First Scottish War of Independence
The First Scottish War of Independence was a protracted armed conflict between England and Scotland . After the English King Edward I had defeated and occupied Scotland in 1296 and deposed the Scottish King John Balliol , a rebellion against English rule broke out in 1297. In several campaigns until 1304 the English were able to break the Scottish resistance. As early as the beginning of 1306, however, there was a new rebellion against English rule led by Robert Bruce . Bruce rose to the rank of King of Scots, but was initially defeated by the English forces. Favored by the death of Edward I, he was able to conquer almost all of Scotland and finally defeat the English King Edward II in the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 . However, since the English did not recognize Robert Bruce as king, the war continued. As a result, the Scots led numerous raids to northern England, where they wreaked havoc. Only after a new, failed campaign was a long-term armistice concluded in 1323. After the deposition of Edward II, there was new fighting between England and Scotland in 1327, until the war was finally ended by a peace treaty in 1328. However, as early as 1332 there was new fighting that led to the Second Scottish War of Independence.
prehistory
The Scottish succession dispute from 1286 to 1292
After the death of the Scottish King Alexander III. In 1286 his only living descendant was his young granddaughter Margaret of Norway . This was finally recognized by the Scottish magnates as heir to the throne, but she died in 1290. The succession to the throne was now completely unclear. The Northern English magnate John Balliol and the Anglo-Scottish magnate Robert de Brus had the most promising claims among the candidates for the Scottish throne. In order to avoid civil war, the Guardians of Scotland , who ruled the reign , asked King Edward I of England to decide on the claims of the aspirants to the throne. Edward I accepted this task, whereupon the Scottish magnates paid homage to him as overlord in June 1291. After the English king had decided on the claims of the heir apparent in November 1292 and appointed John Balliol as the new Scottish king, he was determined in the next few years to enforce the supremacy over Scotland, which he now saw as his right.
Anglo-Scottish War of 1296
Dispute over supremacy
When war broke out between England and France in 1294 , the English king asked the Scottish king to act as a vassal for arms assistance. John Balliol initially ignored this request, but then saw himself unable to defend Scottish independence against the demands of the English king. As a result, the Scottish magnates disempowered Balliol in 1295, who had to leave the government largely to a twelve-member state council. The magnates continued to oppose the demands of the English king. They saw themselves in the right, because at the end of 1294 the old Pope Celestine V had released the Scottish magnates from their oath of allegiance to the English king, since they had sworn this under duress in 1291. In October 1295 the English king demanded the surrender of the border castles of Berwick , Roxburgh and Jedburgh until the war with France had ended. The Scots rejected this on the grounds that they were a free country. They sent a delegation to France, which in October 1295 made an alliance with the French King Philip IV . On February 23, 1296, a Scottish parliament confirmed the alliance , which in fact amounted to a declaration of war on England. The English king had expected this because he had already called up his feudal army to Newcastle on March 1, 1296 . The Scots called their army to Caddonlea near Selkirk on March 11, 1296 . The English were not only numerically superior to them. The English could fall back on trained archers, and the ranks of the English magnates consisted to a large extent of well-trained and equipped knights. The Scottish army, on the other hand, consisted mainly of lightly armed and poorly trained lancers, a few archers and only a weak cavalry. The English king paid the soldiers wages, while the Scottish armies were only held together by the hope of spoils of war. Above all, the English had more experience through the wars in Wales than the Scots, whose last combat action was the war against Norway in 1263. Still, the Scots began the war confidently. The Earl of Buchan was to defend Annandale , Nicholas de Soulis Liddesdale , Roxburgh Castle was held by James the Stewart and Berwick by William Douglas . On the other hand, Robert de Brus of Annandale , his son, the Earl of Carrick and the Earls of Dunbar and Angus were on the English side. The English Baron Robert de Ros, Lord of Wark-on-Tweed , changed sides at the end of March 1296 out of love for a Scottish woman and was able to recapture his castle with help from Scotland.
Scottish attacks on northern England and English conquest of Berwick
On Easter Monday 1296, a Scottish army led by seven Earls and led by John Comyn of Badenoch invaded northern England. They crossed the Solway with numerous foot soldiers from Annandale and burned the villages in Arthuret . Then they advanced to Carlisle , which was defended by Robert de Brus of Annandale. Without siege engines, however, the Scots could not take the fortified city, which is why they withdrew after a one-day siege on March 28th. On March 30th the English army reached Berwick . The English army was able to quickly conquer the poorly fortified city , with the conquerors causing a bloodbath among the population. A little later the crew of Berwick Castle surrendered, the crew of which, with the exception of the commander Douglas, received free retreat. Edward I let the English settle Berwick and made the city the administrative center of the Scottish territories occupied by England. After the conquest of Berwick, a Scottish army led by the Earls of Ross , Menteith and Atholl undertook a campaign of revenge from Jedburgh to northern England. They burned numerous villages, churches and monasteries in Northumberland , including Hexham .
Battle of Dunbar
After the conquest of Berwick, the English advance halted until the king sent a troop of horsemen to Dunbar on April 23 . The Earl of Dunbar was on the English side, but his wife supported the Scots and had moved the crew of Dunbar Castle to change sides. The Earls of Menteith, Atholl and Ross now occupied the castle, whereupon the English horsemen under the Earl of Warenne began the siege of the castle on April 27th. That day, shortly after noon, the Scottish army attacked the English besiegers. In the following battle at Dunbar, Warenne was able to quickly put the attackers to flight. The battle was probably more of a skirmish, but the Scottish army was crushed. The task of Dunbar Castle was decisive when Edward I arrived there the day after the battle with the main English army. The three Scottish earls and several barons were thus captured.
Conquest of Scotland and the abdication of John Balliol
Immediately after the defeat at Dunbar, James the Stewart gave Roxburgh Castle. John Balliol and the Comnys fled to Northern Scotland. The advancing English soldiers met hardly any resistance and took possession of Scotland. Edinburgh Castle surrendered after a five-day siege while the crew of Stirling Castle fled before the English arrived. At midsummer Balliol sent out messengers offering his surrender. The messengers reached Edward I in Perth . On July 2, 1296 Balliol had to admit in writing in Kincardine Castle that he had rebelled against the English king. On July 7th, in the cemetery of Stracathro , he revoked the alliance with France. On July 10, he had to submit to the English Bishop Antony Bek of Durham at Brechin Castle . On behalf of Edward I, Bek announced the strict conditions for the handover. Balliol had to give up his crown and go into captivity. Then he had to lay down his royal regalia and his coat of arms was torn from his coat, so that he was utterly humiliated. He was brought to London in the Tower , which he was soon able to leave again. But he remained in mild captivity in Hertfordshire .
Takeover of rule by the English king
In addition to the king, numerous other Scottish barons and knights surrendered. The Earl of Buchan and John Comyn of Badenoch were allowed to live in England on condition that they stay south of the Trent . The Earls captured at Dunbar Castle as well as John Comyn (III) , Richard Siward , John Moubray , John of Inchmartin , David Graham , Alexander Menzies and Nicholas Randolph were brought to the Tower of London. Edward I, on the other hand, pushed further into northern Scotland in July 1296. He moved across the Cowie Estuary to Deeside , stayed in Aberdeen for five days, and then moved to the Spey via Kintore , Fyvie , Banff and Cullen . On July 26th he reached Elgin , the northernmost point of his campaign. Then the king moved south to Rothes , where he sent John de Cantilupe and John Hastings to Badenoch to subdue this rule. The king moved via Invercharach to Kildrummy and further south. The Bishop of Durham had accompanied him as far as Elgin. In Rothes he separated from the king and probably moved with his troops as far as Kindrochit . Before August 22nd the king reached Berwick again. There he convened a parliament, in which he promulgated an order for the government of Scotland. The kingdom was not dissolved, but no new vassal king was appointed. Robert the Bruce of Annandale had asked Edward I if he could now claim his father's claim to the throne, but the king had sharply rejected him. Edward I himself did not claim the title of King of Scots , nor the title of Lord of Scotland . He let Scotland occupy like a forfeited fiefdom, which remained under his administration according to the current feudal law. He appointed Earl Warenne as governor, Hugh Cressingham as treasurer and Walter of Amersham as chancellor . He appointed William Ormsby Chief Justice of Scotland, to which he appointed or confirmed sheriffs and castle commanders. Scotland thus retained its own administration, but like the Principality of Wales or the Lordship of Ireland it was subject to the English King. He had the Scottish Crown Insignia and the Stone of Scone brought to England. With this removal of one of the mystical symbols of the Scottish monarchy, the English king wanted to break the pride of the Scots. Edward I saw himself completely in the right, since in his opinion he had fought as supreme liege lord against his rebellious Scottish vassals, who had allied themselves with his mortal enemy King Philip of France.
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Already during Edward I's march through Scotland in July and August 1296, many Scots paid homage to him, and on August 28, numerous other Scots paid homage to him in Berwick, whose names were recorded in the Ragman Roll . Presumably not all of the 2000 Scots listed in the Ragman Roll were present themselves. Instead, the sheriffs accepted the homage. With the establishment of a new government, the capture of the leading Scottish magnates and the homage of the Scottish nobles, Edward I considered the Scottish problem solved. He now turned to the war with France, to do this he had to break the resistance of an opposition aristocracy in England. His governor, Earl Warenne, felt uncomfortable in Scotland and withdrew to his estate in Yorkshire . Hugh Cressingham quickly became the actual head of government.
Scottish Revolt from 1297 to 1304
Wallace and Murray rebellion begins
Much of the Scottish magnates were in English captivity, while others such as the Earl of Dunbar, the Earl of Carrick and the Earl of Angus were on the English side. Some of the bishops had also paid homage to the English king, while Bishops Fraser von St Andrews and Crambeth von Dunkeld were in exile in France. Three more of the twelve Scottish dioceses were vacant. Although much of the previous political leadership was eliminated, an armed opposition quickly formed in Scotland against English rule, whose leader William Wallace was. However, Wallace could not organize a nationwide insurrection on his own, which was also not supported primarily by the common people, as historians believed in the first half of the 20th century. Wallace was a knight from Paisley , the center of James the Stewart's estates, and was his vassal. The Stewart was one of Scotland's greatest magnates and helped prepare the revolt Wallace, who was held in high regard among his vassals. Wallace was assisted by Bishop Robert Wishart of Glasgow, who, like Stewart, had served as Guardian from 1286 to 1292. Wishart, like Stewart, had considerable influence across Scotland. He and other clergymen feared that the English Archbishop of Canterbury wanted to bring the Scottish Church under his suzerainty. He was assisted by William Lamberton , Chancellor of the Diocese of Glasgow. While Wallace was chiefly the leader of the opposition in southern Scotland, Andrew Murray , who came from an old noble family, became the leader of the opposition in northern Scotland between Spey and Dee in the summer of 1297. Nevertheless, the uprising of 1297 was only partially planned, and in many parts the discontent with English rule resulted in spontaneous revolts.
The first riots occurred in early 1297 in the western highlands , although these riots may not have been directed against English rule at all. Revolts probably broke out in Aberdeenshire and Galloway in early May . When Wallace murdered William Hesilrig , the English sheriff of Lanarkshire , in May , it was the signal for a nationwide rebellion. William Ormsby was caught by the uprising in Scone and narrowly escaped the rebels. Sir William Douglas, the former Berwick defense attorney and a brother-in-law of James the Stewart, joined Wallace, and Stewart's brother John Stewart, as well as Sir Alexander Lindsay and the Earl of Carrick, also supported the rebellion. English rule quickly collapsed north of the Forth . In May Murray, with the help of the Inverness citizens, had attacked Urquhart Castle and by early August had captured Inverness , Elgin , Banff and other English castles. Only a few North Scottish castles remained in English hands.
English countermeasures
After the English administration in Scotland collapsed, Cressingham turned to the king for financial assistance, as he had no means to raise an army to crush the rebellion. In June King Edward I sent John Comyn of Badenoch and John Comyn, Earl of Buchan to Scotland to end the rebellion. They were supported by Bishop Henry Cheyne of Aberdeen, Countess Effie of Ross and Gartnait of Mar . Henry Percy and Robert Clifford raised an army in northern England . They moved through Annandale and Nithsdale to Ayr , which they reached at the end of June. Given the military superiority of the English, Stewart and Douglas offered surrender negotiations in Irvine , which, however, dragged on for several weeks. Douglas was jailed after he surrendered. The English king now considered Scotland pacified and in August 1297 began his campaign to Flanders to attack the French king from there.
However, the situation in Scotland was out of control for the English. While the remaining Scottish magnates fell out with the surrender of Irvine as leader, Wallace gathered an army of foot soldiers in Selkirk Forest in July . In August 1297 he unsuccessfully besieged Dundee Castle . With that, however, he had advanced north across the Tay and connected with Murray, who had prevailed in northern Scotland. The Comyns, sent north by Edward I, had only half-heartedly taken action against the rebels and had switched sides at an unknown time. There is no precise information about the course of the Murray rebellion, nor when exactly Murray and Wallace united their forces. Probably by the end of August they were able to unite their troops and thus raise an impressive army, which, however, consisted mainly of foot soldiers.
