. From the 1830s onwards, liberal, federally-minded personalities also increasingly influenced public life. They found themselves together in the « Rotzloch-Gesellschaft » - named after their meeting place - or in the « Patriotic Association ». Their newspaper, the Nidwaldner Wochenblatt , was banned after a few issues at the instigation of the clergy in 1844. Many liberals and open-minded conservatives began to get involved in the private sphere: They were instrumental in founding the first bank in the canton ( savings fund Nidwalden ), in promoting education ( secondary schools ) and in setting up the cantonal hospital. Economic development was an important concern for them; the population should have access to more and more diverse employment opportunities.

Nidwalden in the Sonderbund and in the federal state

The conservative majority opposed the efforts to found the state. In 1845 Nidwalden joined the special union of Catholic cantons, which opposed the federal revision. Even after the defeat by the federal troops in the Sonderbund War of 1847 , the conservative opposition did not fall silent, but this time Nidwalden submitted to the majority decision of the cantons. The Nidwalden canton constitution of 1850 contained fundamental democratic innovations: The newly created district communities (today political communities ) took over the political tasks of the Ürten. The press , of speech , right of establishment and freedom of association was guaranteed, limits the term of office for members of authorities. A separation of powers but there was not, the reigning Landammann for example, was still chief judge, and the Nidwaldner district was responsible for criminal justice processes. Nevertheless, numerous newly built school buildings and infrastructure buildings, the implementation of the Federal Shooting Festival in Stans in 1861 and the construction of the Winkelried Monument in 1865 stand for a careful opening and the growing acceptance of the federal state. In the revised cantonal constitution of 1877, the poor and school communities appeared as autonomous communal bodies. The poor communities were abolished in 1980, the autonomous school communities existed as a Nidwalden specialty until recently. In around half of the Nidwalden municipalities, the political has merged with the respective school municipality since the turn of the millennium .

Economy and population until World War II

Engelbergertal with Engelberger Aa, view from Oberdorf towards Dallenwil

Nidwalden was an agricultural canton until the 20th century. In terms of transport, the canton was poorly developed and there was hardly any industrialization in the 19th century. The population was skeptical of “factory life”, and the wealthy class of the population preferred the traditional economic sectors of cattle breeding, cheese production and trading, fruit growing and capital trading in land-based securities (Gülten). The paper mill in Rotzloch and the silk spinning mill in Buochs ​​remained the only major industrial operations in Nidwalden for a long time. Due to the lack of industrialization and the poor traffic situation, the population growth was below average compared to Switzerland until 1870 , and it remained low until 1930 .

Boom thanks to tourism

From the 1870s onwards, tourism brought new earning opportunities . The Belle Époque hotels on the Bürgenstock , in Fürigen and Emmetten (Schöneck) achieved international importance. In addition, almost all municipalities established themselves as summer vacation spots for a medium-sized audience. The new industry employed a growing proportion of the population - including women - and became a pillar of the local economy. The transport service providers, the food trade, agriculture and business also benefited directly or indirectly from tourism. And finally, the expansion of the tourist infrastructure brought modern achievements such as electric light and improved water supply , but also better transport connections and telephone connections , which also benefited the local population. Two liberal tourism pioneers, Franz Josef Bucher-Durrer from Kernser and Kaspar Blättler from Stansstad , were responsible for the tourist development of Nidwalden . Bucher-Durrer built the Bürgenstock Hotels and the Stanserhornbahn in Nidwalden , Blättler built the first Acheregg Bridge in 1860 and operated a spa hotel in Rotzloch . The tourism boom came to an end with the outbreak of the First World War , the industry collapsed and was only able to recover hesitantly after the end of the war. Only with the establishment of new industries in World War II ( military airfield , Pilatus aircraft works ) did the population grow faster.

The Bannalp dispute

Construction work on the reservoir of the Bannalp Wolfenschiessen power plant 1935–1937

The idea of ​​self-sufficiency with electricity led to disputes across the parties in the 1930s . In 1934, after fierce fighting, a popular movement for the construction of a reservoir on the Bannalp with a power plant in Oberrickenbach prevailed against the majority of the government and district administrator. The new forces then dominated the government and fought violent arguments with the opponents, which continued to strain the political peace in the canton. Both sides carried out campaigns that also included personal slurs and aggressive propaganda . The political earthquake only subsided in the course of the Second World War. The political legacy of the "Bannalper" consisted in a more business-friendly conservatism in the long run . The decision to build your own power plant should prove to be a wise one. The profits from the sale of electricity made it easier for the canton to finance further large infrastructure projects, especially in the construction of motorways and railways and structures to protect the infrastructure from natural hazards.

