Deafblings
| Deafblings | ||||||||||||
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The cherry-red Spei-Täubling ( Russula emetica ) is the type of the genus Russula . |
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| Russula | ||||||||||||
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Bluebirds ( Russula ) are a very extensive genus of fungus from the family of the Bluebird relatives in the order of the Bluebird-like . With an estimated 750 species, the deafblings are one of the most species-rich types of mushrooms. At least the European species of the worldwide common genus are exclusively mycorrhizal fungi, which are indispensable for the survival of our forests. The fruit bodies are usually quite large and often strikingly colorful, and some species are among the most popular edible mushrooms. The pigeons are very popular with mycologists and mushroom pickers alike. In addition to the brittle lamellae, its most characteristic features include the meat, which breaks as smooth as a carrot. The reason for this is the spherical cells, the spherocysts, embedded in the fungal meat . Another special feature is the spore ornament, which is warty or thorny decorations that make the spores look almost like diatoms under the microscope. However, this ornament only becomes visible when the spores are stained with iodine reagent. The deaf lions share all of these characteristics with the milk lice, their sister genus, from which they differ in that their juice ducts ( laticifers ), unlike the milk lice, do not have any milk juice . The genus Russula was described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796.
features
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Most pigeons form fruiting bodies with a hat, stem and lamellae, but there are some species with sequestrated fruiting bodies, the hymenophore of which has been transformed into a gleba or at least consists of strongly fused, former lamellae. The stem can then be very much reduced, which can also give the fruiting bodies a truffle-like or generally belly-mushroom-like appearance. It may also be that a species can develop both sequestrate and normal, lamellate fruiting bodies, as in the case of Russula messapica , which has been found to be con-specific with sequestraten Russula messapicoides (formerly Macowanites messapicoides ). Fruiting bodies with hat and stem are usually centrally stalked and often show bright colors in the hat skin, which can range from pale or almost white tones to yellow, green, red, purple to brown or almost black, depending on the type. The meat, the lamellas and the stalk, however, are whitish to ivory in most species. The hat skin is usually bare, dry or sticky to greasy and usually not zoned, that is, not divided into concentric color gradations. In many species, the skin is at least partially or almost completely removable. With ripe fruiting bodies, the cap is often flattened or depressed (concave).
The lamellas are free or run down slightly on the handle, are rather wide and thick. As with the milklings , they have a characteristic brittleness, which can be determined by splintering when stroking them. Exceptions are the female deafblings ( R. cyanoxantha ) and, to a lesser extent, the flour-stalked deafblings ( R. farinipes ), the meat-red edible deafblings ( R. vesca ), the green edible deafblings ( R. heterophylla ) and the Wieseltäubling. Furthermore, the lamellae are often forked, especially near the stem, and in some species are provided with cross connections ( anastomoses ). Shorter intermediate lamellae are usually not available or only in small numbers and can only be found regularly in the white and black deafblings and the Archeinae section .
The stem is approximately cylindrical, in European species not ringed and without a sheath. It is brittle and stiff to soft and brittle and breaks like the pulp of apples. This fracture behavior, which is characteristic of deaflings and the related milklings, is caused by the heterogeneous trama (meat), which contains normal, narrow, long-celled hyphae as well as hyphae of spherical cells (spherocytes) with a diameter of 20–50 µm.
A velum universale can be present, but is usually very much reduced and present on the base of the stem and partly also on the cap skin (e.g. in the subgenus Ingratula sect. Subvelatae according to Sarnari).
The odor is usually slightly fruit-like to nut-like, but it can also be herring-like. The taste is mild to strong or very hot, sometimes bitter, although this effect sometimes only occurs after a delay of up to 30 seconds. Like the milklings, the deafblings in the Trama Laticiferen have no milk here, but only in some species produce characteristic tears on the lamellae and stem tips. These juice hyphae can be colored with sulfovanillin . In the spicy-tasting species, they are often on the base of the lamellae and under the epidermis of the hat and handle.
The spore powder is colored white to dark ocher yellow. The spores themselves are short ellipsoidal to rounded. The surface is finely to coarse black and sometimes ornamented with burrs or reticulations. The ornament is amyloid . The basidia are club-shaped and 25 to 60 micrometers long. On these are four spores on sterigms four to eight micrometers long. The gleocystids are shaped differently. They are often conspicuous on the lamellar surfaces and edges and often also in the cap skin and the stem surface. They turn more or less intense blue with sulfovanillin and dark blue with sulfoformol.