Battle of Stirling Bridge
In August Warenne and Cressingham finally marched into Scotland with an English army. Their army consisted of a handsome contingent of knights and strong, mostly Welsh infantry. The army’s destination was Stirling , where Warenne wanted to interrupt the connections between northern and southern Scotland by occupying the crossing over the Forth. However, when crossing the Stirling Bridge, the English army suffered a heavy defeat in which Cressingham was killed. This defeat was twice as shocking for the English, because it had been unthinkable for them that an army of knights would be defeated by peasant foot soldiers and by Scots. Murray probably played a decisive role in the Scottish victory, but he was probably so badly wounded in the battle that he died of the consequences about two months later.
More fighting and battle at Falkirk
With the victory of Stirling Bridge and the death of Murray, Wallace had become the actual leader of the Scots. He saw himself as a representative of King John Balliol, who was still in English captivity. In liberated Scotland he now systematically, sometimes forcibly, deployed more troops. In October and November 1297 he went on a raid across the border into Northumberland. The Scots sacked the area between Cockermouth and Newcastle, with the undisciplined Scots committing horrific atrocities. Much of the English population, including the clergy, fled to County Durham south of the Tyne . Only in the face of heavy snowstorms did the Scots retreat across the border in November 1297. Before Christmas 1297, Warenne and Robert Clifford each led a small English counter-attack. Clifford sacked Annandale, where his troops burned ten villages. However, part of his cavalry suffered heavy losses in an ambush. In eastern Scotland , Warenne horrified Roxburgh and Berwick. Presumably in March 1298, Wallace was knighted by an unnamed Earl and officially elected Guardian. He could conquer the poorly supplied Stirling Castle, but without siege engines he could not take Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Berwick and other castles. In mid-February 1298, Edward I announced in a letter to Warenne that he would lead a campaign to Scotland immediately after his return from Flanders. At the same time he forbade Warenne to undertake a major campaign himself. Numerous Scottish knights and nobles who were captured at Dunbar had taken part in the English campaign to Flanders. For this the English king had promised them their release. After the failure of the English campaign in Flanders, many Scots, including the Earl of Atholl and John Comyn (III), defected to the French. They returned to Scotland and joined Wallace.
In the summer of 1298 Edward I moved his government to York and gathered a large army, which probably included at least 2,000 horsemen and 12,000, mainly Welsh foot soldiers. In July 1298 an English advance division under Bishop Antony Bek and John Fitzmarmaduke besieged Dirleton Castle . Since they had no siege engines and insufficient supplies, Fitzmarmaduke returned to the king and asked for assistance, but was abruptly refused. But when three ships with supplies arrived at the besiegers, the English were able to conquer the castle a little later. The main English army that had invaded Scotland also suffered from a lack of food. Few supply ships reached Scotland due to adverse winds. But then the English learned that the Scottish army was not far from them at Falkirk . In the following battle at Falkirk, Edward I defeated the defensively positioned, outnumbered Scottish army under Wallace on July 22nd. Most of the Scottish magnates had fled when the Scottish defeat loomed, and Wallace escaped too. Eduard I only advanced briefly to Fife with his army, weakened by hunger. Then he turned on Ayr Castle , which had been burned down by the Earl of Carrick, who was again on the Scottish side. Then Edward I moved south again and reached Carlisle in northern England in September 1298.
Continuation of the Scottish resistance by the Guardians
In Carlisle, Edward I declared the possessions of many Scottish nobles forfeited on September 25, 1298 and gave them to English nobles. In doing so, he drove the Scottish magnates into further bitter resistance. After the defeat at Falkirk, Wallace resigned as Guardian and probably left Scotland temporarily before 1299. The leadership of the resistance was now taken over by representatives of the nobility. Before December 1298, Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick and John Comyn (III) of Badenoch were elected new Guardians. Despite the Falkirk defeat, their situation was not hopeless. In contrast to 1296, the Scottish resistance was not broken, the English king had not been able to reoccupy Scotland, and apart from the south-east Scottish castles, almost all of Scotland was still in the hands of the insurgents. The Guardians at least partially rebuilt an administration. They received support from William Lamberton, who was elected new Bishop of St Andrews at Wallace's instigation, and from David Moray , a relative of the late Guardian, who became Bishop of Moray in 1299. The focus of their work as Guardians put Comyn and Carrick on the fight against the English occupation forces, which partly led to new, severe devastation in southern Scotland, but also in northern England. Not only did they besiege Stirling Castle, which had fallen back to the English after Falkirk, but also wanted to raid Roxburgh Castle in the summer of 1299. They were supported by the Earls of Buchan and Menteith and probably by the Earl of Atholl, James the Stewart, Ingram de Umfraville , David Graham , David of Brechin and Robert Keith . In view of the strength of the English garrison, however, the Scots refrained from attacking. Instead, they occupied the Forest of Selkirk and managed to get Simon Fraser to switch sides. They were able to exchange some prisoners and carry out a raid as far as Edinburgh. An attack by Bruce on Lochmaben Castle was also unsuccessful. The English king called up his army for a new campaign on June 6, 1299, but although he was in Northumberland in the summer of 1299, for various reasons he did not launch a new campaign in Scotland. The starved crew of Stirling Castle therefore had to surrender before the end of 1299. The Scots allowed the crew to leave freely.
Quarrel among the Scottish magnates
Rival factions had formed among the Scots. At a council meeting in August 1299 in the Forest of Selkirk, fights between Comyn and Bruce could only be prevented with great difficulty. The conflict was initially resolved by the appointment of Bishop Lamberton as the third Guardian. Most of the Scottish magnates then withdrew to their estates to defend them against feared attacks. Bruce resigned as Guardian between November 1299 and May 1300. In May 1300 the Earl of Buchan tried to win the support of the Gaelic nobility from Galloway. Though many of the residents of Galloway had supported Wallace, the leading MacCan and MacDougall families had been helping the English fight their hated Scottish neighbors since 1297. With the exception of the Earl of Buchan, who was still in Galloway, the other Scottish magnates held a parliament in Rutherglen on May 10, 1300 . It was determined as the successor to Bruce Ingram de Umfraville as Guardian.
Diplomatic successes of the Scots
The Scots hoped that Edward I would offer an armistice through the mediation of the French king. In April 1299, the French king received the Abbot of Jedburgh and Sir John Wishart of the Carse , who had traveled to France as Scottish ambassadors. He assured them that he had not forgotten the 1295 alliance, but did not provide them with direct military support. As a result of Scottish and French diplomatic efforts, the Pope gave John Balliol to the French king in 1299. Pope Boniface VIII was well disposed towards the Scots and in June 1299 replied to a letter from the English king that Scotland was not subject to the English king, but to the Roman Curia.
The English campaign of 1300
The conquest of Caerlaverock
It was not until July 1300 that Edward I led a new campaign to Scotland. The king had requested 16,000 foot soldiers for the campaign, but only about 9,000 men turned up for drafting in Carlisle. In addition, there was the cavalry, in four squadrons under the command of the Earl of Lincoln , Earl Warenne, the king himself and the heir to the throne Edward . The young and inexperienced heir to the throne was supported by the experienced military John de St John . On July 4th, the army advanced into south-west Scotland to subdue Galloway. The Song of Caerlaverock by an unknown poet reports on the campaign . The campaign went without major skirmishes, so that the poem mainly tells of the siege and conquest of Caerlaverock Castle , a smaller, rather insignificant castle that was captured after being bombarded by a catapult. The king had part of the garrison executed by hanging, the commandant and eleven others were incarcerated in Newcastle. After the conquest of Caerlaverock, the English army moved on to Galloway, with an English fleet accompanying the army and supplying them with provisions. Edward I rejected Bishop Thomas Dalton of Whithorn's offer to hold peace talks. In Kirkcudbright he negotiated for two days without result with John Comyn (III) of Badenoch and the Earl of Buchan. Since they demanded the reinstatement of Balliol and the return of the confiscated lands, Eduard I broke off the negotiations angrily.
The battle on the Cree
Shortly thereafter, a skirmish broke out at the mouth of the River Cree . The Scots surprisingly attacked a group of Englishmen who were looking for food for the army. The English quickly received reinforcements so that they could repel the attack and capture Sir Robert Keith, the Scottish Marechal . On August 8th the main English army reached the river bank. The English archers shot at the Scottish troops on the opposite bank, who were lining up for battle. Then, when the tide was low, the Earl of Hereford led his foot soldiers across the river. The king wanted to use his cavalry closed on his right wing and asked Hereford to withdraw his troops. Hereford misunderstood the order and attacked the Scots with his soldiers. On muddy ground and in heavy rain it came to a battle in which the mounted detachments of the king and the heir to the throne intervened. Thereupon the bulkheads withdrew into the surrounding moors. The Scottish losses were small, but they lost a large part of their equipment. Due to the impassable terrain, the English knights could not pursue them, which is why Edward I regretted not having used lightly armed Welsh foot soldiers for the campaign. These could have followed the Scots in the rough terrain. Only the Scottish laird Robert Baird of Strathaven was captured and taken to southern England with Robert Keith.
The campaign is broken off and an armistice is concluded
After the battle on the Cree, the English army ran out of food. The king succeeded less and less in keeping his army together. Numerous foot soldiers deserted. Many of the magnates also realized that the campaign was unsuccessful and some of them left the army. Eventually the king realized that the campaign had failed and returned to Carlisle in frustration. Despite the defeat on the Cree and the conquest of Caerlaverock, the Scots had withstood the English attack. In October the English king advanced with a small force to Dumfries , where he inspected the fortifications before returning to Carlisle in early November. Presumably in Dumfries on October 31st, he had concluded an armistice with the Scots, which ran until May 21st, 1301. Disappointed with the course of the campaign, Edward I harshly rejected further offers of negotiation by the Scots and threatened to devastate Scotland from east to west.
Further diplomatic efforts by the Scots and the English
Brought even during the campaign in Scotland Archbishop Winchelsey of Canterbury to the English king in Sweetheart Abbey , the papal bull scimus Fili . In this the Pope reprimanded the English king for the campaign, and above all he denied the English king's claim to rule in Scotland. The English initially responded with a letter to the Pope, sealed by numerous barons, which was presumably written in January 1301 during a parliament in Lincoln . In this letter they stated that the Pope had no right to interfere in the Anglo-Scottish dispute, as the dispute was an internal matter. In November 1300 the King of England had sent a high-ranking delegation to the Curia with the Earl of Lincoln and Hugh Despenser in order to get the Pope to recognize the English sovereignty over Scotland. The Scottish representatives at the Curia tried to prevent this , especially the highly educated Master Baldred Bisset . He and the other Scottish ambassadors tried to get the Pope to decide on the Anglo-Scottish war. The Scots continued to quarrel among themselves. Lamberton, Comyn and Umfraville worked together as Guardians until the end of 1300, but then they too fell out. They resigned between December 1300 and May 1301, probably early 1301. In their place, John de Soules was appointed sole Guardian. Soules openly described himself as a representative of John Balliol, who continued to live in exile, and worked closely with Bishop Lamberton as the Guardian.
The English campaign of 1301
Formation of armies
After the failure of the campaign of 1300, Edward I planned a new campaign the next year, which was initially directed against south-west Scotland and should disrupt connections between this part of the country and the rest of Scotland. On March 1, 1301, the King ordered at Lincoln that before June 24, two armies should assemble for a new advance into Scotland. The larger, eastern army was to be assembled in Berwick and commanded by the king, while the western army in Carlisle was to be led by the heir to the throne raised to the prince of Wales . This should give the young heir to the throne the opportunity to distinguish himself militarily. His armed forces included experienced military men such as the Earls of Lincoln, Hereford, Earl of Arundel and Gloucester , as well as other magnates such as Thomas and Henry of Lancaster , William Martin , Reginald Gray , Edmund Mortimer , John Hastings and Theobald de Verdon . There were also young Esquires like Gilbert de Clare of Thomond and Piers Gaveston . A total of about 300 men-at-arms were under the command of the heir to the throne, including ten bannerets , about seventy knights and over 200 other armored riders, plus numerous light riders and foot soldiers. In addition, the army was reinforced by a strong Irish contingent of knights, light riders and archers under the Justiciar of Ireland John Wogan , to whom with John FitzThomas and Peter de Bermingham belonged two of the most important Anglo-Irish magnates.
Advance of the Prince of Wales
Little is known about the platoon of the Prince of Wales Army. The army had probably moved not along the coast, but possibly through the Nithsdale on the direct route to the Firth of Clyde . Then the army turned on Turnberry Castle . This Earl of Carrick castle was captured before September 2nd. The mobile Scots led by Soules waged a guerrilla war against the clumsy English army and could not be fought by the Prince of Wales. Instead, they threatened the flanks of the English army. On September 7th and 8th, Soules and Ingram de Umfraville launched a bold but unsuccessful attack on Lochmaben. The English garrison of the conquered Turnberry Castle, like the garrison of Ayr Castle, was threatened by a large Scottish force, most of which was presumably set up by the Earl of Carrick. Instead of turning north to unite with the king's army, the Prince of Wales eventually withdrew to Carlisle via Loch Ryan .
