Richard of Cornwall

Depiction of King Richard from the 13th century

Richard's coat of arms as Roman-German king

Richard of Cornwall , also Richard of Cornwallis , (born January 5, 1209 in Winchester , † April 2, 1272 in Berkhamsted Castle ) from the House of Plantagenet was Earl of Cornwall , Count of Poitou and from 1257 Roman-German King . He came from the Anglo-Norman royal family of the Plantagenets and was favored by his brother King Henry III. to the richest landowner in England . After initial quarrels, Richard became one of the most important supporters of his brother's rule, whom he also loyally served in his conflict with the aristocratic opposition, the Second War of the Barons . His own ambition was evident in 1257 when he was elected Roman-German king during the interregnum . Despite several visits to the Holy Roman Empire , he was unable to enforce his rule.

Origin and childhood

Richard was the second son of the English king John Ohneland and his second wife Isabella of Angoulême . It was named after his uncle Richard the Lionheart , who was King of England before Richard's father. As a toddler, Richard first grew up in his mother's household in Marlborough Castle . In 1213 his father took him on a trip to the north of England and in 1214 on the unsuccessful campaign to Poitou in France . When a noble opposition openly rebelled against the king in 1215, Richard was brought to Corfe Castle into the care of Peter de Maulay in April . His upbringing took over Roger of Acaster , who probably came from Mulgrave , a domain of Maulay in Yorkshire . When Richard grew up, he gave Roger real estate in Cornwall. In October 1216 Richard's father died, whereupon Richard's older brother as Henry III. became the new king. However, Heinrich was still a minor, which is why a Regency Council took over the government for him. A few months later, Richard's mother Isabella returned to her French homeland, where she married the French Count Hugo X of Lusignan in 1220 . Richard remained in Maulay's care until he was brought to London in May 1220 for his brother's coronation. To Maulay's displeasure, he was not returned to his care afterwards, but remained at the royal court.

Start of building up his own property and campaign to France

In 1221 Richard was given the Honor of Eye in Suffolk . When the Scottish King Alexander II made a pilgrimage to the new shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury in 1223 , the young Richard accompanied him there. Shortly after his sixteenth birthday, Richard was knighted by his brother at Westminster on February 2, 1225 , and a few days later Henry turned over the administration of Cornwall to him . In March 1225, during the Franco-English War, he was officially appointed commander of an English expeditionary army that was to recapture the English possessions in southwestern France that had been conquered by France. The actual command of the army was with the experienced William Longespée , an uncle of Richard, and with Philip d'Aubigny . The campaign was able to successfully consolidate English rule in Gascony , but although Richard was also referred to as the Count of Poitou from August 1225 , this region could not be regained for England. Chronicler Matthew Paris's claim that Henry III. would have given his brother the rule of the entire Gascon is highly unlikely. Negotiations about a marriage between Richard and a daughter of King Alfonso IX. of León were finally canceled on the instructions of the English Regency Council. After the return of the experienced general William Longespée to England in October 1225, the remaining English troops could only achieve a few successes. However, when the French King Louis VIII died in November 1226, leaving only one minor heir, a number of French nobles considered submitting again to the rule of the English king. In February 1227 Richard therefore tried in vain in Thouars to conclude an alliance with the northern French Count Theobald IV of Champagne and Henry II of Bar . The negotiations were unsuccessful, however, and in April 1227 Richard finally returned to England after spending more than two years in France.

First revolt against his brother

In England, at the time of Richard's return from France, his brother Henry III began. after a long minority government to finally exercise power myself. On May 30, 1227 he officially raised Richard to Earl of Cornwall and gave him his possessions, which he had previously only received for temporary administration, as a hereditary fief . In July 1227 Richard immediately tried to evict Waleran the German , a former mercenary in the service of the king and a follower of his mother, from an estate that belonged to the Earldom of Cornwall . Waleran immediately complained to the king, who then ordered Richard to return the property to Waleran. The angry Richard then left the royal court and allied himself in Reading with his brother-in-law William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke against the king. A little later the Earls of Chester , Gloucester , Warenne , Hereford , Derby and Warwick joined this alliance . The rebels and their armed entourage gathered at Stamford , from where they sent their demands to the king and to Hubert de Burgh , the royal justiciar . Their main complaints were directed against the revision and correction of the boundaries of the royal forests, including the limitation of the influence of the powerful de Burgh. Richard himself was in dispute with the Justiciar over the Honor of Berkhamstead , which he had to hand over to de Burgh's nephew Raymond in July 1227 . Only after the king had promised his brother safe conduct did Richard travel to Northampton on August 11, 1227 for negotiations . There the king assured him of lands that had previously belonged to her mother's Wittum . In addition Richard was to receive lands that had been confiscated from the barons of Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme , including the Honor of Beckley in Oxfordshire . After these promises, Richard reconciled himself with his brother, whereupon the aristocratic revolt quickly collapsed.

Richard of Cornwall. Illumination from the 13th century

Participation in the French campaign of 1230

After the revolt against his brother, Richard initially took care of the administration of his growing property. In November 1229 Heinrich III handed him over. the administration of the Rich Honor of Wallingford , and about the same time the administration of Berkhamstead was returned to him. When Richard officially came of age in 1230, the possession of the Honor of Eye was confirmed to him, in addition he received 1,000 marks and was appointed guardian of the heirs of Theobald de Botiller and administrator of his estates in England and Ireland. In May 1230 he took part in the campaign of Henry III. to France , from which Richard hoped in vain to restore his rule in the Poitou. After the military failure of the campaign, he served as a negotiator in the conclusion of a new armistice with France and in negotiations to extend the alliance with Peter Mauclerc , Duke of Brittany. Like his brother, he fell ill in Redon and finally returned to England in October 1230. For the failure of the campaign, he blamed the Justiciar Hubert de Burgh, who had advised against fighting with the French in Poitou or Normandy.

Alliance with the Marshal family

On March 30, 1231 Richard married Isabel , who was almost nine years his senior , a sister of William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke and widow of Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Gloucester, who was by marriage with him . The marriage took place in Fawley by Henley , a marshals estate in Oxfordshire. The marriage led to a temporary break with his brother, because through the marriage the powerful Richard allied himself with the equally powerful magnate Pembroke, who was in opposition to the king and the Justiciar. Just a few weeks later, however, the Earl of Pembroke died unexpectedly. His heir became his younger brother Richard Marshal , a previous vassal of the French king. As a follower of an enemy king, this was initially a controversial heir. After the death of Pembroke, Richard of Cornwall first took over the administration of the late William de Briouze's estates in England and Ireland, which had previously administered Pembroke. Henry III. suspected him, however, of supporting the line of succession from Richard Marshal, whereupon in early May 1231 he deprived him of the administration of the Honor of Wallingford and Wallingford Castle . In addition, Hubert de Burgh took over the management of the Briouze possessions on May 20, 1231. In view of the loss of these possessions, Richard was ready for rebellion again as in 1227, but he quickly reconciled with his brother. During a campaign to Wales the king confirmed to him on August 10, 1231 in Painscastle his rule over Cornwall, Wallingford, Eye and Beckley as hereditary fiefs. In addition, the King recognized Richard Marshal as Earl of Pembroke and as heir to William Marshal, and Simon de Montfort , originally from France, was also recognized as heir to the Earl of Leicester. Richard had thus managed to expand his position. Through his marriage he had also strengthened his claim as heir to the throne, since the king was still unmarried. This position was strengthened by the birth of a son in January 1232. Despite his father's bad reputation, Richard named the son after his father John .