Society and culture in the 19th and 20th centuries

Älperchilbi Beckenried 1919

The Catholic Church has traditionally been closely intertwined with politics as well as with all other matters of social life and was accepted by the great majority of the population as the highest moral authority until after the Second Vatican Council . This was especially true for schools and education, where the church's influence was automatically given by the enormous commitment of religious in the school service and the secular clergy as school inspectors . The freedom rights guaranteed by the federal state, such as freedom of the press, assembly and association, led to growing social freedoms despite the dominant position of religion and church. A diverse, village-like club life with theater, music and sports clubs and the revival and maintenance of customs have had a very strong impact on cultural life in the canton - and continue to shape it today.

Economic change and population development after the Second World War

The military airfield built in Buochs ​​in 1935 and the private Pilatus aircraft factory founded in 1939 triggered considerable immigration and became the largest employers in the canton. In addition to these industrial sectors, it was - as everywhere - the service sector that grew the most. The number of people employed in agriculture fell from 38% in 1900 to only 4% in 2000. The rail and road projects (connection to SBB and national highways ), which the municipality decided in 1954, gave a further boost to development . They freed Nidwalden from its isolated traffic situation. The cautious taxation of high incomes and assets resulted in a large growth in tax income (especially in Hergiswil), which is why the debt could be kept within limits. Another consequence of this tax policy was the settlement of companies and the influx of private individuals who often commute to work outside the canton. Population growth varied in the municipalities. The largest percentage growth was recorded from 1930 onwards by the lakeside communities of Ennetbürgen and Stansstad. The rural communities of Wolfenschiessen, Dallenwil and Emmetten , which are not located directly on the autobahn, grew significantly weaker, while Stans, as the main town with a center function, clearly remained the most populous Nidwalden community. The economic structure is characterized on the one hand by the largest employer in the canton, the Pilatus aircraft factory with around 1,500 jobs, and on the other hand by the supporting role of a large number of small SMEs from a wide variety of industries .

Political and social change after the Second World War

Stans Carnival 1980

In 1965 Nidwalden was one of the first cantons to adopt a new cantonal constitution based on modern constitutional principles . The traditional CVP and FDP parties remained the dominant political forces, even if an opposition party , the left-green Democratic Nidwalden (DN) , was able to establish itself in the 1980s . This changed with the establishment of an SVP cantonal party in 1999, which grew rapidly in the following years and today, together with the CVP, is the party with the largest number of voters. In the 1980s and 1990s, the political disputes focused on Nagra's planned final storage facility for radioactive waste in Wellenberg (Wolfenschiessen). Similar to the discussion about the Bannalpwerk, this project was also able to mobilize the masses. It failed because of the people's multiple “no”. In the wake of these disputes, the rural community was abolished at the polls in 1996 by a large majority. The number of government councilors was reduced from nine to seven in an administrative reform. The first two women were elected to the government in 2002 and confirmed in 2006. The constant high population growth after 1930 triggered a social mix. Despite the large number of newcomers, traditionally active cultural and village life and the maintenance of customs prevented the Nidwalden communities from becoming mere sleeping communities in the Lucerne agglomeration . In addition to sports and cultural associations, events with a national impact, such as the Stans Music Days, also contributed to this.

literature

  • Canton Nidwalden (Hrsg.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850. Volume 1. Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 .
  • Canton Nidwalden (Hrsg.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present. Volume 2. Historical Association Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 .