Advance of the English King
The king moved from Berwick through the Tweeddale and occupied Selkirk and Peebles to bring the Forest of Selkirk under his control. Then the army moved along the Clyde to Glasgow until August 23rd . Then the King besieged Bothwell Castle , which was captured before September 24th, despite Scottish relief attacks. Due to the withdrawal of the Prince of Wales, the planned pincer movement of the English army had failed. The king still hoped in October to build a boat bridge over the Firth of Forth and to be able to resume the siege of Stirling Castle. However, this failed, among other things because of the onset of winter. The king then moved into winter quarters in Linlithgow , where the Prince of Wales joined him on November 14th. Since the Scots had avoided an open battle, both armies had achieved little success. The English king ran out of money for pay and his army ran out of provisions, whereupon numerous foot soldiers deserted. Numerous horses also died due to lack of feed.
Armistice and change of sides by the Earl of Carrick
Edward I ordered new infantry contingents to be set up for January 1302 in November, but eventually, due to pressure from the Pope and the King of France, he was ready for an armistice. This was closed on January 26, 1302 in Newcastle and was limited to November 1302. The extensive preparations for a continuation of the campaign in the coming spring were canceled, so that the Scots remained in possession of large areas of south-west Scotland. Before February 16, 1302, however, the Earl of Carrick surrendered of his own free will to John de St John, the English commandant of Annandale and Galloway. The reason for this change of sides was probably Carrick's fear that after the conclusion of the armistice, the English king could again recognize John Balliol as the Scottish king. The Pope had given Balliol to the French king, who was allied with the Scots. Under Balliol as king, Bruce should have feared for his possessions, especially Annandale, but also Carrick. After switching sides, Bruce married Elizabeth de Burgh , daughter of Richard de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster , a determined supporter of the King of England. Not only Bruce but several other Scots like Alexander de Abernethy switched sides around this time.
Conclusion of the Peace of Paris and consequences for Scotland
While the English did not lead a new campaign in Scotland in the summer of 1302, the war between France and Flanders had far-reaching consequences for Scotland. The French king suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the Spurs against the Flemings in July 1302 . The French king then concentrated his efforts entirely on the war with Flanders and almost completely gave up support for the Scots. A high-ranking Scottish delegation, including John de Soules, Bishop Lamberton, the Earl of Buchan, James the Stewart, Ingram de Umfraville and William Balliol , had traveled to Paris in the autumn of 1302, possibly with the English king being escorted. Despite the diplomatic efforts of the Scots, France made the peace of Paris with England in May 1303 . Contrary to the promises of the French king, the Scots were excluded from the peace. Pope Boniface VIII was also no longer entirely on the Scottish side. In 1302 he reprimanded the Bishop of Glasgow for continuing the war and he urged the Scottish bishops to come to terms with the English king.
English campaign from 1303 to 1304
Scottish success at Roslin
When the armistice with Scotland expired in November 1302, the English king was not yet ready for a new campaign in Scotland. It was not until May 1303 that he called up his army for a new campaign. Until then, its governor John Seagrave should lead an advance into the Scottish-controlled areas west of Edinburgh. After John de Soules left for France, John Comyn of Badenoch took over the post of Guardian again for the Scots. On February 24, 1303, he and Simon Fraser surprised an English cavalry brigade led by Seagrave. At the Battle of Roslin Seagrave was taken prisoner seriously wounded, while officer Ralph Manton , who had accompanied the English army, was killed. A little later arriving second English brigade under Robert Neville of Raby was able to free Seagrave again and thus prevent a Scottish triumph. The battle had made it clear, however, that the Forest of Selkirk was an important Scottish retreat. In the forest the English had built a peel , which was defended by Alexander Balliol of Cavers , but was captured by the Scots in January 1303.
The great English campaign from 1303 to 1304
In view of the continuing Scottish resistance, Edward I planned a large-scale campaign to Scotland for May 1303. The army was smaller than that of the campaigns of 1296, 1298 and 1301, but the army included numerous English magnates such as the Earls of Lancaster, and Warwick , Aymer de Valence , the Earl of Ulster as the leader of an Irish contingent, and the Scottish Earls of Atholl and Strathearn . Robert Bruce also strengthened the army with a strong contingent from south-west Scotland. The Scots, on the other hand, were weakened by the absence of several magnates who were trapped in France after the Anglo-French peace treaty. On May 30th, the English king left Roxburgh. He had had boat bridges prepared in Bishops Lyn , which were taken to the Firth of Forth by ships. With the help of these bridges, the English army was able to bypass Stirling Castle, cross the Firth of Forth and thus avoid a time-consuming siege of the castle. Instead, the English invaded Fife directly . The English army marched north, plundering and destroying. At the end of July the army reached Brechin and besieged the castle held by Thomas Maule. Maule fell on August 9th, after which the garrison surrendered. After that, the English moved further north without further resistance being reported. According to later, but unconfirmed reports, Urquhart and Cromarty Castle are said to have surrendered only after bitter resistance. The king moved via Aberdeen to Kinloss Abbey on the banks of the Moray Firth , which he reached on September 14, 1303. This was the northernmost point an English army could reach in the war. For lack of supplies and without the Scots having stood up for battle, the English withdrew. On November 5th, the King reached Dunfermline Abbey in Fife, where he took up his winter quarters. The Prince of Wales moved on to Perth on November 24th, where he stayed until March 7th, 1304. He then moved back to Dunfermline to see the king.
Scottish surrender of 1304
The king wanted to impress the Scots and force them to give up, since after the peace between England and France they could no longer expect any support from there. Indeed, there was little that the Scots could do against the superior English army. With no prospect of French support, their military situation had become hopeless. John Comyn of Badenoch had over 100 horsemen and 1,000 foot soldiers in southern Scotland in the autumn of 1303 and led a raid as far as Drymen in Lennox . The overwintering of the English army in Scotland and with it the prospect that the fight would continue in the spring, sealed the Scottish defeat. Comyn met Valence, Henry de Percy, John Binstead and Robert Fitz Payn in Strathord north of Perth from February 5, 1304 and led surrender negotiations. However, he did not want to surrender unconditionally and demanded that there should be no sanctions or expropriations against the Scottish rebels. Both sides should release their prisoners unconditionally. Edward I showed himself gracious to the Scots and, with a few exceptions, agreed to Comyn's demands. Thereupon Comyn submitted formally to the English king on February 9, 1304 in Strathord. As a result, around February 1304, most of the other Scottish nobles surrendered. Only William Wallace was exempt from the mercy of the English king. In February the English undertook a Chevauchée led by Seagrave, Clifford and Latimer and supported by Robert Bruce in the Forest of Selkirk, where they were able to blow up Fraser and Wallace's troops at Happgrew not far from Peebles. Wallace and Fraser continued the resistance with their modest remaining strength, and the crew of the mighty Stirling Castle, led by William Oliphant , also refused to surrender. In May 1304, Edward I began to siege the castle until the garrison surrendered after three months of bombardment by siege engines at the end of July. The Scottish negotiators from France returned to Scotland after the assurance of safe conduct. The English king imposed a number of exile sentences, but no expropriations. The owners were allowed to repurchase goods that had already been expropriated against heavy fines. The Stewart, John de Soules and Ingram de Umfraville were exempt from these concessions, and were not to be pardoned until Wallace was captured.
Reorganization of Scotland after the conquest
With most of the magnates abandoned and Stirling Castle conquered, Scotland seemed largely pacified. Although English rule was harsh, it was not tyrannical. Edward I rightly felt himself to be Lord of Scotland, but he also paid attention to compliance with the applicable English law. Accordingly, he called a Scottish Parliament in March 1304 . Numerous Scots swore allegiance to the king in March 1304, including Malcolm, 5th Earl of Lennox , Sir John of Combo , Sir John de la Hay , Sir William Murray of Drumsargard , Sir William Murray of St Fort and Sir Edmund Ramsay . Some of them had fought against the English for up to eight years. In May 1304, the Earl of Buchan received his possessions back, except for the castles of Old Slains and Balvenie , and the temporalities of Bishop Lamberton were also returned. During Parliament in the spring of 1305, Robert Wishart , Robert Bruce and John Moubray were appointed advisors to the king. Ten Scots were to be chosen to represent Scotland in the English Parliament. Together with John Seagrave as governor of Lothian and John Sandale as Chamberlain of Scotland , the three Scottish counselors selected the ten representatives. Two bishops, abbots, earls and barons were elected, as well as one representative each for Scotland north and one representative for Scotland south of the Forth. The ten representatives attended the English Parliament in Westminster in September 1305. During this Parliament the ordinances for the administration of Scotland were enacted. Scotland was referred to as a country, i.e. as part of England and no longer as a separate kingdom. The government took over John of Brittany as governor, Wiliam of Bevercotes as chancellor and John Sandale as Chamberlain. Parliament appointed four pairs of judges, each made up of a Scot and an Englishman. Sheriffs and castle commanders were appointed, with the strategically important castles retaining English commanders. A 22-member Scottish Council was also formed to advise the governor. It consisted mainly of four bishops, five earls, including Buchan and Bruce, and nine barons. Nevertheless, the real power remained with the English governor, his chancellor and the Chamberlain. In August 1305, William Wallace was captured by soldiers in the service of John of Menteith . He was brought to London, condemned as a traitor and cruelly executed as a scapegoat. Since John of Brittany had not yet assumed his office as governor in autumn 1305, the administration was temporarily transferred to Bishop Lamberton, John Sandale, Sir Robert Keith and Sir John Kingston on October 26, 1305 . Her mandate was extended on February 16, 1306.
The Robert Bruce Rebellion from 1306 to 1308
Preparations for the rebellion
Robert Bruce had inherited his father in 1304 and was now a wealthy Anglo-Scottish magnate. Since 1302 he had supported the English in the fight against the Scots, even if Edward I apparently did not fully trust him. In fact, he was only outwardly a loyal subject to the English king, who in reality had long been striving for the crown that his grandfather had striven for. Bruce had probably formed an alliance with Bishop Lamberton in June 1304 and had discussed the chances of a new uprising with Wishart and Lamberton in the fall of 1305.
Course of the rebellion
Assassination of Comyn
In February 1306 Robert Bruce was in Lochmaben, while John Comyn was in nearby Dalswinton . Edward I was ill and apparently did not have much longer to live, so Bruce saw the time had come for an uprising. Bruce and Comyn met on February 10th in the Franciscan Church in Dumfries. There, Bruce Comyn apparently let in on his plans, which the latter probably rejected out of loyalty to John Balliol. During the following argument, Bruce murdered Comyn. There are several legends about the murder of Comyn that are obviously untrue. According to a legend, Comyn should have accused Bruce before Edward I, whereupon he had to answer before a parliament. Robert of Monthermer warned him, whereupon Bruce could flee. These partly romantic stories are very doubtful, if only because there was no English parliament during the period in question. Bruce has probably only been in Scotland since April 1305 and had not been to England.
Coronation in scone
After the murder of Comyn, Bruce was forced to act, because on the one hand he had made the powerful Comyns his enemy and the English king would certainly not allow the murder to go unpunished. Bruce was excommunicated immediately because the murder had taken place in a church. Just six weeks after the assassination of Comyn, Bruce was raised to king in Scone, which suggests that he had been pursuing the plan for some time. The Countess of Buchan exercised traditional family rights and installed Bruce as king. Previously, Bruce and his supporters had occupied the castles of Dumfries , Dalswinton, Tibbers and Ayr while Robert Boyd of Cunningham captured Rothesay Castle and besieged Inverkip . In addition, he came through exchange in the possession of Dunaverty Castle , so that he had come into possession of five west Scottish castles on the Firth of Clyde. Before moving to Scone, he met Robert Wishart in Glasgow, who gave him absolution for the murder in Dumfries. The coronation ceremony was attended by Abbot Henry of Scone , Bishops Lamberton, Wishart and Murray, and Abbot Maurice of Inchaffray , as well as the Earls of Atholl, Lennox and Menteith, and perhaps the young Earl Donald of Mar , whose guardian was Bruce. Immediately thereafter, Bruce and his supporters took the military initiative. Bishop Wishart was able to take control of Cupar Castle . Kirkintilloch was besieged while Bruce moved to south-west Scotland for further assistance.
Bruce was supported in his rebellion by nobles from all over Scotland. However, he received little support from Lothian, as this region was the center of English-occupied Scotland and was closely under English control. The majority of the magnates such as the Earls of Caithness, Sutherland , Ross, Buchan and Dunbar were also hostile to the Bruce rebellion. In some cases they not only had extensive estates to lose in England, but they continued to regard John Balliol as their rightful king. They also condemned the Comyn murder. For these reasons, many of the Scottish magnates initially viewed Bruce as a usurper and did not support his rebellion. Bruce also received little support from Northern Scotland, Lorne , Lochaber , Badenoch, Buchan or Galloway in southwest Scotland.
Preparation of the English counter-attack
Eduard I. initially refused to admit that Bruce, who had been loyal up to now, had betrayed him. On April 5th he appointed Aymer de Valence governor of Scotland and gave him extensive powers to put down the rebellion. Valence was allowed to wield the Draggon Banner , which meant he could wage a ruthless war and show no mercy. Originally, Valence was supposed to kill all prisoners, but Edward I revoked this order a little later. Not only should smaller knights be spared, the king wanted to get Bruce, Fraser and Atholl alive in order to cruelly execute them. To this end, Edward I summoned his army to Carlisle on July 8th. The English king gave the possessions of Bruce and his supporters to English magnates.