Symbolic representation of Richard's marriage to Isabel Marshal. Illumination from the 13th century

Initial supporter of the Peter des Roches government

After the failure of the campaign to Wales, justiciar Hubert de Burgh continued to lose favor with the king. Instead, de Burgh's rival Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter de Rivallis became the king's leading advisers. Richard had previously had good contacts with des Roches. Peter de Maulay, in whose household he grew up, was a close ally of des Roches, and when Richard briefly rebelled against the king in 1227, he had received support from the bailiffs of des Roches. Like the des Roches, Richard Marshal, Maulay and Simon de Montfort, who came from France, Richard, as the nominal Count of Poitou, had a considerable interest in an aggressive policy towards France, which Hubert de Burgh had resolutely rejected. When de Burgh was finally overthrown in the summer of 1232 and a government dominated by Des Roches took power, Richard openly sided with the new rulers. In mid-September 1232 he took part in the deliberations at which it was discussed whether de Burgh should answer for his government in court. Eventually he was taken into strict custody in Devizes without conviction , and Richard was one of the four earls responsible for guarding him. Around the same time Richard was allowed to take over the administration of his wife Isabella's dowry, believed to have previously been exercised by de Burgh as administrator of the Gloucester Honor. Apparently he donated land in Cornwall to Peter de Rivallis, the leading official in the new government. On November 10, 1232, however, the government decided that in January 1233, for the first time in over 30 years, the King's judges should travel to Cornwall and hear complaints and complaints there. This court trip was a major encroachment on Richard's semi-autonomous rule in south-west England. Although the court trip was postponed to April that year two weeks later, the rift between Richard and the des Roches government continued to widen. The government denied him the profitable guardianship of his stepson, the young Richard de Clare , who instead came under the guardianship of Peter des Roches. In the spring of 1233 there was an open crisis when the increasingly tyrannical government arbitrarily confiscated the estate of Upavon , which had recently been assigned to a vassal of Richard Marshal. The government gave it to Peter de Maulay, who had already owned the estate at the time of King John.

Role in Richard Marshal's Rebellion

In the spring of 1233 Richard of Cornwall evidently opposed the government. In March 1233 he and Richard Marshal drove the Welsh Lord of Radnor into the Welsh Marches in a short campaign without the consent of the king . With this action he not only protected the estates of the Briouze family, which were under his administration, from Welsh attacks. He also expressed his anger at the government, because the attack on Radnor made a truce in the war with the Welsh princes almost impossible. In April 1233, the government carried out the announced court tour in Cornwall, during which royal judges imposed heavy fines. This caused considerable unrest among the landed gentry and the population. Richard himself stayed away from the royal court until 1233. Only when the government made various concessions to him, including the Cornwall fines, did he return to the royal court. When Richard Marshal wanted to travel to the royal court in August 1233 to reach an agreement in the dispute with the government, his sister Isabella, the wife of Richard of Cornwall, is said to have warned him that he should be arrested. According to the chronicler Roger von Wendover , des Roches is said to have asked Richard of Cornwall not to support Richard Marshal any further. For this des Roches renounced the administration of the Earldom Devon including Christchurch and Carisbrooke Castle , which Richard was awarded. Marshal and his followers apparently viewed this settlement as treason. When they began an open rebellion in August 1233, the Richard-administered Hay Castle in Wales was their first target. During the following winter, Marshal's supporters raided England from Wales, deliberately looting and burning Richard's property. Richard Siward burned Beckley in Oxfordshire, Richard's favorite residence, in December 1233 . Richard himself stayed away from the royal court again during this time. He came to the royal court only on March 14, 1234, when the Haughley estate in Suffolk, confiscated from Hubert de Burgh, was given to him as a perpetual fief. On April 2, he attended the ordination of Archbishop Edmund in Canterbury . At this ceremony, most of the bishops clearly expressed their opposition to des Roches, who was Bishop of Winchester, which contributed significantly to the overthrow of des Roches and his followers. From the possessions of des Roches and his supporters, Richard of Cornwall received the Honor of Knaresborough in Yorkshire and the administration of the entire property of the Briouzes in Sussex and the Welsh Marches over the next few years . This administration finally bought Gilbert Marshal , the heir of Richard Marshal, who was killed during his rebellion, for 3,000 marks. In addition, Richard's possession of Haughley and Kirton , who had previously belonged to de Burgh, was confirmed by the king. Richard of Cornwall had thus benefited significantly from the fall of Roches. However, Richard Marshal's former supporters continued to accuse him of playing the wrong game, which continued to create tension at the royal court for at least two years after the rebellion. In revenge, Richard enforced in 1236 that the former rebel Richard Siward, who burned Beckley, was banished from the royal court.