Web links

Commons : History of the Canton of Nidwalden  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Christine Michel: Stilt houses on Lake Lucerne - the Stone Age settlement in Kehrsiten . In: Historischer Verein Zentralschweiz (Hrsg.): Der Geschichtsfreund . tape 167 . Historical Association of Central Switzerland, Zug 2014, ISBN 978-3-85761-312-8 , p. 71-98 .
  2. ↑ Christine Michel: Prehistory and early history: From the first people to the Celts . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 12-16 .
  3. ↑ Philippe Della Casa: Roman finds in Central Switzerland . In: Margarita Primas, Philippe Della Casa, Biljana Schmid-Sikimic (eds.): Archeology between Lake Lucerne and Gotthard: Settlements and finds from prehistoric and early historical epochs (=  university research on prehistoric archeology . No. 12 ). Rudolf Habelt, Bonn 1992, ISBN 978-3-7749-2575-5 , p. 16-34 .
  4. ↑ Cyril Werndli: Where novels and Alemanni said good night. A contribution of toponastics to the early medieval settlement history of the canton of Nidwalden . Master thesis. C. Werndli, Basel 2013.
  5. ↑ Ursina Berther, Lea C. Hunziker: Römische Zeit: Gallorömische Gesellschaft . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 18-21 .
  6. ↑ Cyril Werndli: Where novels and Alemanni said good night. A contribution of toponomics to the early medieval settlement history of the canton of Nidwalden . Master thesis. C. Werndli, Basel 2013.
  7. ↑ Ursina Berther, Lea C. Hunziker: Early Middle Ages: Alemanni and Early Christianity . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 22-25 .
  8. ↑ Annina Michel: High Middle Ages: Increased use and expansion of power . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 26-31 .
  9. ↑ Annina Michel: Change of rule: regional nobility, monasteries and noblemen . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 36-41 .
  10. ^ Daniel Rogger: Obwalden agriculture in the late Middle Ages . In: Historischer Verein Obwalden (ed.): Obwalden history sheets . tape 18 . Historical Association Obwalden, Sarnen 1989.
  11. ^ Roger Sablonier: Central Swiss Society in the 14th Century. Social structure and economy . In: Historical Association of the Five Places (ed.): Central Switzerland and early Confederation. Anniversary publication 700 years of the Swiss Confederation . tape 2 . Walter, Olten 1990, ISBN 3-530-39555-2 , pp. 11-233 .
  12. ↑ Christoph Baumgartner: Economic specialization: cattle breeding instead of self-sufficiency . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 62-73 .
  13. ↑ Emil Weber: Ürten. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland .
  14. ↑ Robert Durrer: The unity of Unterwaldens. Studies on the beginnings of the Swiss democracies . In: Allgemeine Geschichtforschende Gesellschaft der Schweiz (Ed.): Yearbook for Swiss History . tape 35 . Beer, Zurich 1910, p. 1-356 .
  15. ^ Emil Weber: Unterwalden. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland .
  16. ↑ Annina Michel: Change of rule: regional nobility, monasteries and noblemen . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 36-45 .
  17. ^ Emil Weber: A new self-image: The Nidwalden create their story . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 94-101 .
  18. ↑ Christoph Baumgartner: Society in transition: large farmers strive for power . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 74-83 .
  19. ^ Emil Weber: Change of rulership: From noble rulership to country place . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 46-61 .
  20. ^ Emil Weber: A new self-image: The Nidwalden create their story . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 94-101 .
  21. ^ Katharina Odermatt: Relationships and Conflicts of the Young State . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 106-115 .
  22. ^ Daniel Krämer: Population and network of roads: Living in isolation . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 160-181 .
  23. ^ Daniel Krämer: Population and network of roads: Living in isolation . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 160-181 .
  24. ↑ Daniel Krämer: "If I were not so thin, I would have researched, I was eaten up by the poor Leiten." The hunger crisis of 1816/17 in the old parish of Stans and the obstacles on the way to modernity . Unpubl. Licentiate thesis. D. Krämer, Bern 2005.
  25. ^ Benjamin Hitz: Acquisition, Economy and Settlement: No "dolce far niente" . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 141-153 .
  26. ^ Karl Flüeler: Snot hole. Industry for 400 years . In: Historischer Verein Nidwalden (Ed.): Contributions to the history of Nidwalden . tape 36 . by Matt, Stans 1977.