Battle of Methven
Before the English king could move to Scotland with his army, however, Valence took decisive action against Bruce and his supporters. Before June 9, Bishop Lamberton was ready to surrender. Bishop Wishart was captured at Cupar Castle. Both bishops were locked in dungeons in southern England along with the Abbot of Scone, and it was only thanks to their clerical status that the king did not let them down. By June 18, Valence had occupied Perth and Bruce moved there to face battle. However, Valence surprisingly attacked the Scottish camp and was able to inflict a heavy defeat on Bruce and his supporters on June 19 in the Battle of Methven.
Escape and pursuit of the rebels
Bruce is defeated in battle at Dalry
After the defeat at Methven, Bruce fled with only a few followers to Drumalban , where he was supported by Abbot Maurice of Inchaffray. In July or August 1306, the hostile John of Lorne blocked their way in the valley of the Strathfillan . in the following skirmish at Dalry , Bruce's force was crushed. Bruce now disbanded his troop. He sent his wife Elizabeth and the other women of his family who had accompanied him, together with his brother Neil , the Earl of Atholl and Alexander Lindsay and Robert Boyd over the mountains to Kildrummy Castle northwest of Aberdeen. With a few followers remaining, Bruce himself fled to the mountains of Atholl and Breadalbene . Valence had already reached Aberdeen before August 3, so that the escape route to the north was blocked.
Advance of the English and capture of Bruce's family
Edward I himself had only moved slowly north. Only at the end of September 1306 did he reach the vicinity of Carlisle. The campaign was led by the Prince of Wales, who had already moved to Scotland with the bulk of the army in July 1306. On July 11, Lochmaben Castle in Annandale surrendered. From there the army moved on to Perth, which was reached around August 1st. The Prince of Wales then supported Valence's siege of Kildrummy Castle. The castle was captured before September 13th. Presumably the heir to the throne was accompanied by Lancaster, Gloucester and Hereford. The Earl of Atholl had already fled with the wives of the Bruce family until they were captured by the Earl of Ross near Tain . Bruce himself fled via Lennox to Kintyre in south-west Scotland, as the advance of the English now also closed the east-Scottish ports and the route to west-west Scotland was dangerous. Presumably he was briefly in Dunaverty Castle , which was besieged from September 22, 1306 by John de Botetourt and John of Menteith . Bruce, however, had already escaped by boat. He may have fled to Ireland or one of the West Scottish islands. Exactly where Bruce stayed for the next six months is unknown. Presumably he found support in Northern Ireland and with Christina of Mar , the heiress of the MacRuaridh and mistress of numerous West Scottish islands.
Politics of terror against the rebels
Bruce had been declared a rebel against his rightful king by Edward I and was not regarded as the leader of an independent nation. Accordingly, the English conducted a policy of terror against Bruce's supporters. Simon Fraser, captured after the Battle of Methven, was cruelly executed in London. Atholl, captured in Tain, was the first earl to be executed and hanged in England in 230 years. Neil Bruce, captured in Kildrummy, was cruelly executed in Berwick along with other rebels such as Sir Alan Durward of Fichlie . Bruce's brother-in-law, Christopher Seton , was captured in Loch Doon Castle and also cruelly executed in Dumfries. His brother John Seton and Bernard Mowat were dragged to the gallows in Newcastle on August 4th and hanged, fourteen other supporters of Bruce, including John of Cambo , were only hanged. The wives of the Bruce family also experienced the revenge of Edward I. Queen Elizabeth was held under house arrest in Holderness , while Christian Bruce , a sister of Bruce, was locked in cages hung on the walls of Roxburgh and Berwick like the Countess of Buchan were. Bruce's daughter, Marjorie , aged 12 or under, was first to be locked in the Tower of London, but then she was taken to a convent in Yorkshire. The Prince of Wales spared neither women nor children during his campaign in Scotland. He let villages and hamlets burn down without mercy, but it is likely that the strict orders of the king were primarily responsible for the brutal actions of the English. The Prince of Wales spent the winter in England, while Edward I had already moved into his winter quarters in Lanercost on September 29, 1306 . Because the Prince of Wales had probably left Scotland, 22 young nobles believed that their service was over. The angry king had their lands occupied on October 18th. It was only through the mediation of the Queen that most of them were pardoned on January 23, 1307. The incident is a sign of the alienation between the English king and his young nobles, who had little interest in the ongoing war in Scotland.
Robert Bruce returns to Scotland in 1307
Although Bruce narrowly escaped persecution by the English and their Scottish allies in the fall of 1306, his supporters had been beaten and executed, and numerous Scottish nobles rejected his claim to the throne, Bruce held on to his claim to the throne. At the beginning of 1307 he tried to return to Scotland without a large army or adequate financial means. Edward I had asked Hugh Bisset of Antrim and other nobles to search the West Scottish islands for Bruce and catch him in early 1307 , but their efforts were unsuccessful. When exactly Bruce reappeared in Scotland is not exactly clear. He may have been supported by Clan MacDonald , Christina of Mar, and friends from Ireland. Probably at the beginning of February 1307, his brothers Thomas and Alexander Bruce landed in Galloway with a small Irish king, Reginald Crawford and Malcolm MacQuillan , the Lord of Kintyre with 18 ships. They were quickly overwhelmed by Dungal Macdowell , the leading nobleman of Galloway. Macdowell immediately beheaded Crawford and MacQuillan while sending Thomas and Alexander Bruce to see Edward I. He had them both cruelly executed as traitors. James Douglas and Robert Boyd landed on Arran , where they captured equipment and materials that John Hastings had sent to Brodick Castle to reinforce . Bruce joined them on Arran, and together they crossed over to Carrick. There they found, however, that Henry Percy was holding Turnberry Castle with a strong garrison. They pillaged the village of Turnberry under cover of night before retreating back to Arran. It was through these failures that Bruce learned that he was defeated by the English in open battle. He decided to wage a guerrilla war from now on. He secretly landed in south-west Scotland and from April 1307 led raids on English garrisons from the Carrick and Galloway hills. Edward I received regular reports on the actions of his commanders Aymer de Valence, John Botetourt, Robert Clifford and Henry Percy and their allies John of Menteith, Ingram de Umfraville, John of Lorne, John Moubray and David Strathbogie . Bruce and his supporters hid in the impassable Glen Trool , a side valley of the Cree. There they brought a the pursuing British unit in an ambush losses at. Then Bruce moved north, bypassed Ayr Castle and defeated Aymer de Valence in the Battle of Loudoun Hill on May 10, 1307 . Three days later he struck another English force under the Earl of Gloucester, who had to withdraw to Ayr.
The English campaign of 1307
The Prince of Wales had returned to Scotland in the spring of 1307 and continued the fight against Bruce. The English king had apparently now realized that his brutal policy only incited the Scots to resist. On March 13, 1307, he ordered in a letter to Valence and other officials that those who had apparently supported Bruce under duress should be pardoned. Poor people should also be spared from now on. For the beginning of July 1307 the king called his army to Carlisle to lead a new, large-scale campaign to Scotland. However, he was still seriously ill and died on July 7th. The Prince of Wales succeeded him as Edward II on the throne. He accepted the homage from the loyal Scottish nobles, but did not continue his father's campaign. After a brief advance to Cumnock , he retired to Carlisle, where he arrived before September 1, 1307. First he appointed Valence commander in Scotland, but he replaced him on September 13th by John of Brittany, who had held the post until 1305. Then he traveled to the south of England and was in Westminster before October 27th.
Recapture of Scotland under Robert I from 1308 to 1314
Subjugation of Northern Scotland
Valence, who had been replaced as governor, probably left Scotland towards the end of September 1307. His successor John of Brittany acted much less energetically than Valence, so that the persecution pressure on Bruce decreased. Bruce took advantage of this and initially took action against his Scottish opponents. How he managed to gain control of a large part of Scotland over the next few months is, however, insufficiently documented. Probably in the late summer of 1307 he moved north through the Great Glen with an army consisting largely of foot soldiers, which he had drawn together from Carrick, the Stewart's holdings, from Clydesdale, Lennox, the Hebrides and probably also from Ireland . First he was able to force John of Lorne to conclude a brief armistice in Argyll . Bruce now turned against his opponents in northeast Scotland. In November 1307 Bruce forced the surrender of Inverlochy Castle and thus gained access to northern Scotland. Faced with the threat, the Earl of Ross wrote several letters to Edward II to ask for assistance. When he received no support from the English king, he concluded an armistice with Bruce, which lasted until June 2, 1308. This now moved against the Earl of Buchan. This magnate, a cousin of John Comyn of Badenoch, who he murdered in 1306, was his most powerful Scottish opponent. Bruce's confidante Douglas had meanwhile been able to win Douglasdale, the upper Clydesdale and the Forest of Selkirk as far as Jedburgh for Bruce. Before Christmas 1307, the Scottish nobles in Selkirk and Tweeddale, who had previously been vassals of Valence, had switched to Bruce's side. Numerous other Scots from Lennox, Menteith , Fife, Strathearn , Atholl and Angus now joined Bruce. On the campaign to Buchan he fell seriously ill, but he recovered and was able to defeat the army of the Earl of Buchan probably on May 23, 1308 in the battle of Inverurie decisively. The Earl of Buchan fled to England and Bruce had his property looted and ravaged. After this success Bruce moved with his army to Moray , whose population had already joined him. In north-east Scotland, Bruce was able to conquer Elgin, Forres , Nairn and Inverness Castle by summer 1308 . Then he turned against the Earl of Ross, the only remaining opponent in northern Scotland. Ross was not only threatened from the east by Bruce's army, but his previous vassal Lachlan Macruarie threatened his rule on Skye and the other West Scottish islands. Bruce was able to capture Urquhart Castle and Tarradale Castle in Black Isle , which had been owned by Alexander Comyn since 1305 , then turned south again.
Submission of Argyll
Given Bruce's successes, the English feared that he would even invade England, but in August 1308 Bruce moved to Argyll. Around August 15-23, 1308 Bruce, the MacDonalds and James Douglas defeated the Macdougalls under John of Lorne at the Battle of Brander and forced Dunstaffnage Castle to surrender. Alexander of Argyll , the head of the Macdougalls of Argyll, had to surrender. The remaining English supporter in northern Scotland, the Earl of Ross, then surrendered on October 31, 1308. Bruce had him treated mildly and left him his property. As a result, Ross switched sides and became a staunch supporter of Bruce. But the submission of the Macdougalls of Argyll had not been sincere. John of Lorne played for time and asked the English king for help. Bruce then moved back to Argyll with James Douglas between August and October 1309. John of Lorne, his father Alexander of Argyll and Bishop Andrew of Argyll fled to England.
Battle for Galloway
In June 1308, Edward Bruce , the last surviving brother of Robert Bruce, began the subjugation of Galloway with the assistance of Donald of Islay . They proceeded with extreme brutality and plundered and devastated the properties of the supporters of the English. Presumably on June 29, 1308 Edward Bruce defeated the nobles of Galloway led by Donald McCan on the Dee or Cree, burned the MacDowell castle on the Isle of Hestan and drove the supporters of the English to flee to England. But he could not conquer the English-occupied castles of Lochmaben, Caerlaverock, Dumfries, Dalswinton, Tibbers, Loch Doon and Ayr, which remained in English hands under the command of Ingram de Umfraville and John de St John. The conquest of these castles dragged on. Ayr Castle was besieged from June 1309 and was not conquered until at least December 1309. Edward Bruce was probably not able to take the last English bases in south-west Scotland until 1313, although his brother had appointed him Lord of Galloway before March 1309.
More conquests in Scotland
By autumn 1308 Robert Bruce was able to bring large parts of Scotland under his control thanks to his courage, his superior tactics and above all thanks to the English passivity. With Buchan and Argyll, he had also won areas in which the following of his Scottish opponents Comyn and Balliol had been strongest. He owed his success to the high mobility of his armed forces and in which he was able to eliminate his opponents one by one. Even without the support of the people of Northern Scotland, this would not have been possible, although the Northern Scottish magnates were hostile to him. In June or July 1308, Aberdeen Castle , which controlled the city's harbor, had to surrender. Forfar Castle , an important castle in central Scotland, was conquered at Christmas 1308 after supporters of Bruce under the command of the forester Philip climbed the unguarded walls of the castle in a nightly surprise attack and brought down the English garrison. Robert I had all the castles he had razed to be razed so that the English could not use them as bases in the event of another attack.