Richard's crusade

Preparation and delay of the crusade several times

Richard was now undoubtedly the richest magnate in England. His wealth and ambition led Emperor Frederick II , who had married Richard's sister Isabella , to propose to him in early 1236 to join an anti-French alliance. Both King Henry III. as well as the vast majority of the barons firmly rejected this proposal. In June 1236 Richard took a crusade vow in Winchester and began collecting the money he needed for the war campaign to the Holy Land . To this end, in January 1237 he forced the English Jews to pay 3,000 marks. His departure was delayed, however, when in February 1237 letters from Pope Gregory IX. to Richard, Simon de Montfort and William Longespée of Salisbury, England. In these letters, the Pope warned the Crusaders that their departure would jeopardize the security of England and that they should therefore not go on the Crusade without the express permission of the King. It is therefore certain that the Pope wrote these letters at the king's request. Richard was upset at this delay in the crusade. In addition, there was his growing displeasure with Wilhelm von Savoyen and other relatives of Eleanor , his brother's wife, who came from Savoy , who had increasing influence on him. These tensions led to an open dispute in January 1238, when Eleanor , the younger sister of him and Heinrich III. secretly married the French native Simon de Montfort. Richard then quickly allied himself with Gilbert Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke and with Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester . Armed they met their vassals in Kingston . Richard was ready to rebel again, but most of all he hoped that his brother would make substantial concessions to him, as he had done in 1227 and 1233. At the end of February 1238 the two brothers were actually reconciled. The king had made little concessions to Richard, however, as his limited financial resources were increasingly being claimed by his favorites. But even the dissatisfied barons the king only made non-binding reform promises. On March 4th, 1238 Richard stood with the king on the death bed of their sister Johanna , Queen of Scotland. In May, King Richard made 6000 marks available to cover the cost of his crusade. Pope Gregory IX allowed Richard in April 1238 to use all funds raised in England for a crusade for his crusade. However, the Pope, like the enemy of Emperor Frederick II, tried to divert Richard's crusade to Italy in order to receive support from him in their mutual war. After Richard was not ready for this, the Pope tried to direct the crusade against the Latin Empire in Constantinople. Ultimately, concerns about war with France delayed Richard's departure. In the summer of 1239 Richard was one of the godparents of Eduard , the eldest son of Heinrich III, to whom he lost his position as heir to the throne. To do this, he tried to mediate in the dispute between the king and Gilbert Marshal and Simon de Montfort. He spent Christmas 1239 at the royal court in Winchester, where he was able to persuade the king to hand over the Earldom of Devon to his ward Baldwin de Revières . In January 1240 Richard's wife Isabel died in childbed, which further delayed his departure. In May 1240 Richard was commissioned to negotiate a peace with his successor and the other Welsh princes after the death of Prince Llywelyn from Iorwerth . He then traveled to London, where on June 5th he entrusted the king with the supervision of his son and heir Henry .

Departure for the crusade and stay in the Holy Land largely without a fight

→ Main article : Crusade of the Barons

On June 10, 1240 Richard embarked with William Longespée and several dozen knights, including his former teacher Peter de Maulay in Dover . In Paris they were by King Louis IX. received and witnessed the renewal of the armistice between England and France. They moved through the Rhône valley to southern France. Agents of the Pope tried to get the Crusaders to embark from Aigues-Mortes instead of Marseille , whereupon Richard Robert of Thwing , who was known to be an opponent of the Pope, sent as envoy to Rome.

In the middle of September Richard finally left Marseilles and reached Acre on October 8, 1240 . There he found a confused political situation, as the Christians in the Holy Land were divided as to whether Richard's brother-in-law, Emperor Frederick II, or the local nobles were entitled to the crown of Jerusalem . They also disagreed on whether the Crusader states should conclude an alliance with the Muslims of Egypt or with the Ayyubids of Damascus , who are enemies with Egypt . Richard tried to stay out of the internal power struggles. In April 1241 he confirmed an armistice with Sultan al-Salih of Egypt. As a result of the armistice, the Egyptians released a number of French captured in the Battle of Gaza , including Amaury de Montfort , a brother of Simon de Montfort. With this, Richard's crusade had achieved partial success. Without further military action, Richard left Outremer in May and landed on July 1, 1241 in Trapani , Sicily.

Stay in Italy and take part in the Poitou campaign

Upon arriving in Italy, Richard traveled to see his brother-in-law, Emperor Frederick II. The Emperor entertained his guest with a series of lavish parties, and Richard stayed at the imperial court for several months. However, his attempt to reconcile the emperor and the pope failed. At the end of 1241 he traveled north through Italy. He was shown an elephant in Cremona . On January 7, 1242, he reached Dover again, where the king and queen welcomed him. Then he triumphantly entered London, but almost immediately afterwards he left for France to take part in his brother's campaign in Poitou . In the dispute over the possessions of the English king in southwest France, the French King Louis IX. appoint his brother Alfons as Count of Poitiers. As titular Count of Poitou, Richard had to accept this challenge, especially since his mother Isabella von Angoulême and her husband Hugo X. von Lusignan were seeking an alliance with England against France. Neither Henry III. nor Richard were able to convince the parliament that had met in Westminster to support the campaign by granting a tax.

The English army reached the Gironde estuary in May 1242 . Henry III. led his army hesitantly and also conducted half-hearted negotiations with the French before finally advancing into the county of Angoulême in July . He failed to adequately secure the bridge at Taillebourg over the Charente . The superior French army had drawn in through Poitou and now threatened to cut off the English from their bases. When the two armies faced each other on the banks of the Charente on July 20, 1242, Richard and Hugo X. von Lusignan made violent accusations against each other. Richard accused Hugo of lack of military support, while Lusignan blamed his wife Isabella, Richard's mother, for the situation. In this desperate situation Richard crossed the Taillebourg bridge with no weapons or armor, only a pilgrim's staff, to negotiate with the French. Among the French were several nobles who, thanks to Richard's efforts, had been released in Outremer the previous year. Eventually Richard was able to reach a 24-hour armistice, after which he asked the English to flee immediately. The English army withdrew to Saintes and finally to Bordeaux , with which the campaign had failed. Either shortly before or shortly after the debacle in Taillebourg, the king had sealed a charter in which he gave Richard Gascogne as personal property. This donation aroused bitter resistance from Queen Eleanor, who hoped that her eldest son Eduard would one day receive Gascony as an appanage . The king now revoked the award of Gascony to Richard, whereupon the brothers broke out into a bitter dispute. According to the chronicler Matthew Paris , the king even wanted to have Richard arrested, whereupon he fled to the sanctuary of the Sainte-Croix monastery in Bordeaux . On August 22nd, the king finally allowed Richard to return to England. After confirming this permission on September 2, Richard left Gascony a few weeks later, while the king stayed in France for over a year. On his way home, Richard's ship almost sank in a storm before reaching the Isles of Scilly on October 18, 1242 .

Second marriage to Sancha of Provence

After the death of Richard's wife, Peter of Savoy and Bishop Peter D'Aigueblanche , two relatives of Queen Eleanor from Savoy, negotiated a marriage between Richard and Eleanor's younger sister Sancha . During the campaign in south-west France Richard was betrothed to Sancha by proxy in July 1242. Apparently Richard had even tried to travel to Provence from Gascony to see his future bride. Despite an armistice, however, he considered the journey through warring France to be too dangerous. Sancha finally arrived in England in 1243, and Richard was married on November 23, 1243 in Westminster Abbey. Henry III, who had only returned from France in October, obviously wanted to be reconciled with his brother. In December 1243 he demanded a written waiver from Richard of all claims he had on possessions in Gascony or Ireland, including an express waiver of the fulfillment of the deed issued in Saintes. In return, the King confirmed possession of Cornwall and the Honors of Wallingford and Eye. In addition, the king had given him £ 2,000 for the wedding and promised to pay a further 1,000 marks a year. The marriage to Sancha improved Richard's relations with his sister-in-law Eleanor, the Queen, and with the relatives of Eleanor and his wife living in England, especially Peter of Savoy, whom Richard subsequently supported financially and politically.