  27. ↑ Carl Bossard: School: From the church beginnings to the tentative departure . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 182-189 .
  28. ^ Karl von Deschwanden: History of the school system in Nidwalden . In: Historischer Verein Nidwalden (Ed.): Contributions to the history of Nidwalden . tape 1-4 . from Matt, Stans.
  29. ^ Katharina Odermatt: Political order and institutions . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 116-126 .
  30. ↑ Peter Steiner: The communities, councils and courts in Nidwalden in the 18th century . In: Historischer Verein Nidwalden (Ed.): Contributions to the history of Nidwalden . tape 43 . by Matt, Stans 1986.
  31. ^ Katharina Odermatt: The long way to the modern state . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 127-140 .
  32. ↑ Hansjakob Achermann et al .: Nidwalden 1798–1998. History and lore . Ed .: Historical Association Nidwalden. Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 1998, ISBN 978-3-906377-04-9 .
  33. ^ Franz Joseph Gut: The attack in Nidwalden in 1798 in its causes and consequences . (1st ed. 1862). Ed .: Franz Joseph Gut. unchanged new edition. E. von Wyl, Kägiswil 1989.
  34. ^ Katharina Odermatt: The long way to the modern state . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 127-140 .
  35. ^ Robert Durrer: The unrest in Nidwalden after the fall of the mediation constitution and the transition from Engelberg to Obwalden . In: Allgemeine Geschichtsforschende Gesellschaft der Schweiz (Ed.): Yearbook for Swiss History . tape 28 . Beer, Zurich 1903, p. 87-244 .
  36. ↑ Erich Aschwanden: Nidwalden and the Sonderbund 1841–1850 . In: Historischer Verein Nidwalden (Ed.): Contributions to the history of Nidwalden . tape 45 . by Matt, Stans 1996.
  37. ^ Katharina Odermatt: The long way to the modern state . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From prehistoric times to 1850 . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 127-140 .
  38. ↑ Daniel Krämer: Political Development: The suffered integration in the federal state . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 10-23 .
  39. ↑ Karin Schleifer-Stöckli: «… we 'Darklings' of the original cantons!" The influence of tourism on the living environment and mentality in Nidwalden from 1850 to 1914 . Licentiate thesis. K. Schleifer, Zurich 1998.
  40. ↑ Daniel Krämer: Population: emigration and slow growth . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historical Association Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 .
  41. ^ The power plants of the EWN. In: Website of the Nidwalden electricity company (PDF; 3.2 MB).
  42. ↑ Werner Ettlin: The fight for Bannalp . In: Historischer Verein Nidwalden (Ed.): Contributions to the history of Nidwalden . tape 35 . by Matt, Stans 1975.
  43. ↑ Karin Schleifer-Stöckli: Political Development: From the Bannalpstreit to the wave mountain . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 106-114 .
  44. ↑ Christian Hug: Now luegemer obsi. Life in Nidwalden, 10 years after the big storm . Ed .: Nidwaldner Sachversicherung. Stans 2016.
  45. ↑ Hansjakob Achermann et al .: Kapuziner in Nidwalden 1582-2004 . Ed .: Historical Association Nidwalden. Historical Association Nidwalden, Stans 2004, ISBN 978-3-906377-09-4 .
  46. ↑ Andreas Waser: Religion and Church in Conflict with Modernity . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 74-82 .
  47. ^ Bruno Mariacher: Pilatus-Flugzeugwerke Stans . Ed .: Pilatus-Flugzeugwerke Stans. Pilatus-Flugzeugwerke, Stans 1989.
  48. ^ Daniel Krämer: Population: Strong growth due to immigration and aging . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 127-133 .
  49. ↑ Markus Furrer: The new opposition in original Switzerland in the 1970s and 1980s . Dissertation. ADAG, Zurich 1992.
  50. ↑ Karin Schleifer-Stöckli: Political Development: From the Bannalpstreit to the wave mountain . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 106-114 .
  51. ^ Karin Schleifer-Stöckli: Political Structures: State, Finances and Parties . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 115-126 .
  52. ^ Marius Risi: Sociability, Leisure Time and Customs: Loss of Control of Authorities . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 180-186 .
  53. ↑ Isabelle Roth, Peter Steiner: Cultural landscape: Independent ways to versatile creation . In: Canton Nidwalden (Ed.): History of the Canton Nidwalden. From 1850 to the present . Historischer Verein Nidwalden, Stans 2014, ISBN 978-3-906377-14-8 , p. 187-196 .