Reconstruction of the Scottish administration
From autumn 1308 there were documents from Robert I, a sign that the king was not only concerned with fighting, but also with the administration of his empire. By March 1309 he was joined by James the Stewart, his nephew Alexander Stewart of Bunkle , Thomas Randolph and John of Menteith. 'The reign of Robert I was now so consolidated that he held his first parliament on March 16 and 17, 1309, in St Andrews . During Parliament, the prelates and barons present reaffirmed Robert I as the rightful king and successor to Alexander III, while declaring the rule of John Balliol to be illegitimate. To this end, Parliament dealt with the resumption of relations with France, which had ceased after the Peace of Paris in 1303. Since France and England were still at peace, the Franco-Scottish alliance was not renewed, but the two empires strived for a good mutual relationship. Although numerous barons had taken part in parliament, numerous Scottish magnates remained on the English side with Ingram de Umfraville, the Earl of Angus , the Earl of Atholl , the Earl of Dunbar, Alexander Abernethy, John Moubray, Adam of Gordon and David of Brechin which is why they were absent from Parliament. Since Robert I was still excommunicated for the murder of Comyn, he presumably contacted the papal curia in order to obtain absolution. Although the Curia commissioned the Abbot of Paisley to investigate the case in July 1308 , the excommunication remained in place and was renewed regularly, presumably under British pressure.
Fight in South East Scotland
After the renewed campaign to Argyll in the summer and autumn of 1309, Robert I fought mainly the English in south-east Scotland. At the end of 1309 the English held castles south of the Forth , including Stirling, Edinburgh, Linleithgow , Livingston , Lochmaben, Caerlaverock , Dumfries, Dalswinton, Tibbers, Buittle and Loch Doon. On the line of the Tay , Perth and Dundee were still in English hands, and north of them only Banff Castle . Cupar Castle was still in English hands in the spring of 1308 and probably fell a little later, so that between Tay and Forth only the small Muckhart Castle was in English hands until 1311 at the most. Banff Castle probably fell to the Scots in 1310. Kirkintilloch and Bothwell were increasingly isolated, with the mighty Bothwell remaining in English hands until the spring of 1314. Then the Scottish commander Walter Fitz Gilbert handed the castle over to Edward Bruce. Before December 1309, Ayr Castle was completely isolated. It is not known when Rutherglen Castle, besieged since December 1308, and Dumbarton Castle fell. Rutherglen was apparently conquered by Edward Bruce, Dumbarton's commandant John of Menteith was on Bruce's side before the spring of 1309. Loch Doon in Carrick was still in English hands in the autumn of 1311 when the Earl of Atholl, who was on the English side, was supposed to detain the castle. On February 7, 1313, Dungal Macdougall, the king's old opponent, surrendered Dumfries Castle. Robert I showed himself gracious and allowed Macdougall to leave. Macdougall went to England and from there fought on against Robert I. Despite these conquests, the English retained a strong position in south-east Scotland with the mighty castles of Edinburgh, Jedburgh, Roxburgh and Berwick. They also held the smaller castles of Haddington , Luffness , Dirleton , Yester , Dunbar, Selkirk and Cavers . With these castles, the English held a compact area that could be supplied from the sea.
English countermeasures
Failure of the 1308 campaign
In England, after his return from Scotland in the autumn of 1307, Edward II quickly became involved in a power struggle against an opposition aristocracy, which was primarily directed against the influence of the royal favorite Piers Gaveston . Mainly because of this internal political conflict, the king neglected the war in Scotland and did not respond to the calls for help from his Scottish vassals. The king's failure in the fight against Robert Bruce reinforced the opposition to the nobility. Many magnates had received possessions in Scotland under Edward I, which were now gradually conquered by the Scots. However, Edward I had left his son an over-indebted kingdom, so that the tense finances of the king did not allow any further expensive campaigns. After Edward II had banished his favorite Gaveston under pressure from the magnates, he called an army to Carlisle on June 21, 1308 for August 22, with which he wanted to lead a new campaign to Scotland. However, this campaign was never carried out, and there was apparently no official cancellation. After the English had already agreed a ceasefire with the Scots in November 1308, an armistice, which was valid from February 2 to November 1, 1309, was agreed on the basis of French mediation attempts.
Failure of the 1309 campaign
During a parliament in Stamford , Edward II called the army on July 30, 1309 for September 29 for a new campaign against Scotland in Newcastle. However, since he called his favorite Gaveston back from exile, there was considerable opposition to his policy on the part of the magnates. These internal political disputes led to the fact that the requisitioned banners were initially reduced before the campaign was canceled entirely. In October 1309, the King sent the Earl of Hereford, Robert de Clifford and Henry de Beaumont to Scotland for further negotiations to reach a new armistice. In the first two years of his rule, the king had thus started the elaborate and expensive preparations for a campaign, which was then canceled. Through the mediation of Pope Clement V , who wanted to persuade the Western European monarchs to embark on a crusade, cautious peace talks between England and Scotland were held until March 1310, but they were unsuccessful. The main reason these negotiations failed was the unwillingness of the English king to formally recognize Robert I as King of Scots.
English campaign from 1310 to 1311
After the two canceled campaigns of 1308 and 1309, an English campaign was urgently needed to secure the remaining English possessions in Scotland. Due to the passivity of the English king, numerous Scottish barons, especially north of the Forth, but also in southern Scotland, had changed sides by the summer of 1309 and joined Robert I. In the spring, the English garrisons in Scotland had partly agreed their own local truce, which mostly ran until June 1310. At a council meeting in Westminster on June 16, 1310, Alexander Abernethy, Alexander of Argyll and other Scottish magnates urged the English king that he urgently had to lead a campaign to Scotland himself, otherwise he would lose the loyalty of his remaining vassals. Thereupon Edward II called his army to Berwick on September 8, 1310. At the end of July the King of Westminster set out for Scotland, but only the Earl of Gloucester , the Earl of Richmond, the Earl of Surrey , and Piers Gaveston followed, while the Earls of Lancaster, Hereford, Warwick and Pembroke participated in their work when Lords Ordainers canceled. The real reason for their refusal was the presence of the hated Gaveston in northern England, who accompanied the king on the campaign to Scotland. The Lords Ordainers only sent the bill to which they were obliged. Lancaster, who was the richest English magnate, only sent four knights and four sergeants . Numerous barons such as John Seagrave, John de St John, Henry Percy, Roger Mortimer , John Cromwell , Henry de Beaumont, Hugh Audley and Bartholomew de Badlesmere took part in the campaign, but the English army was only about 1700 knights and men-at -arms and 3,000 foot soldiers, the majority of whom were from Wales. The king himself provided 50 knights and 200 men-at-arms from the royal household. In October 1309 it was planned that the Earl of Ulster would land in Argyll with 3000 soldiers from Ireland no later than June 1310 to support the English position in south-west Scotland. Due to bad weather and adverse winds, the fleet was unable to cross over, so the Irish expedition was canceled. Instead, part of the troops should reinforce the occupation of the Isle of Man . Despite this setback, the king moved to Scotland in mid-September 1310, his army numbering fewer than 4,000 Welsh foot soldiers and fewer than 1,000 English horsemen and archers. Edward II reached Roxburgh on September 16, Selkirk on September 23, and Biggar on September 26 . Robert I had withdrawn from the English with his troops. In mid-October the English learned that Robert I was with his troops at Stirling, but they could not put him into battle. By mid-October the English army advanced to Renfrew and Glasgow and on to Linlithgow . At the end of October the English were briefly in Edinburgh. After the army had strengthened the garrisons of the English castles south of the Forth, the English moved back south and reached Berwick again around November 11th. There had been no major fighting during the campaign, but the Scots had continued a guerrilla war. On October 28, 1310 Edward II ordered the transfer of courts and the treasury to York, where they remained until Easter 1311. Edward II himself stayed in Berwick until the end of July 1311. The English magnates who had taken part in the campaign also stayed on the Scottish border in the winter of 1310-1311. Yet there was hardly any activity. Only when Robert I attacked Lothian did the English make a brief, unsuccessful counter-attack with a small force. There were apparently unofficial conversations between the English and Robert I. Robert de Clifford and Robert Fitz Payn are said to have met him on December 17, 1310 in Selkirk with the approval of the king. A meeting of Piers Gaveston and the Earl of Gloucester with Robert I at Melrose Abbey did not take place, however, because the Scottish king feared treason. In early 1311 the English made further forays into Scotland. Piers Gaveston moved from Roxburgh via Perth to Dundee in January. He then returned to Perth, where he stayed until early May 1311. In February the Earl of Gloucester and the Earl of Surrey advanced into the Forest of Selkirk. In early May, Henry Percy and the Earl of Angus replaced Gaveston in Perth. After the attempt by the English king failed to obtain a tax for an extension of the campaign and an army from Ireland was again unable to cross over to Scotland, Edward II returned to England. Not least in view of domestic political pressure, he was back in Westminster in July 1311. In the ordinances' reform program published in September 1311 , the barons declared, among other things, that the English king was not allowed to wage a war in parliament or to leave the empire without the consent of the barons. This demand clearly related to the failed campaign in Scotland.
Increasing Scottish raids into northern England
While Edward II returned to London, Gaveston stayed in Bamburgh Castle . But shortly after Edward II withdrew from Berwick, Robert I and his lightly armored riders led a destructive raid into northern England from August 12 to 20, 1311, during which he plundered Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland . From 8 to 23 September he led another raid in the region. In the next few years, the Scots not only continued to attack the remaining English bases in Scotland, but also deliberately undertook further raids across the border to northern England. These raids were quite different from the savage looting the Scots made under Wallace in 1297. Villages and goods that paid ransom were spared. Cities were sometimes only looted and not burned down in the expectation that the residents would pay ransom for future raids. The Scottish raids took place in different ways, so that they were not foreseeable for the English. The English were therefore hardly able to take countermeasures and the Scots met no organized resistance. The Scots stole cattle and grain. Arbitrary massacres of the population were rare, only those who resisted were killed. In part, the English burned the villages for their part so that the Scots would withdraw again due to insufficient supplies. The inhabitants and barons of the affected areas could not defend themselves on their own, and since they could not expect any support from the king, they had to buy a plunder stop from the Scots. Northumberland signed a treaty each with Robert I in 1311, 1312 and 1313, paying an undisclosed large sum in 1311 and 1312 each £ 2000 and 1313. In August 1312 Robert I advanced south of the Tyne to Hexham and Corbridge , burning the towns down. In Durham , the Scots surprised a large crowd visiting the weekly market. The Scots burned parts of the city, killed many people, and took great prey. Since Bishop Richard Kellaw was taking part in a royal council meeting and was not in the region, some noblemen took the initiative, negotiated with Robert I himself on August 16, 1312 in Hexham and bought a truce for a limited time until midsummer 1313 for 2,000 marks . Cumberland, Coupland and Westmorland signed similar truces. Since the counties could not raise the money immediately, they had to take hostages. If the counties did not pay the money on time, the Scots did not attack the hostages, but instead undertook targeted small raids to put the English under pressure.
Consequences of the Scottish raids
This system of ransom payments broke up at the end of 1313, however, because the regions were apparently no longer able to raise the sums demanded by the Scots. Then Edward Bruce led a raid into County Durham in April 1314 and then briefly besieged Carlisle. In Northumberland, around 1314, the English administration collapsed after the repeated, annual Scottish raids. The sum of £ 2000 Northumberland had to pay the Scots in 1311 and 1312 respectively was more than double the amount the county had paid in taxes to the Crown in 1307. That year Northumberland had paid £ 916 in taxes to the Crown. In 1309 the county paid no taxes and in 1313 it was exempt from taxes. In contrast to Northumberland, which is directly on the border, the English administration of County Durham remained intact, but the population continued to pay immensely high ransom money. To do this, the Scots forced themselves to march freely into the areas south of the tea . When Edward II prepared a large-scale campaign to Scotland in 1314, he received little support from Northumberland, as the nobility and the population were impoverished, some of them dead or even defected to the Scots.
Scottish conquests from 1311
In England the conflict between the king and his barons came to a head in early 1312. A group of barons, including the Earl of Lancaster, finally had the hated Gaveston executed in June 1312. Faced with this internal political crisis, the English king was unable to wage a campaign in Scotland. The Scottish king used the money extorted from the raids to finance the siege of the remaining English castles in Scotland. His attacks on castles in south-west Scotland in the late spring and early summer of 1312, when the English king was bound by his conflict with the barons, were unsuccessful. A surprise night attack on Berwick also failed on December 6, 1312, but supposedly only because a barking dog had betrayed the attacker. In January 1313 the Scots were able to conquer Perth in a surprise attack after they had apparently broken off the siege. A month later, Dungal Macdowell handed over to Dumfries Castle after a long siege. A little later, Loch Doon, Lochmaben, Caerlaverock, Dalswinton, Tibbers and Buittle Castle were the other castles in the region. Linlithgow was captured by a surprise attack and a ruse in September 1313. As a rule, Bruce did not cause a bloodbath in the conquered castles and cities. He often allowed the English garrison to retreat freely, which was unusual for the time. After a formal settlement with the barons, the English king visited France in June 1313. After the unsuccessful peace negotiations between England and Scotland in January 1312 and probably also in January 1313, the French King Philip IV urged the English king during his visit to France to extend the armistice with Scotland, which expired on June 10, by one year. Edward II finally agreed to this proposal. After the Scots initially stopped their attacks after the conclusion of the armistice, they began further attacks in early 1314. On the night of February 20, 1314 they captured Roxburgh Castle in a night attack. In March 1314, attackers climbed the castle rock of Edinburgh at night and were able to conquer the castle. Between the beginning of 1308, when Robert I conquered Inverness, and the conquest of Edinburgh Castle in February 1314, the Scots recaptured numerous English-occupied castles and towns. Castle after castle had to be besieged and conquered by the Scots. This was all the more difficult because the Scots did not yet have any technically sophisticated siege engines and their experienced operators. Conquering this large number of castles was one of the greatest military operations in British history.