Through his marriage to Sancha, Richard became involved in the politics of Provence and Savoy , which officially still belonged to the Roman-German Empire , but were strongly linked to France and northern Italy. His father-in-law, Count Raimund Berengar V, died in August 1245. Shortly before his death, he had appointed his youngest daughter Beatrix as his sole heir. In January 1246 Beatrix married Karl von Anjou , the youngest brother of the French king. Together with his brother Richard tried in vain to prevent the succession of Provence to Karl von Anjou, but ultimately had to accept this.

Richard as the Earl of Cornwall

Richard was not only the richest landowner in England, but as an Earl he ruled almost autonomously over Cornwall , which formed the core of his extensive estates. Of the more than 100 deeds that have been preserved by Richard, the majority relate to his holdings in this county. In the deeds, he granted market rights and other privileges, including Bodmin , Bossiney , Camelford , Dunheved , Helston , Launceston , Liskeard , Lostwithiel , Marazion , Tintagel and West Looe . He confirmed privileges for the cities of Exeter and Corsham in Wiltshire . In addition to the income from his lands, he also had the income from the rich tin mines in Cornwall. The tin was exported by citizens of Helston, Truro , Bodmin and Exeter. Aside from promoting the Cornwall boroughs and later serving the royal mint, Richard was not overly business-minded. In the 1240s he had an annual income of around £ 5,000 from his lands, which he had received as a fiefdom from the Crown. He hardly added any land to his estate, as he only gave about £ 2,000 to buy it until his death from lands, for example for parts of the lands of the Vautort family . He also rarely stayed in the south-west of England, but lived mainly on his estates in the Thames Valley when he was not at court. In Cornwall he had Tintagel Castle rebuilt, the ruins of which he had bought in 1233 in exchange for three goods. Due to its remote location, the new castle was almost useless from a military point of view and was only built because of its supposed importance as the residence of the mystical King Arthur .

Support his brother's policies

Financial support from the king

Even after returning from his crusade, Richard retained the privilege granted by the Pope in 1238 to collect fines for unredeemed crusade vows. His wealth increased from 1247, when his brother made him responsible for a coin reform and for the minting of new coins. He held this office for over ten years until 1258, which brought him several thousand pounds in profit. After serious tensions between the two brothers over the past few years, Richard loyally supported his brother's policies after the reconciliation after their return from the Saintonge War. Often he mediated again between the king and the barons, who were dissatisfied with his government. In 1244 he was one of the negotiators who negotiated a peace treaty with the Scottish King Alexander II in Newcastle . After the failed campaign to Poitou, the royal finances were on the verge of collapse, but the king still gave away funds and possessions to his favorites, who were mainly from abroad. Richard lent his brother ever larger sums, for example £ 1,245, 2000 for a campaign in Wales in which he also took part. He did not, however, lend his brother the money on exorbitant terms. When Pope Innocent IV demanded a tax from the English clergy in 1246 , Richard urged his brother to oppose it. But later he convinced him to give in to the Pope's demand. The Pope had extended his lucrative crusade privilege further by this time, which may have influenced Richard's change of heart. In 1247 he traveled to France with his son Henry, to protect against the departure of King Louis IX. to convince him to go on a crusade to return Normandy, which England had conquered in 1204, to the English kings. To do this, he visited the shrine of Edmund of Abingdon , who had recently been canonized and the former Archbishop of Canterbury in Pontigny . Richard paid a quarter of the cost of the saint's shrine. In England he canceled his participation in the Parliament convened by his brother on Easter 1249, as he was supposedly busy with the administration of Cornwall. He may still be angry with his brother, who officially handed Gascony to the heir to the throne Edward in September 1249. In previous years there had been rumors that Richard would secretly support his brother despite his open support.

Territorial situation and domains in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa around 1250

Service as mediator and diplomat

In March 1250, Richard traveled to Paris with Peter of Savoy to extend the armistice with France. He then traveled on with a splendid entourage to the papal court in Lyon . Henry III. had taken a crusade vow on March 6, whereupon Pope Innocent IV commissioned Richard in early April to raise a tithe on the income of the English clergy to finance the crusade . Allegedly at this meeting the Pope offered him the Crown of Sicily for the first time if Richard was ready to invade Sicily and forcibly end the rule of the Hohenstaufen there. On his return trip he visited the shrine of Edmund of Abingdon in Pontigny again. Back in London he mediated with Simon de Montfort in a dispute between the citizens and the monks of Westminster Abbey. In 1251 he visited Westminster Abbey again, this time to settle a dispute between the monks and their abbot over the division of the abbey's possessions. In January 1252, Richard served as a mediator in a dispute between Simon de Montfort and the King over the reimbursement of expenses Montfort had incurred in his service as Lieutenant of Gascon since 1248. When the king again assured that Gascon would be handed over to his son Eduard, Richard left the court indignant. It was only after the king made him precious gifts and given him the estates of Oakham in Rutland and Lechlade in Gloucestershire that he returned to court.

Regent of England in the King's absence

In the face of a rebellion in Gascony, Henry III decided. 1253 to travel to Gacogne himself with troops to restore his rule. On July 7th, he appointed the Queen to be regent during his absence, who was to be advised by Richard. Richard thus became the actual regent of England, who convened a parliament in December 1253 to deliberate on the support required by the king for the expedition to Gascony. Richard himself promised to support the king with 300 knights, but he did not succeed in obtaining permission from the barons to levy a tax. At the end of January 1254 Richard himself prepared a trip to Gascony to support his brother there. In February he called two knights from each county to Parliament for their opinion. This unprecedented act makes this Parliament the first parliament to have elected county representatives appointed to parliament. In addition Richard confirmed the Magna Carta , but neither the summoning of the knights nor the renewed confirmation of the Magna Carta could induce parliament to approve a tax. In May 1254, the Queen finally traveled to Gascony with only 40 knights, while Richard remained in England as sole regent. The king thanked him for these services as well as for granting the large loans with which he supported the government, with further powers over the Jews in England. As early as 1235, Richard had received permission for a Jewish community to live on his Berkhamsted estate. He moved this parish to Wallingford in 1242. Several Jews from this community supported Richard from then on in his financial affairs. In 1254 Richard is said to have achieved the release of the Jew Abraham of Berhamstead , who was accused of desecrating an image of Mary, where he demanded a high fee from Abraham. In 1256 he campaigned on behalf of the Lincoln Jewish Community, which was accused of the ritual murder of a boy named Hugh .

Richard had probably already rejected the Pope's repeated offer to become King of Sicily in 1250. The king, on the other hand, accepted the Pope's offer in Gascon to buy a crown for his second son Edmund . This meant that he was subsequently obliged to wage a campaign against the Staufers in Sicily, who were enemies of the Pope. For this he should pay large sums to the Pope. With the king's situation tense both in England and in Gascony, Richard thought this Sicilian adventure to be foolish from the start. As a consequence, he reduced his brother's financial support and in 1255 refused to lend the king 5,000 marks, which he wanted to pass on to the Pope. As a reason, he stated that he could not receive any collateral for this loan. In October 1255 he even publicly refused to grant the king another loan during parliament. With this refusal Richard aggravated the crisis of the rule of Henry III, because his low-interest loans had meanwhile become necessary for the government to survive.

Richard's Royal Seal of Cornwall

Richard as the Roman-German king

Election of Richard as King

→ Main article : Double choice of 1256/57

At the end of January 1256, Wilhelm von Holland , the papal candidate for the Roman-German imperial crown, died. At the beginning of February 1256, at Richard's request, the royal exchequer approved a pension for Johann von Avesnes , Count of Hainaut, and before the end of February 1256 Henry III. Envoys sent to Rome to ask Alexander IV to support a suitable candidate for the election of the king who was not against England. Without a doubt, they were already campaigning for Richard's candidacy as Roman-German king. The ambitious Richard embarked on an adventure that was just as ambitious as his brother's attempt to make his son King of Sicily. Richard also had to overcome some obstacles in order to be crowned king and ultimately emperor. At first he waited and waited to see what other candidates there were for election. Since most of the imperial property belonging to the Roman-German throne was pledged or in the hands of other princes, the new king had to rely on his own resources or on his allies to finance an army and the administration of the empire. Richard was striving for the emperor from the beginning, which would have increased the reputation of his family, also towards the French king. To be crowned emperor he needed the support of the Pope, and for that he had to make sure that there was no serious opposition to his election in either Germany or France. And even if he were crowned emperor, he would have to spend money and resources to gain control of the areas of the Roman-German Empire south of the Alps, which had been hotly contested since the death of Emperor Friedrich II. On the other hand, Richard could count on the support of his brother, the English king, who, because of the tense relationship with France, but also because of his own ambitions in Sicily, had a great interest in an ally on the German throne. Richard himself was the richest English magnate, he was an experienced diplomat and thus had good contacts with France and the Roman Curia. When it became apparent in September 1256 that no imperial prince was a candidate for the election of the king, Richard openly applied for the office of king. His agents openly bribed some of the princes who were counted among the electors and claimed the privilege of electing the Roman-German king. In order to receive the votes of the Archbishops of Cologne and Mainz and those of Count Palatine Ludwig , who were among the seven electors, Richard paid a total of 28,000 marks in bribes. In addition, he offered them further perks in order to induce them to secure their votes. On December 26, 1256, the Archbishop of Cologne, Konrad von Hochstaden, solemnly offered Richard the Roman-German crown in London, and Richard, with the consent of his brother and the English barons, agreed to accept the election. On January 13, 1257 Richard was elected king near Frankfurt by his three supporters Konrad von Hochstaden, Count Palatine Ludwig and Gerhard I von Dhaun , the Archbishop of Mainz . A few weeks later, on April 1st, the electors of Trier, Saxony and Brandenburg also elected King Alfonso X of Castile , who was of Staufer descent through his mother, as king. Since King Ottokar of Bohemia did not commit to a candidate, the choice was undecided.

First train from Richard to Germany from 1257 to 1258

Richard's opponent, Alfonso X of Castile, was involved in serious conflicts in Spain and did not have the financial means to enforce his rule in Germany. Richard, on the other hand, prepared a trip to Germany in order to take up his rule there. In April the Archbishop of Cologne and Florens of Holland , the brother of the late Wilhelm of Holland, paid homage to Richard as the new king. On April 29, 1257 he left Yarmouth with a large retinue and landed in Dordrecht on May 1 . From there he moved to Aachen, where he and his wife Sancha were crowned King and Queen by the Archbishop of Cologne on May 17th, on the feast of Ascension Day . He celebrated the coronation with a splendid feast, and he supported the construction of the grass house , the new city hall of Aachen, with a generous donation. Then he moved up the Rhine, if possible to cross the Alps to Rome, to be crowned emperor there. Through the line of the Rhine he controlled and the Alpine passes controlled by the Counts of Savoy, who were related to him, an English army could have moved up the Rhine and then continued through Italy to Sicily. In September 1257 Richard reached Worms , where he held a Reichstag. From there he moved back to the Lower Rhine for wintering, before moving up the Rhine again to Worms in the spring of 1258. He confirmed privileges and issued certificates for several cities in the Rhineland. Without own land, without a functioning administration, without the approval of the Pope and against the resistance of the three other electors, he could ultimately achieve little. Encouraged by France, Count Guido von Flanders , Duke Heinrich von Brabant and other princes in the western part of the Roman-German Empire supported Alfonso of Castile. Richard was only recognized as king in the Rhineland, but also in northern Germany as far as Lübeck. To end France's support for Alfonso of Castile, Richard sent his protonotary Arnold of Holland to France in June 1258 to seal a provisional copy of the Treaty of Paris between England and France. Richard thus renounced his claims to the parts of the Angevin Empire conquered by France, except for his claim to the Angoumois , his mother's inheritance.

Role in the conflict of Henry III. with the nobility opposition

Richard returned to England in the winter of 1258. There it was during his absence to a noble rebellion against Heinrich III. came. The king had to accept the Provisions of Oxford , which severely restricted his rule. The rebels feared that the powerful Richard would now overthrow the rebel government and bring back the foreign relatives of the king who had been driven out by them. That is why ambassadors from the aristocratic opposition, led by Bishop Walter de Cantilupe, had traveled to Saint-Omer to meet him and asked him to swear an oath of compliance with the Provisions of Oxford before his crossing. At first Richard refused this oath, but after his return to England he swore the required oath on January 28, 1259 in Canterbury in the presence of the king and Archbishop Boniface of Savoy . Then he moved again solemnly in London and on February 10th, he again solemnly sealed the Treaty of Paris, with which he wanted to consolidate his position against his opponent Alfonso of Castile. He then withdrew to his estates and apparently was no longer politically active. In July 1259, at Westminster, he settled a protracted dispute between Archbishop Boniface and Bishop Lawrence of St. Martin of Rochester.

Initially, Richard wanted Heinrich III in December 1259. to France, where the Treaty of Paris was to be ceremoniously sealed. Ultimately he stayed in England, although attacks by the aristocratic opposition on his estates certainly contributed. According to the provisions of the Provisions of Westminster, the aristocratic opposition had its claims to property and the administration of its possessions in general judicially examined. Richard then allowed representatives of his vassals to have his administration checked by their own representatives, with which he could stop the judicial investigations. In the spring of 1260, when Richard was still in France with the king, he convinced his brother to finally return to England and face his opponents, whom even the heir to the throne Edward had joined. In April 1260 he got the rival groups of the heir to the throne Edward, Simon of Montfort and the Earl of Gloucester to leave London so that the king could return to the city. After the king returned in late April, Richard succeeded in reconciling the heir to the throne with his father, and in June 1260, under his chairmanship, a peace treaty was signed between the heir to the throne and the Earl of Gloucester. Richard did not officially support the aristocratic opposition or the king during this period, but his aim was undoubtedly to overthrow the barons' government and restore power to his brother.