Resurgence of Scottish trade
Trade with Ireland and Naval War in the Irish Sea
Between 1308 and 1314, the Scots not only succeeded in conquering numerous English castles, but were also able to resume trade with Ireland that had previously come to a standstill due to the English occupation. By the summer of 1310 at the latest, Scottish traders had returned to Ireland, where they could buy grain, meat and other food, but also iron, weapons and armor. The weapons and armaments were probably not from Irish, but originally from English production or came from mainland Europe. This trade was facilitated by the position that Robert I had achieved through his campaigns to western Scotland, which took place until 1309. The Scots were now trying to gain control of the Irish Sea . In 1310 they are said to have attacked the strategically important Isle of Man. The English responded by sending John Macdougall, the exiled Lord of Lorne, to lead a fleet to the Hebrides and Argyll. Macdougall should try to pull Argyll back on the English side. In 1311 Macdougall was made admiral and captain. His main base was in an unspecified location in Ireland, perhaps in Dublin or Drogheda . Macdougall was supported by Scots from the Highlands who had fled Robert I or, like Macdougall, were driven out. Those Scots included John Macsween of Knapdale and his brothers. The English recaptured the Isle of Man, but in the next few years the island apparently moved several times between England and Scotland before it remained in Scottish possession for a long time from 1317.
Trade and naval warfare in the North Sea
Not only did the Scots resume trade with Ireland, but also trade with cities on mainland Europe. To do this, they began again to establish diplomatic relations. During the long war, the English did not succeed in blocking the Scottish North Sea coast for a long period of time. This meant that the Scots could export wool to Flanders or the German Hanseatic cities and import grain, iron and weapons. Before 1313, merchants from Stralsund even hijacked an English ship, sold the freight in Aberdeen and brought the ship to Stralsund. The Scots did not only trade with Hanseatic or Dutch merchants. Numerous English merchants from Harwich , Norwich , Bishops Lynn and Hull also traded secretly with Scotland despite severe penalties. Although Robert I was never able to arm and equip his armies adequately, without trade and smuggling the war with England would have been doomed to failure. It was not until John Botetourt, who was appointed admiral of the East English fleet in March 1315, that the Scottish ports were temporarily blocked effectively. This led to a sharp rise in wheat prices in Scotland, which had already been hit by famine .
Compensation with Norway
Although there were quarrels and raids between the Orkneys, under Norwegian suzerainty, and Scotland, and although both Norwegian and Scottish merchants pirated each other and committed atrocities in the process, Scotland maintained good relations with Norway. After lengthy negotiations, Robert I himself concluded an agreement with the envoy of the Norwegian King Håkon V in Inverness on October 29, 1312. In the agreement, Scotland undertook to continue the annual payment of 100 marks for the assignment as promised in the Perth Treaty of 1266 of the West Scottish Isles. Apparently it was agreed not to disclose the years of non-payment of this amount. To this end, compensation was agreed for Scottish attacks on the Orkneys and for Norwegian attacks on northern Scotland, and cases of piracy should be investigated by the courts. In addition to the king, Bishop Farquhar Bellejambe of Caithness and Chancellor Bernard of Linton were particularly involved in the negotiations with Norway. It is likely that Bernard of Linton had previously traveled to Norway for negotiations between March 1310 and June 1311.
The English campaign of 1314 and the Battle of Bannockburn
From March 1314, the Scots besieged the strategically important Stirling Castle, the last important castle held by the English in Scotland. The castle commander Phillip de Mowbray negotiated an armistice with the besiegers in mid-May, with the condition that they surrender if the castle was not appalled by June 24, 1314. According to legend, the impending abandonment of this castle is said to have moved the English king to the campaign. In fact, the king had already announced on February 26, 1314 that he would lead a campaign to Scotland after April 7, after he had settled the conflict with his barons. Numerous barons were now ready to support a campaign to Scotland. The Earl of Pembroke was appointed governor and commander of Scotland as long as the king had not arrived there himself. Pembroke was in Berwick before April 16, 1314. The Steward of the Household, Edmund Mauley , was entrusted with the defense of the important Cockermouth Castle in Cumberland. The siege of Stirling Castle by the Scottish King gave Edward II the opportunity to face the Scottish army in battle. For May 19, 1314 Edward II ordered the formation of 17,000 foot soldiers in England and 3,000 more in Wales. He ordered this army to Berwick. In addition there were the knights of the royal household and the commandments of the English magnates, so that the English army probably comprised several thousand knights and men-at-arms. To this end, the king asked for 4,000 soldiers from Ireland and for the Irish magnates to be commanded by the Earl of Ulster. But it is uncertain whether the army or parts of it crossed over to Scotland. Since the pay lists of the English army have not been preserved, their strength cannot be determined. Certainly the English were not only superior to the Scots in terms of equipment, but also in numbers. Nevertheless, Robert I and his army faced the English in open battle. In view of numerous clear victories by the English over Scottish armies, such as in the battles of Dunbar in 1296 and Falkirk in 1298 and in view of his own defeat at Methven, Robert I had long shied away from open battles against the English. Initially, Robert I wanted to retire from Bannockburn, but then he learned that the English magnates were all too sure of victory, but were at odds with one another. In addition, the terrain of the battlefield was disadvantageous for the English. In the following battle at Bannockburn , the English army under the leadership of Edward II suffered a clear defeat against the Scots led by Robert I on June 23 and 24, 1314 within sight of Stirling Castle. After this success, independence from Scotland was secured. The situation of the Scottish nobles, who had previously supported the English, had now become untenable. For example, while Philipp de Mowbray handed over Stirling Castle and also changed sides himself, the Earl of Angus and Earl of Atholl remained loyal to the English king and withdrew to their English possessions. Robert I was now recognized unchallenged as king in Scotland.
Continuation of the war until 1323
Scottish attacks on northern England continue in 1314
After Bannockburn, Robert I declared in late August and early September 1314 that he was ready to negotiate peace with England. At the same time, however, the Scots resumed their raids on England, since they regarded the armistice, some of which had been concluded with English counties, as broken by the English campaign. As early as August 1314, Edward Bruce and James Douglas had led a raid to north-east England, in which they advanced as far as Richmondshire . The Scots stole the cattle and destroyed the cornfields before returning large spoils to Scotland via Swaledale and Stainmoor . As they retreated, they burned Brough , Appleby, and Kirk Oswald . Robert I himself moved to Tynedale , which was owned by his grandfather in the 13th century. The residents there paid homage to him. The English king appointed the Earl of Pembroke to command the English troops between Berwick and Trent in August 1314, but apart from reinforcing the Berwick garrison, the English could do little to oppose the Scots. The deaths of Robert de Clifford and Henry Percy and the imprisonment of important northern English magnates such as Antony Lucy , John de Clavering and John Eure after Bannockburn had further weakened the English defense.
Unsuccessful peace negotiations at the end of 1314
In view of the threats from the Scots, a meeting took place in Durham on September 20, 1314 between Scottish ambassadors and an English delegation led by John Botetourt. The English were able to reach a truce for the Scottish Marches , which went into effect on October 6, 1314. In October 1314 most of the English barons and knights captured at Bannockburn were released, in return Edward II released Elizabeth de Burgh, the wife of Robert I, as well as his daughter and sister and Robert Wishart, the Bishop of Glasgow. In November, Archbishop William Greenfield of York, Bishop Richard Kellaw of Durham and the Abbot of St Mary's Abbey in York traveled to Scotland as envoys for further negotiations. In spite of his defeat, the English king apparently had no intention of recognizing Robert I as king. As a result, the peace negotiations failed and the war continued. On November 6, 1314, a Scottish Parliament met in Cambuskenneth Abbey , which declared the titles and estates of the Scottish magnates who were still on the English side forfeited.
New Scottish attacks on northern England from 1315
After the failure of the peace negotiations, the Scots resumed their raids on northern England. The English could only inadequately defend the north of their country against these attacks. It is true that the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Durham invited numerous Northern English magnates to a meeting in York on January 3, 1315, where they discussed ways of defending Northern England against the Scots. In the same month, however, twelve northern English barons were excused for a session of parliament because they had to defend their country against the Scots. In February 1315 the Earl of Pembroke bought Mitford Castle in order to better defend Northumberland. Despite these attempts at defense, the Scots undertook numerous other raids on northern English areas from the beginning of 1315. Robert I rarely led the raids himself, which were instead usually led by the Earl of Moray and James Douglas. Other well-known Scottish leaders were Robert Baird of Strathaven , Sir Gilbert Hay of Errol , the Constable and Sir Robert Keith the Marischal. Although no two raids were alike, they followed a similar pattern, with the Scots becoming bolder with their increasing experience. The Scots rode small, sturdy horses called Hobins . The riders were named Hobelars after these horses . The soldiers were usually only lightly armored and carried weapons with which they could form a schiltron in the event of an attack, which had proven themselves so well at Bannockburn. The Scots probably brought numerous pack horses with them to transport the prey. Nevertheless, the retreat was often slow, as the Scots had to drive herds of cattle northwards.
In early 1315 the Scots advanced as far as Tynedale and occupied Haltwhistle , Hexham and Corbridge. In June 1315 there was an unexpected for the English, led by Douglas and Moray advance into County Durham, where Hartlepool was destroyed. On June 20, 1315, the English barons Pembroke, Badlesmere and Richard de Gray declared that they would be ready for defense in Newcastle between July 1 and November 1, but they only had 300 men-at-arms. On July 5, 1315, Pembroke's jurisdiction was extended to Trent and Roxburgh, while his henchman Maurice de Berkeley was commander of Berwick for one year from May 11, 1315. Pembroke reached Berwick in early August, from where he sent part of his troops to the relief of Carlisle, which had been besieged since June 22nd. The Scots, however, did not have enough siege engines to take the city, which was resolutely defended by Andrew Harclay , the English sheriff of Cumberland. They suffered heavy casualties in several attacks on July 30th, and on August 1st they withdrew hastily, leaving their siege engines behind. Presumably, the English troops advancing from Berwick for relief also led to the siege being broken off. Harclay had the Scots followed to Lanercost until August 16 . On August 8, the Earl of Lancaster was appointed Supreme Commander of English Forces in the Scottish Marches, and Pembroke was placed under him. Upon his return to Newcastle, Pembroke moved north to fend off an expected Scottish attack on Northumberland. He returned to Newcastle in early October. Lancaster apparently had done nothing during this time. On August 30, 1315, Edward II announced that he would stay in northern England for the winter. Thereupon the Earls of Hereford, Richmond and Surrey stayed with their entourage at their own expense to support him. As the successor to Pembroke and Badlesmere, whose appointments expired on November 1, the king appointed Henry de Beaumont to command the eastern Scottish Marches for the winter of 1315-1316. The impressive English armed forces could not achieve any success. On January 7, 1316, the Berwick garrison was able to repel a Scottish attack on the city led by Robert I and James Douglas.
Consequences of the continued raids on northern England
As a result of the continued Scottish raids, the English areas north of the Tees were de facto subjugated by Scotland. An even larger area suffered from severe devastation. From 1314 to about 1323 the Scots extorted at least £ 20,000 ransom from the people of Northern England to keep them free from looting. English rule was initially consolidated only in the strong castles of Carlisle, Norham , Newcastle , Richmond and Berwick. However, Berwick and Carlisle in particular were under heavy pressure from the ongoing Scottish attacks. In addition, the castles' crews were weakened by desertions because the wages were paid irregularly and the provision of provisions was poor. The inadequate supply of the English garrisons even led to the fact that the English military like Jack the Irishman , Gilbert Middleton and the crews of some castles like Bamburgh plundered in their own country worse than the Scots. This meant that Northumberland was largely depopulated or that many of the remaining residents openly joined the Scots.
Attempt of the Scottish conquest of Ireland
The Scots opened a new theater of war in May 1315 when Edward Bruce and the Earl of Moray landed in Ireland as a surprise to the English. With this attack, Robert I and his brother Edward had several goals. On the one hand, they wanted to eliminate the threat posed by Ireland, which was under English rule. Anglo-Irish troops had reinforced the English armies that had invaded Scotland several times, supplies and provisions for the English troops in Scotland were obtained from Ireland, and English ships threatened the Scottish west coast from the Eastern Irish ports of Dublin, Dundalk and Drogheda . In February 1315, John of Lorne, who was still fighting on the English side, had conquered the Isle of Man. The Scottish attack on Ireland was intended to counter this attack. In addition, Edward pursued dynastic goals. With the support of his brother and the Irish Gaelic population, he wanted to become the High King of Ireland and thus gain his own empire. The army with which he landed in Ireland was small in number, but battle-tested. Despite the small size of the army, however, considerable Scottish forces were tied to the campaign. This, and probably also the failure of the siege of Carlisle in 1315, meant that the Scots did not undertake any raids on northern England for almost a year from summer 1315 to summer 1316.
In Ireland, Edward Bruce rose to the rank of High King and, with the help of his Irish allies, defeated the forces of the Anglo-Irish Lords of Ulster, forced the garrison of Carrickfergus Castle to a truce and advanced as far as Dundalk. Then the Scots moved to Connor in Antrim . After they had consolidated their position there, they marched south and defeated English troops under the Justiciar of Ireland Edmund Butler in several skirmishes . In August 1316 Carrickfergus Castle surrendered, and in the autumn of 1316 Edward Bruce traveled to Scotland, presumably to gain further reinforcements. In Ireland, outside of Ulster, he had received far less support from the local population than he had hoped. Robert I nevertheless moved to Ireland with a Scottish army in January 1317, but the winter campaign of him and his brother was a failure. Many Scots suffered from insufficient supplies and died of starvation and disease. Robert I led the army back to Ulster, which made it clear that the attempt to conquer Ireland had failed. In May 1317 Robert I returned from Ireland to Scotland and from then on concentrated the focus of his attacks on northern England. Edward Bruce stayed in Ireland. In October 1318 he was decisively defeated by Anglo-Irish troops in the Battle of Faughart near Dundalk, in which he fell. By December 1318, the English finished retaking Ulster with the conquest of Carrickfergus Castle.
Fight in the Scottish Marches 1316
From late 1315 to May 30, 1316, a truce had been agreed for the Scottish Marches, but this was often not observed at the local level. In February or March 1316 a Scottish force led by James Douglas, William Soulis and Henry Balliol defeated a 300-strong cavalry troop from the Berwick garrison in a fierce battle near Skaithmuir near Coldstream . This wanted to lead a raid to Merse and Teviotdale to steal food. Douglas was in Selkirk Forest when he heard of the raid and immediately pursued the English. When the opposing groups saw each other, a fight quickly ensued. Most of the English fell in the fierce battle, including several knights from Gascony, including Raymond de Calhau , who was perhaps a nephew of Piers Gaveston. Only 50 English are said to have escaped unharmed. In another skirmish a little later, Douglas defeated an English cavalry troop not far from Berwick, whose commander Robert Neville of Raby fell.
The planned English campaign of 1316
In the spring of 1316 there were preliminary negotiations about an extension of the armistice, which expired on May 30th, but remained unsuccessful. As early as February 1316 an English parliament in Lincoln had decided to carry out a new campaign to Scotland for the first time after the defeat at Bannockburn. In return, new taxes and troop levies were approved. The army was due to appear in Newcastle on July 8th for drafting. In May, the start of the campaign was postponed to August. For one thing, there was a civil uprising in Bristol that had to be put down. This tied up the king's forces, and there were difficulties in collecting taxes and in raising troops. The campaign was urgently needed as the Scots launched new attacks on northern England in the summer of 1316. Not only towns and villages in County Durham and Yorkshire were the target of the attacks, but also for the first time in towns in Lancashire , where Furness was looted. In the meantime new tensions had developed between the King of England and the Earl of Lancaster. The opponents of Lancaster at the royal court claimed that the Scots had not plundered its properties. Despite the Scottish raids, on August 20th, the start of the campaign was postponed to October 6th. The death of Bishop Richard Kellaw of Durham on October 9 changed the situation again as a controversial episcopal election took place in Durham. As a result, the campaign was canceled in November. On November 19, the Earl of Arundel was appointed to succeed Lancaster as defender of the Marches, and the castles were supplied with troops and supplies. Then on November 24th the king appointed negotiators to negotiate an armistice with the Scots.
Diplomatic support of the English by the Pope
The 1316 newly elected Pope John XXII. supported the policy of the English king. The Pope saw the Scottish king as a source of unrest who was preventing Edward II from a crusade against the Turks. On March 17, 1317, the Pope commissioned the cardinals Gauscelin de Jean and Luca Fieschi to mediate peace between England and Scotland. On March 28, Pope Robert I excommunicated again, and on May 1, 1317, he sealed bulls declaring a truce calling on Scots to stop their attacks on northern England and Ireland. The truce was to last until the cardinals negotiated a lasting peace. In July the two cardinals arrived in London, Robert I ignored the papal bulls and did not even take them, as he was not called king in them.
The planned English campaign of 1317
Around April 23, 1317, a strong English force led by the Earl of Arundel was defeated at Lintalee south of Jedburgh by a Scottish force under Douglas when they wanted to advance to Lothian. Between May 13 and June 11, an English fleet attempted to land on the north bank of the Firth of Forth and plunder there. The English landed at Dunfermline , where the Earl of Dunbar and the Sheriff of Fife half-heartedly attacked them with a posse. But before the battle broke out, the troops fled. In the Auchterpool , a few miles away , Bishop William Sinclair von Dunkeld met the refugees. The bishop accused them of cowardice and attacked the English himself in armor and armed with a lance. The army then followed him. The English were driven to flight by the impetuous attack. Many were killed and others drowned when the overloaded boat they were trying to escape in sank. Since the Earl of Arundel as defender of the Scottish Marches could not achieve more than his predecessor Lancaster, Edward II planned a new campaign to Scotland for the summer of 1317. The campaign was initially due to begin on July 8th, but this date was postponed because the Earl of Pembroke and Baron Badlesmere, who were on a diplomatic mission on the continent on behalf of the king, had not yet returned to England. The new beginning of the campaign was set for August 11th in Newcastle, but now a Scottish army crossed the border on July 8th and plundered northern England. It is said that English troops guarding the border had left their posts. Edward II now tried to persuade his domestic opponent Lancaster to undertake a joint campaign against the Scots. Lancaster basically agreed, but did not appear with his posse. The start of the campaign was further postponed to September 15. A high-ranking delegation, consisting of seven bishops and the Earls of Pembroke and Hereford, traveled to Pontefract Castle , the seat of Lancaster. Yet Lancaster did not appear. He justified his absence with fear of an attack on his life. For this reason, he also canceled a direct meeting with the king. The king reached York on September 4, 1317, on the way he had passed near Pontefract. After the king passed, Lancaster had the bridges blocked so that the king could not reach reinforcements. He justified this with the duties that he held as Steward of England . In spite of Lancaster's opposition, the king had been able to assemble a quite impressive army at Newcastle, consisting of about 1,500 men-at-arms, light riders, archers, crossbowmen, and foot soldiers. Pembroke, Hereford, Badlesmere, and other magnates had appeared with their entourage. Tensions between Lancaster and the king intensified when, on September 1, Louis de Beaumont , the newly elected Bishop of Durham, and the Cardinals Gauscelin de Jean and Luca Fieschi who accompanied him were attacked and robbed. The monstrous attack was carried out by Gilbert Middleton, but Lancaster was quickly suspected of being the perpetrator. Thereupon Edward II canceled the campaign shortly after September 8 in York. As a result, a new armistice was agreed for the Scottish Marches in November 1317.
Conquest of Berwick in 1318 and the English campaign of 1319
In early April 1318, the Scots were able to capture the important border fortress of Berwick through a surprise attack at night. They then marched looting through Yorkshire in May. They conquered Harbottle , Wark and Mitford Castles and then advanced to Northallerton , Ripon and almost to Pontefract. The residents of Ripon fled to the minster and bought for 1000 marks that the city was not burned down. Then the Scots burned Knaresborough and retreated via Skipton .
The Scots' conquest of Berwick was a heavy defeat for the English. The shock of defeat meant that in late summer 1319 Edward II and the Earl of Lancaster actually led an army to Scotland together. From September 7th the army besieged Berwick. The siege was poorly prepared, however, and the now heavily fortified city was resolutely defended by Walter Stewart . The Scots did not dare to attack the siege army directly, but to relieve the besieged Berwick, Moray and Douglas bypassed an army of Berwick and advanced as far as Yorkshire. When they even threatened York, Archbishop William Melton of York and Chancellor John Hotham raised a posse to repel the Scots. This poorly equipped army was defeated on September 12th in the battle of Myton . When the besiegers of Berwick learned of the defeat, the Earl of Lancaster left the siege army, possibly to protect his possessions. As a result, the king had to break off the siege entirely on September 17th. The Scots were able to cross the Pennines undisturbed and return to Scotland with rich booty. After the failure of the siege of Berwick in 1319, the king stayed in York with 600 men-at-arms, while Badlesmere was to take care of the English castles from Newcastle. Still, Douglas led a new raid into northern England. He invaded north-west England and destroyed the granaries of Gilsland on November 1, 1319 . The British saw no way of stopping these attacks. Edward II was forced to negotiate an armistice with the Scots, and on December 22, 1319 he accepted an armistice of at least two years. Under the terms of this armistice, the English got Harbottle Castle in Northumberland back on condition that the castle be demolished or returned to the Scots within a year.
Armistice and peace negotiations from 1319 to 1321
In view of the further excommunication imposed on him, Robert I took the initiative again in the spring of 1320 to make peace with England. Probably in April or May he sent a letter to Edward II, in which he stated that he was ready to negotiate peace. Probably at the same time, the Declaration of Arbroath was issued, in which eight Scottish earls and thirty barons declared that they would never accept English rule. With this diplomatic initiative Robert I wanted to achieve that it would appear that Edward II and England alone wanted to prevent a peace with Scotland. In March 1320, Scottish ambassadors reached Avignon to convince the Pope of their peace intentions. The English government now feared that the Pope would move away from his refusal to recognize Robert I as king, at the same time they had to assume that France would give Scotland more support. Presumably, peace with Scotland was also discussed during the meeting of Edward II with the French King Philip V in Amiens in the summer of 1320 . Indeed, in a letter dated August 10, 1320, the Pope urged the English king to begin peace negotiations with Scotland. In another letter dated August 18, he reported on the talks with the Scottish Legation. In fact, Edward II had previously commissioned three of his closest confidants, the Earl of Pembroke, Badlesmere and Hugh le Despenser , to negotiate with the Scots in Carlisle in August 1320. For reasons that are not clear, the English sent messengers to the Scots on August 14th with the request that the negotiations be postponed. There were further talks with the Scots in September and October before Edward II commissioned an impressive embassy on January 19, 1321 to conduct peace negotiations with Scotland. This embassy should include the Archbishop of York, the Bishops John Halton of Carlisle, Thomas Cobham of Worcester and Rigaud de Asserio of Winchester, the Earl of Pembroke and the Earl of Hereford, Badlesmere, the Keeper of the Privy Seal Robert Baldock , William Airmyn as well with Stephen and Nicholas Seagrave , Fulk Lestrange and John de Clavering are four supporters of the Earl of Lancaster. The papal legates and a French embassy should also take part in the negotiations. However, since the Earl of Pembroke was still traveling in France, the King finally appointed the Earl of Richmond as his representative, while the Earl of Hereford apologized. On March 26, 1321, there was a meeting with the Scottish ambassadors in Bamburgh, at which the Scots expressly expressed their wish for peace. However, there were no further results at the meeting. The negotiations were then postponed to September 1, 1321. By this time, both Robert I and Eduard II should present more concrete negotiating positions. A little later it came in the Welsh Marches to the Despenser War , the rebellion of the Marcher Lords against the royal favorite Hugh le Despenser. The Earl of Hereford also took part in this uprising. This conflict escalated into a revolt against the king in the summer of 1321, so that there were no further negotiations with Scotland. Due to the lack of negotiations, Edward II ordered the destruction of Harbottle Castle on August 25, 1321, otherwise the castle would fall back to the Scots in accordance with the provisions of the armistice from 1319 to September 29, 1321.
Campaigns of 1322
Secret negotiations between Lancaster and the Scots
During the revolt against Edward II, the Earl of Lancaster had already had secret talks with Douglas and Moray from the end of 1321 in order to obtain support from Scotland. Lancaster could offer the Scots little, so that the negotiations were fruitless. Instead, after the armistice had expired, Douglas and Moray carried out a new raid on northern England on January 6, 1322. They looted Teesside , then Moray stayed in Darlington , while Douglas Hartlepool and Cleveland and Walter Steward looted Richmondshire or extorted ransom there. Although Lancaster was in southern Yorkshire with a handsome army at the time, he did not turn against the Scots. From the beginning of 1322 Edward II took military action against Lancaster and drove him north. Andrew Harclay, the sheriff of Cumberland, had warned the king about the Scots and, with the approval of the king, raised a force of light riders. With this, however, he did not move against the Scots, but in March 1322 put Lancaster and the remaining rebels, including Hereford and Badlesmere, on their flight north. In the following battle at Boroughbridge , the rebels were crushed. The king had since conquered castles of Lancaster and is said to have found evidence of his secret negotiations with the Scots in them. Captured at Boroughbridge, Lancaster was convicted of a traitor and executed.