Richard's second train to Germany in 1260

After his brother's rule in England was stabilized again, Richard left London on June 17, 1260 and traveled back to Germany via Dover. His policy had received increasing support over the past year. In March 1259, Pope Alexander IV turned to Duke Hugo IV of Burgundy and urged him to support Richard's claim to the throne. The Pope then invited Richard to Rome himself. Richard now planned to be crowned Emperor on his second visit to Germany. In a triumphant train he planned to move through the Rhine Valley over the Alps to Italy and on to Rome. After a long stay in Cambrai , where he enfeoffed Countess Margarete von Flandern and her son Guido with their possessions in the Roman-German Empire, he traveled on to Worms. He stayed there from the beginning of August to September 17, 1260. Although he declared that he would shortly cross the Alps and move to Bologna , he then traveled down the Rhine again and returned to England, which he reached on October 24, 1260 . The main reason for his return is the battle of Montaperti , in which the Tuscan Guelphs suffered a decisive defeat on September 4th. With this victory of the supporters of the Hohenstaufen the safe way to Rome was blocked for Richard. In addition, Pope Alexander IV had given up his previous neutrality and now openly supported Alfonso of Castile. Richard could no longer hope to be quickly recognized as emperor.

After his return to England, Richard stayed mainly on his English possessions, only spending Christmas 1260 at the royal court in Windsor Castle . When the conflict between the king and the aristocratic opposition came to a head, Richard received permission in January 1261 to strengthen his castles and provide them with supplies. In February 1261 he was in London, where the citizens swore allegiance to the king. Then he withdrew to his estates again. Presumably during this time he was in close contact with his brother, who tried to get the Pope to cancel the Provisions of Oxford in order to regain his power. In support of the king, he offered to allow foreign mercenaries to land in Cornwall. In October 1261 he served as an intermediary between the King and the Earl of Gloucester. In the spring of 1262 Richard defended his brother's claim that the king had the ancestral right to appoint the counties sheriffs . On November 9, 1261, Richard's second wife, Sancha, died . Richard did not attend her funeral at Hailes Abbey , which may indicate that he had not had a close relationship with her in a long time.

The ruins of the Hailes monastery founded by Richard. Richard, his second wife Sancha and his son Henry of Almain were buried in Hailes

Richard's third train to Germany from 1262 to 1263

Despite the failed attempt of 1260, which had sunk his reputation in Germany, Richard apparently stuck to his goal of being crowned emperor by the Pope. From England, too, he continuously negotiated with the Pope about an imperial coronation. In April 1261 he was elected lifelong Senator of Rome by a party of the Roman citizenship . However, he never exercised this mere honorary title, and after all the title went to Charles of Anjou, the brother of the French king, while he was still alive. Pope Alexander IV died in May 1261. His successor Urban IV , who was elected in August 1261, did not commit to one of the two candidates when he declared in April 1262 that he could neither prefer Richard nor Alfonso of Castile as candidates . In May 1262 Richard learned in England that Konradin , the young grandson of Emperor Friedrich II, was to be elected king by oppositional princes in his place . This should already have the support of Count Palatine Ludwig, the new Archbishop Engelbert of Cologne and the Archbishop of Mainz Werner von Eppstein . This threat, exacerbated by the dispute between Richard and Konradin over his claim to the Duchy of Swabia and by tensions between the Archbishop of Mainz and Richard's procurator Philip III. von Bolanden-Hohenfels , Richard couldn't ignore. On June 20, 1262 Richard set out for Germany for the third time and reached Aachen via the Netherlands. There he gave copies of the imperial regalia for safekeeping on July 13th , as he may be afraid that he would no longer be able to access the originals kept in the Trifels imperial castle . On August 6, 1262, he confirmed Ottokar von Böhmen, who was undecided in the 1257 election, as Duke of Austria and Styria. With that he won him as an ally against Konradin. In doing so, however, he also accepted his far-reaching powerlessness as king in the empire's right-bank areas. On August 7, 1262, Pope Urban IV announced that both Richard and Alfonso of Castile had equal rights as elected kings and called them to Rome. Richard then moved to southern Germany, placed Zurich under his protection and perhaps reached Basel. In November 1262, however, he moved down the Rhine again and finally crossed back to England, which he reached on February 10, 1263.

Role during the Second Barons War in England

Change from mediator to advocate of armed struggle

A tense political situation awaited Richard in England. The conflict between the king and the aristocratic opposition led by Simon de Montfort threatened to escalate into open civil war, while in Wales there was already an open uprising against English supremacy. When Richard returned there were rumors that he would become king instead of his brother and would also replace the inexperienced heir to the throne, Lord Edward. In fact, Richard tried to mediate, but quickly withdrew to his estates and initially offered his brother little support. His son Henry of Almain, however, had already joined the aristocratic opposition. In June 1263 Richard was at the royal court in Westminster, where the representatives of the aristocratic opposition put forward their demand for a renewed recognition of the Provisions of Oxford. After that Richard tried in vain to mediate between the king and Montfort. In July 1263 he tried to persuade the king to give in to the demands of the aristocratic opposition. This attempt failed, because apparently, because of his indecision, he was not accepted as an adviser by either his brother or the aristocratic opposition. In September 1263 he received a letter from the Pope accusing him of tolerating the barons' rebellion because of his lack of support for the king. This letter was apparently at the urging of the envoy of Henry III. written in Rome. When the king regained his power in October 1263, he handed Richard the custody of the northern English possessions of Roger de Mowbray . At the end of November 1263, he supported the king in a fruitless attempt to gain control of Dover Castle , which was occupied by supporters of the aristocratic opposition . When the king traveled to France in January 1264 to receive the award of the French king in the conflict with the aristocratic opposition, Richard de facto remained as regent in England. To prevent the rebellion from spreading in Wales, he ordered all bridges over the Severn to be demolished on February 4, with the exception of the Gloucester Bridge . He then made a brief foray into the embattled Welsh Marches , but broke it off when the king returned to England and joined the king in Windsor in March 1264. He then stayed with the king while his Isleworth estate in Surrey was looted by a mob from London led by Hugh le Despenser , who subsequently also looted his home in Westminster. These attacks resulted in Richard becoming a determined supporter of the king and ready to take up the armed struggle against Montfort.

Capture and imprisonment

In May 1264 an open civil war loomed when the royal army and the armies of the rebels faced each other at Lewes . The chronicler William Rishanger accused Richard of being responsible for the failure of the last attempts at mediation. In the following Battle of Lewes Richard commanded the left wing of the royal army, but the rebels under Montfort were able to defeat the royal ones clearly. Richard took refuge in a windmill, where the victorious rebels discovered him, mocked him and finally had him captured by John Giffard , a vassal of the Earl of Gloucester . His capture also caused the king and heir to the throne to surrender. He was first taken to the Tower of London and then given to his sister Eleanor , the wife of Simon von Montfort. This led to a dispute between the Earl of Gloucester and Montfort, as Gloucester claimed the ransom to be paid by Richard. Richard's possessions were confiscated and Montfort's son Guy was handed over to administration. Richard himself was imprisoned at Wallingford, one of his own earlier castles. After Robert Waleran's failed attempt at liberation in November 1264, Richard was brought to the safe Kenilworth Castle , where he could initially continue to live in comfortable custody. So he had luxurious groceries such as dates, raisins and ginger as well as expensive fabrics for new clothes delivered to Kenilworth. Allegedly he offered an enormous ransom of £ 17,000 in silver and £ 5,000 in gold during the winter, but after Lord Eduard's escape in May 1265 he was even put in chains for a time. At the beginning of August 1265 the supporters of the king and Lord Eduard were able to decisively defeat the army of the aristocratic opposition in the Battle of Evesham . Montfort fell in battle. According to the chronicler Rishanger, the crew of Kenilworth Castle wanted to murder Richard after the defeat, from which only Simon de Montfort the Younger could stop them. He released Richard on September 6, 1265, together with the bishops Walter de Cantilupe of Worcester and Roger de Meuland of Coventry, after he had sworn in Kenilworth Priory to stand up for the protection of his sister Eleanor, who as the widow of Montforts the victim of acts of revenge by followers of the king. From Kenilworth, Richard traveled to Wallingford, where the members of his household greeted him on September 9th. There he also received letters from the king, who assured him that he would help him restore his devastated possessions. On October 31, 1265, Richard welcomed the new papal legate Ottobono to England in Canterbury . With Ottobono he later concluded agreements for the extradition of Eleanor and her children.

Role in ending the War of the Barons

After that Richard apparently withdrew from the farm and took care of his properties, which had been returned to him. On April 18, 1266 he founded the Augustinian Convent of Burnham in Buckinghamshire. As a leading member of the royal party, he received numerous goods from dispossessed rebels, the so-called disinherited , and he himself advised leniency towards the disinherited. When the Earl of Gloucester occupied London with troops in the spring of 1267 in order to obtain concessions in favor of the disinherited, Richard joined the royal troops at Cambridge in March . In April he had to lend the king money again so that he could supply his troops camped in front of London. Eventually the king appointed him one of the two negotiators to negotiate with Gloucester and the other leaders of the revolt. Between June 4 and June 15, 1267, he negotiated that London submitted to the king again, while Gloucester was pardoned and the disinherited received more favorable terms to buy back their possessions. Richard's attempts to negotiate peace with Prince Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in Wales after this success failed, however. In November 1267 he was in Marlborough , where the King promulgated the Statute of Marlborough that finally ended the war of the barons. In March 1268 Richard was involved in negotiations with the City of London in support of the rebels in the War of the Barons. Richard insisted on an investigation into the looting of his properties in March 1264.

Fourth train to Germany from 1268 to 1269

Richard's efforts to be crowned emperor had failed due to his involvement in the Second War of the Barons. But despite his imprisonment and the resulting absence from Germany, the controversy for the throne in the Roman-German Empire remained undecided. After the end of the Second War of the Barons, Richard set out for Germany for the fourth time on August 4, 1268. Again he moved up the Rhine and was able to restore his authority in the Rhineland. In April 1269 he held a diet in Worms. On this he tried to abolish most of the Rhine tariffs and proclaimed a general peace in order to pacify the feuding princes of the region. Without his own troops, however, he had no way of enforcing this peace. Pope Urban IV had invited Richard to Rome for May 1265, but due to his imprisonment he had not been able to accept this invitation. In 1267 Richard had sent his son Henry of Almain to the Curia as his representative. Urban IV's successor, Clement IV , had called Richard together with Alfonso of Castile to Rome again for 1268 and 1269. After the death of Clement IV in November 1268, the papacy remained vacant until 1271, and without an army Richard would not have had the means to enforce his claim to the imperial title or to travel to Rome at all. On June 16, 1269, in Kaiserslautern , he married his third wife, the young Beatrix von Falkenburg , a niece of Archbishop Engelbert von Cologne, who had previously been hostile to him. Without being able to achieve further success, Richard returned to Mainz with his new wife in July 1269. A little later they traveled on to England, where they arrived in Dover on August 3, 1269.

Last years and death

In Dover, Richard was greeted by the heir to the throne, Lord Edward. Since Henry III. was ailing at the time and Lord Eduard was preparing his crusade , Richard assumed a leading role in the English government. Lord Edward had fallen out with the powerful Earl of Gloucester because Gloucester refused to honor his crusade vows. In extensive negotiations during Parliament at Easter 1270, Richard managed to get Edward and Gloucester to reconcile. When Edward set out for the Holy Land in August 1270, Richard stayed behind as leader of the five councils to assist the king in the government of England. When Heinrich III. seriously ill, Richard was formally appointed protector of the empire on March 7, 1271. In July 1271, he sealed new laws that severely restricted the activities of Jews in England. Then he learned of the murder of his son Henry of Almain, who had taken part in Lord Eduard's crusade but was murdered on March 13 in Italy by two sons of Simon de Montfort. This violent death of his eldest son was a heavy burden for Richard, and in August 1271 there was the death of Lord Eduard's eldest son, the five-year-old John , whom Edward had given into Richard's care. On December 12, 1271 Richard fell seriously ill in Berkhamsted , presumably suffering from a stroke . Until his death five months later, he remained partially paralyzed and could no longer speak. He was buried in Hailes Abbey next to his son Henry and second wife Sancha . His heart was buried in the choir of the Franciscan Church at Oxford .