The English campaign of 1322
The successful suppression of the Lancaster Rebellion encouraged Edward II to embark on a new, large-scale campaign to Scotland. Before the English army could cross the border, Robert I himself moved to England on July 1, 1322 with an army. He advanced into western Cumberland, crossed the mouth of the River Duddon at Duddon Sands, and advanced to Furness, the ransom paid. Then the Scottish army crossed the Kent estuary and moved to Lancashire, where Lancaster and Preston were burned to the ground. Without encountering major opposition, the Scots returned to Scotland on July 24th. The English army followed the Scots and advanced into Scotland on August 10, 1322. On August 19, Edward II reached Musselburgh near Edinburgh, after which the army moved on to Leith . Robert I did not face battle, but had withdrawn north and left the English scorched earth. Without adequate supplies, the English had to withdraw, weakened by hunger and disease. The Scots followed the English and crossed the border with England on September 30th. In northern Yorkshire, they likely raided the Sutton Bank area that had previously been spared Scottish raids. Edward II had meanwhile dismissed most of his army. He was at Rievaulx Abbey when he learned that the Scots were following him and were already a few miles away in Northallerton. He ordered various magnates to come with their troops, but they did not reach him in time. On October 14th, the Scots defeated an English force under the Earl of Richmond at the Battle of Byland. Edward II barely escaped the Scots and fled to York. Queen Isabelle , who the king had left behind in the supposedly safe Tynemouth Priory , was also able to flee across the sea after a risky escape, probably in a ship. Then the Scots retreated north, pillaging. The Battle of Byland was not a catastrophic defeat like Bannockburn, but it was a deep humiliation for the English king.
The Armistice of Bishopsthorpe 1323
After the failure of the campaign of 1322, the Parliament in York approved a new tax in November 1322 to finance another campaign, and a new army was called to York on February 2, 1323. However, numerous magnates secretly doubted whether the king could ever lead a successful campaign after the pitiful failure of the large-scale campaign of 1322 and the defeat at Byland. Andrew Harclay, the most experienced English military man in the Scottish Marches, conducted his own negotiations with Robert I in Lochmaben in January 1323. He even concluded a peace treaty with the Scottish king in the hope that the English king would approve it, in which he recognized Scotland as a separate kingdom. However, Edward II had already forbidden Harclay negotiations with Scotland on January 8, 1323. When the king learned of the contract that Harclay had concluded, he declared it null and void. Harclay was declared a traitor, arrested and executed. However, the king began negotiations with Scotland even before Harclay was executed. To ward off feared new Scottish attacks, he ordered troops to York on April 24th. Through the mediation of Henry de Sully , a French nobleman captured at Byland, a provisional armistice was agreed on March 14th, which was to last until May 22nd.
The Scots' willingness to negotiate was probably increased by the political situation in Flanders . Flanders had previously been allied with Scotland and Flemish ships had attacked English ships. In September 1322, however, Count Robert III was. died. For his underage successor Ludwig , a regency council took over the government, which started negotiations with the English king. This led to the conclusion of an armistice with England on April 5, 1323. On April 18, 1323 the Regency Council banned all Scots from Flanders.
After the conclusion of the provisional armistice with England, a Scottish delegation traveled to Newcastle. On April 29, the armistice was extended to June 2, and the English held several hostages for the chief Scottish negotiators, Bishop William Lamberton of St Andrews and the Earl of Moray, who were taken to Tweedmouth . On May 1, the King instructed the Earl of Pembroke, Bishop Walter Stapeldon of Exeter, Hugh le Despenser and Robert Baldock to conclude a long-term truce. This high-ranking English delegation met the Scottish negotiators in Newcastle a few days later. At first the negotiations were sluggish. In a letter dated May 11, Edward II complained to Pembroke about the numerous attacks and crimes committed by the Scots in recent years. Finally, at the end of May 1323, the delegations did not agree a peace treaty, but an armistice that would last for at least thirteen years until June 12, 1336. Robert I was not recognized as king. Both delegations came to Bishopsthorpe in York, where in the Archbishop's palace the king and the specially convened Privy Council recognized the long-term armistice on May 30th. However, there was resentment among the fifty English council members present about the terms of the armistice. Henry de Beaumont refused to take part in the deliberations, whereupon the angry king dismissed him from the Privy Council and even wanted to throw him in prison.
Unsuccessful further peace negotiations
After the conclusion of the armistice, Robert I tried in further negotiations to be recognized as King of Scotland through a peace treaty with England. On November 18, 1324, his envoys, Bishop William Lamberton of St Andrews and the Earl of Moray, met an English delegation in York. Allegedly the Scots demanded that the English crown waive all claims against the Scottish king, that the Scots should receive large parts of northern England as far as York and that Robert I got back his family's old estates in Essex , East England . In addition, the English should return the traditional Scottish coronation stone, the Stone of Scone. In return, Robert I offered a marriage alliance between one of his daughters and the English heir to the throne, Edward . The alliance should be witnessed by both the French king and the Pope. The English rejected these demands as exaggerated and suspected that breaking off the negotiations would be an excuse for a new war. In particular, the alleged involvement of the French king made the English suspicious, as they were on the verge of an open war with France . It is not clear whether the Scots were actually in contact with France at this time, but in April 1326 the alliance of 1295 was renewed by the Treaty of Corbeil . Previously, Edward II had invited Edward Balliol , the son of the 1296 deposed Scottish King John Balliol from northern France to England, who still had a claim to the Scottish throne.
Weardale Campaign of 1327 and the Peace of Edinburgh and Northampton
prehistory
Edward II was able to defeat his opponent Lancaster and numerous other rebels in 1322, but from 1325 his own wife, Queen Isabelle, planned his overthrow. Together with the rebel, Roger Mortimer , who fled , she prepared an invasion of England in exile in France . Before February 25, 1326, Isabelle and Mortimer in France agreed with the Scottish ambassador, the Earl of Moray, that the Scots would not take advantage of an invasion of England to invade northern England themselves. In return, Isabelle and Mortimer promised to officially recognize Robert I as King of Scotland as soon as they gained power in England. In September 1326, Isabelle and Mortimer finally landed with an army in England. The reign of Edward II collapsed. The fleeing king was captured by his opponents while on the run in November 1327 and was forced to abdicate in January 1327. On February 1, 1327, the day of the coronation of Edward III, the young son of Isabelle and Edward II, the Scots carried out a surprise attack on Norham Castle, which was however repulsed by the crew. After the fall of Edward II, the seriously ill Robert I may no longer feel bound by the Bishopsthorpe armistice. Perhaps he also wanted to take advantage of the situation that the new British government was not yet firmly established. Indeed, England was not immediately ready for war with Scotland. The new government, dominated by Mortimer and Isabelle, took defensive measures to defend the Scottish Marches, but on March 6, 1327 they confirmed the armistice of 1323. In April 1327, Robert I sailed again to Ulster to weaken English rule there . After the death of his father-in-law, he claimed the Earldom of Ulster and offered a separate peace between Ireland and Scotland. The stay of the Scottish king in Ireland worried the English government, but he could not achieve any tangible success and returned to Scotland in July 1327. During the absence of the Scottish King, Roger Mortimer had already started preparations for a campaign in Scotland on April 5th.
The Weardale Campaign
Faced with the threat from the English, the Scots wanted to get ahead of the English and even plundered northern England in July 1327. They had three pillars march under the leadership of Moray, Douglas and the Earl of Mar divided. From Durham, the heavy English army followed the Scots, but without a chance to overtake the mounted Scots. After an exhausting march, the English finally found the united Scottish army, which had been waiting for the English for several days in a strongly defensive position on the Wear . The English did not succeed in putting the Scots in open battle, and finally the Scots withdrew unnoticed by the English on the night of August 7th. They reached the Scottish border again unmolested, so that the English campaign was a complete failure.
The Peace of Edinburgh and Northampton
As early as the end of August 1327, Robert I, who had returned from Ireland, led a new attack on Northumberland, with the Scots now besieging the region's castles. The English feared that the Scots would now not only plunder Northumberland but conquer it. After the expensive, unsuccessful campaign, the English government was no longer able to conduct a new campaign against Scotland. At the beginning of October, the English sent envoys to the Scottish king to begin peace negotiations. The Scots were also ready to negotiate. Their king was terminally ill and his son and heir, David , was a child. The negotiations led to the peace concluded on March 17th in Edinburgh and on May 4th 1328 in Northampton, which ended the Scottish War of Independence. In this peace the English renounced all feudal claims in Scotland, whereby Robert I was recognized as king.
consequences
The peace made in 1328 was unpopular with many barons in England because they had to renounce their claims to territories in Scotland. The barons who lost possessions in Scotland were called the disinherited . The controversial peace led to the overthrow of the government of Queen Isabelle and Roger Mortimer in 1330. Edward III. now took over the rule himself. Robert I died in Scotland in 1329. The Earl of Moray took over the reign for the minor David II. A group of the so-called disinherited began preparing for a new attack on Scotland, which Edward III did. tacitly tolerated. In July 1332 the Earl of Moray died, and in August 1332 the disinherited began their attack from Scotland. The Second Scottish War of Independence began four years after the peace treaty .
literature
- Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965.
- Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 .
- Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 .
- Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 163.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 96.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 49.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 99.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 100.
- ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 473.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 103.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 102.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 104.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 106.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 52.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 102-103.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 108.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 110.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 111.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 114-115.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 121.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 117-118.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 121-122.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 119.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 55.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 123.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 126.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 127.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 56.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 130.
- ^ A b c Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 135.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 136.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 137.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 139.
- ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 480.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 147.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 8.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 58.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 60.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 151.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 158.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 155.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 150.
- ↑ Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 , p. 189.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 156.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 157.
- ^ A b Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 490.
- ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 487.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 83.
- ^ A b Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 489.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 59.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 84.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 160.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 60.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 161.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 170.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 88-90
- ↑ a b c Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 90.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 171.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 172.
- ^ A b Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 494.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 171.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 172.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 72.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 177.
- ^ A b c d Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 179.
- ^ Michael Prestwich: Edward I. University of California, Berkeley 1988, ISBN 0-520-06266-3 , p. 497.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 75.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 91.
- ↑ Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 , p. 195.
- ↑ a b c d Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 94.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 93.
- ↑ Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 , p. 195.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 182.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 183.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 201.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 95.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 186.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 187.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 189.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 190.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 191.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 193.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 197.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 200.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 70.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 211.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 79.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 206.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 198.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 208.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 210.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 213.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 220.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 225.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 214-215.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 109.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 69.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 227.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 112.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 113.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 238.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 74.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 230.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 115.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 116.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 239.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 242.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 240.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 241.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 244.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 123.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 246.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 114.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 72.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 128.
- ^ A b Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 107.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , pp. 77-78.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 251.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , pp. 79-80.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , pp. 78-79.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 259.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 106.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 109.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 80.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 259-260.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 260.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 82.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 265.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 71.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 273.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 272.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 89.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 70.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 129.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 151.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 110.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 160.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 163.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 109.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 281.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 286.
- ↑ a b c Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 168.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 117.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 169.
- ↑ a b John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, from 1307 to 1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 114.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 258.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 121.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 170.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 177.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 123.
- ^ A b Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 283.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 282.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 224.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 281.
- ^ JF Willard: The Scotch Raids and the fourteenth-century taxation of Northern England . University of Colorado Studies, V (1907-8), pp. 237-242.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 127.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 84.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 276.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 213.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 224.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 274.
- ^ A b c Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 279.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 280.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 284-285.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 285.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 168.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 287.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 288.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 223.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 226.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 259.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 236.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 237.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 160.
- ^ A b c Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 338.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 248-249.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 240.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 332.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 92.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 249.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 337.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 250.
- ↑ John Roland Seymour Phillips: Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, 1307-1324. Baronial politics in the reign of Edward II. Clarendon, Oxford 1972, ISBN 0-19-822359-5 , p. 91.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 162.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 336.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 248.
- ↑ Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 , p. 212.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 251.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 339.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 169.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 340.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 170.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 182.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 280-281.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 283.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 336.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 287.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 191.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 263.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 178.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 340-341.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 190.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 290.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 294.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 297.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 298.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 299.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 301.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 313.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 218.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, pp. 341-342.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 342.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 352.
- ↑ Alison Weir: Isabella. She-Wolf of France, Queen of England . London, Pimlico 2006, ISBN 0-7126-4194-7 , p. 123.
- ↑ Michael Penman: Robert the Bruce. King of the Scots . Yale University Press, New Haven 2014, ISBN 978-0-300-14872-5 , p. 210.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 369.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 370.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 370-371.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 372.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 373.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 373, footnote 277.
- ↑ John Robert Maddicott: Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. A Study in the Reign of Edward II. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1970, p. 303.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 343.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 405.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 426.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 427.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , p. 430.
- ^ Geoffrey WS Barrow: Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland . Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1965, p. 346.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 432.
- ↑ a b Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 434.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Scotland. The Later Middle Ages (The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. II. ) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1974, ISBN 0-05-002038-2 , p. 105.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 435.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 458-459.
- ↑ Alison Weir: Isabella. She-Wolf of France, Queen of England . Pimlico, London 2006, ISBN 0-7126-4194-7 , pp. 200-201.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Edward III and the Scots. The formative Years of a Military Career . Oxford University Press, Oxford 1965, p. 15.
- ^ Ranald Nicholson: Edward III and the Scots. The formative Years of a Military Career . Oxford University Press, Oxford 1965, p. 16.
- ↑ Michael Brown: The wars of Scotland, 1214-1371 . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1237-8 , p. 229.
- ↑ Natalie Fryde: The tyranny and fall of Edward II, 1321-1326 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003. ISBN 0-521-54806-3 , p. 210.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 546.
- ↑ Seymour Phillips: Edward II . New Haven, Yale University Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-15657-7 , pp. 549.