The ruins of Berkhamsted Castle, where Richard died in 1272

Richard had praised the foundation of a monastery in gratitude for the rescue from danger to his life, in which he got caught almost because of a shipwreck during the journey home from south-west France to England in 1242. He fulfilled this vow in 1246 when he founded the Cistercian Abbey of Hailes in Gloucestershire. After his release from captivity in the War of the Barons, he founded the Burnham Augustinian Convent in Buckinghamshire in 1266 . In Knaresborough he founded a monastery of the Trinitarian Order , which housed the shrine of the canonized Robert of Knaresborough . In Chichester he allowed the Franciscans to build their settlement in place of the destroyed Chichester Castle . For one of the richest men of his time, these foundations were not exceptional. As a patron of the arts or sciences, he hardly appeared. He had used the majority of his fortune to support his brother's rule or to enforce his rule as Roman-German king from 1256 onwards. In addition, he had led an elaborate, luxurious life. In his will, Richard bequeathed 8,000 marks for the defense of the Holy Land and 500 marks for the Dominican order in Germany. He donated further money to a collegiate foundation in Oxford, which Edmund later used to found the Cistercian Abbey of Rewley . His third wife Beatrix von Falkenburg survived him. She died in 1277 and was buried near her husband's heart in the choir of the Franciscan Church at Oxford.

progeny

With his first wife, Isabella Marshal, Richard had at least three sons and one daughter:

• John (January 31, 1232 - September 22, 1232)
• Isabella (September 9, 1233 - October 6, 1234)
• Henry of Almain (November 2, 1235 - March 13, 1271)
• Nicholas of Cornwall (* / † around January 17, 1240)

Richard had at least two children with his second wife, Sancha of Provence:

• Son (July 1246 - August 15, 1246)
• Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall (26 December 1249 - before 25 September 1300)

The third marriage with Beatrix von Falkenburg remained childless. This made Edmund from his second marriage the only child from his three marriages that Richard survived and thus became his heir. In addition, Richard had at least one, probably several illegitimate children, including Richard of Cornwall , who fell during the Scottish War of Independence in 1296 at the siege of Berwick .

Reputation and aftermath

Richard had only a moderate reputation among his contemporaries. He had allied himself with barons against his brother in 1227, 1233, and 1238, but betrayed his allies whenever his complaints were settled to his advantage. That is why he was considered a trickster and deceiver in England who abandoned his allies. In Cornwall itself, too, he apparently had little reputation, for he received little support from there during the Barons' Second War and during his imprisonment. In addition, he was mocked as a womanizer and because of his greed for wealth, whereby he was also considered a violent oppressor of the poor population. The brevity and the largely non-fighting course of his crusade of 1240 meant that the chroniclers saw him less as a military, but more as a mediator, but also as a talented intriguer. As a mediator and mediator of other people's conflicts, Richard was unmatched in his day. Again and again he was able to settle conflicts between barons and the king, and he often served as a mediator in disputes between barons or clergymen. Nothing in this picture changed when in 1264 he was one of the most important proponents of a military solution to the conflict with the barons. Although Richard was a respected king in the Rhineland, the contemporary German chroniclers showed no understanding for his kingship. His rule remained weak even during his travels to Germany, because important cities such as Worms and Speyer only opened the gates for him, since Alfonso of Castile never came to Germany. However, they expressly stated that they would recognize another king as soon as he was confirmed by the Pope. Richard's attempt to enforce his kingship in Germany had thus failed. Nor did it leave any major aftermath in relations between England and the Roman-German Empire. After his death there was a fight for the throne between Ottokar von Böhmen and Rudolf von Habsburg in Germany . As a result of these battles, the memory of his rule was mixed up with battles and a weak rule in a time without an emperor, so that the supporters of the victorious House of Habsburg consciously assigned it to the interregnum . Only from the end of the 19th century did German historians see Richard's kingship in a more differentiated and positive way. Björn Weiler found that it was above all Richard's fourth move to Germany that prepared the reign of Rudolf von Habsburg.

literature

• Anton Neugebauer, Klaus Kremb, Jürgen Keddigkeit (eds.): Richard von Cornwall. Roman-German royalty in the post-Hohenstaufen period. (= Contributions to the history of the Palatinate. 25). Institute for Palatinate History and Folklore, Kaiserslautern 2010, ISBN 978-3-927754-70-6 .
• Martin Kaufhold : German Interregnum and European Politics. Conflict resolution and decision-making structures 1230–1280. (= Writings of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. ) 49. Hahn, Hannover 2000, ISBN 3-7752-5449-8 . (also: Heidelberg, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 1999).
• Noël Denholm-Young: Richard of Cornwall . Blackwell, Oxford 1947.
• Georg Lemcke: Contributions to the history of King Richard of Cornwall. (= Historical studies. 65). Ebering, Berlin 1909. (Reprint: Kraus, Vaduz 1965)
• Johann Ferdinand Bappert: Richard of Cornwall since his election as German king, 1258–1272 . Hanstein, Bonn 1905.
• Friedrich Wilhelm Schirrmacher :  Richard of Cornwall . In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Volume 28, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1889, p. 412 f.
• Manfred Groten :  Richard of Cornwall. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 21, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-428-11202-4 , p. 505 f. ( Digitized version ).

Web links

Commons : Richard of Cornwall  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• Publications on Richard of Cornwall in the Opac der Regesta Imperii
• Nicholas Vincent: Richard, first earl of Cornwall and king of Germany (1209-1272). In: Henry Colin Gray Matthew, Brian Harrison (Eds.): Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , from the earliest times to the year 2000 (ODNB). Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, ISBN 0-19-861411-X , ( oxforddnb.com license required ), as of 2004

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Nicholas Vincent: Peter des Roches. An alien in English politics, 1205-1238 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, ISBN 0-521-52215-3 , p. 276.
2. ^ David Carpenter: The minority of Henry III . University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-07239-1 , p. 266.
3. ↑ Nicholas Vincent: Peter des Roches. An alien in English politics, 1205-1238 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, ISBN 0-521-52215-3 , p. 386.
4. ↑ Nicholas Vincent: Peter des Roches. An alien in English politics, 1205-1238 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, ISBN 0-521-52215-3 , p. 390.
5. ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California Press, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 7.
6. ^ English Heritage: Richard of Cornwall, King Arthur and Tintagel Castle. Retrieved May 6, 2017 . 
7. ↑ JR Maddicott: An Infinite Multitude of Nobles: Quality, Quantity and Politics in the Pre-Reform Parliaments of Henry III. In: Michael Prestwich, Richard Britnell, Robin Frame: Thirteenth Century England VII: Proceedings of the Durham Conference 1997 . Boydell, Woodbridge 1999, ISBN 0-85115-719-X , p. 36.
8. ^ Björn KU Weiler: Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216–1272 . Royal Historical Society, Woodbridge 2006, ISBN 0-86193-280-3 , p. 172.
9. ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California Press, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 32.
10. ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California Press, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 46.
11. ^ The Society of the Precious Blood: Burnham Abbey. Retrieved May 4, 2017 . 
12. ^ Björn KU Weiler: Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216–1272 . Royal Historical Society, Woodbridge 2006, ISBN 0-86193-280-3 , p. 179.
13. ↑ Manfred Groten:  Richard of Cornwall. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 21, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-428-11202-4 , p. 505 f. ( Digitized version ).
14. ↑ Johann Ferdinand Bappert: Richard of Cornwall since his election as German king, 1258-1272 . Hanstein, Bonn 1905, p. 9.
15. ^ Björn KU Weiler: Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216–1272 . Royal Historical Society, Woodbridge 2006, ISBN 0-86193-280-3 , p. 191.

predecessor	Office	successor
William of Holland	Roman-German king 1257–1272	Alfonso of Castile
New title created	Earl of Cornwall 1227-1272	Edmund