Some deafblings contain large amounts of riboflavin . The often strong hat colors are created by pteridines . In some species, these are colorless, but their fluorescent properties make them visible under ultraviolet light . They then also shine quite intensely. Both ingredients are derived from nucleotides . Due to their water solubility, these are located in the cell sap of the vacuoles.
Macrochemical characteristics
Simple macrochemical reactions are often used in the determination of deafblings in order to be able to reliably delimit species that are difficult to distinguish. Important macrochemical reactions are the guaiac reaction , the iron sulfate reaction, the phenol reaction, the sulfovanillin or sulfoformol reaction.
- The iron sulfate reaction
- Usually a 10% FeSO 4 solution is used for this . If the solution is dripped onto the stem below the lamellae, the stalk meat usually turns reddish to grayish in color. With older fruiting bodies, the reaction can turn into a dirty olive color. Reactions that deviate from this standard reaction are important. The meat can turn flesh pink or salmon pink without a gray discoloration or it can turn green to olive green. Some pigeons cannot or almost not be stained with iron sulfate.
| Color reaction | species |
|---|---|
| more or less grayish reddish | Majority of species |
| meat red to intense orange-red | Flesh red edible deaf , green edible deaf , some Griseinae and other species |
| distinctly greenish to bluish green | Viridantinae (herring fever) |
| not at all | Women-deaf , duck-deaf |
- The phenol reaction
- Usually a 2% phenol solution is used for this. Sooner or later, the reagent will turn all deafblings chocolate brown. Only the representatives of the subsection Olivaceinae are an exception here, they change color from wine-red to purple-violet. Another exception is the velvet blubber , in which the meat also turns purple-purple. Therefore the phenol reaction is an important feature to distinguish the species within the sub-section Amoeninae .
- The ammonia reaction
- A 10–30% ammonia solution turns the lemon- leaved blubber red, especially in the meat of the hat and on the lamellae; overripe specimens color particularly well. This represents a good detection reaction within the sub-section Sanguinae . The hollow-stemmed hornbill also changes color to bright red in the places mentioned. In the case of the Mild Kamm-Täubling the stem base turns reddish with ammonia but also with other bases.
- Aniline oil or aniline water turns the meat red in all Viridantinae . The lamellae of the green edible pigeon and the weasel pigeon turn yellow.
- Usually a 30% KOH solution is used, rarely NaOH. The bases cause a vivid yellow or chrome-yellow reaction on the cap skin or stem bark of some representatives of the Foetens group. The reduced velum universale of the stem base of the mild comb-toed blubber and also of the lemon-squared blotch turns red.
- Formol (formalin)
- Formalin (a 40% formaldehyde solution) discolors the stalk meat of representatives of the Nigricans group orange-red within 2–3 minutes. The flesh of the purple-brown leather blubber , the wine-red and orange-red gray-stemmed blubber and the soot-gray blubber also turn reddish in color. The flesh of the pine blubber turns a little pink.
- The sulfovanillin reaction
- Sulfovanillin is mostly used microscopically to stain and detect cystids , but it can also be used macroscopically. Mostly dried material is used for this, as fresh material does not allow constant coloring due to the changing water content. Most species stain themselves more or less dirty purple to bluish (violet) with the sulfovanillin reagent. Only the species from the Roseinae subsection turn a beautiful pink and can thus be easily identified.
Ecology and diffusion
Bluebells are earth-dwelling ectomycorrhizal fungi that live with different tree species or herbaceous plants, depending on the species. Some species are very host specific; an overview of the plant species associated with deafblings gives Beenken (see web links ). Therefore they can only be found in forests , moors , parks, gardens or in tundras overgrown with dwarf shrubs . Some species show a clear preference for calcareous or acidic soils.
The genus is widespread on all continents, with the main area in the temperate latitudes of the Holarctic .
Systematics
Morphologically
The genus of the deafblings includes approx. 750 species worldwide, approx. 160 of them occur in Central Europe alone. Thus the deafblings belong to one of the species-richest hat mushroom genera. It was therefore obvious to subdivide the genus into sub-genera, sections and subsections and to set up a system that comes as close as possible to the natural relationships based on morphological, anatomical and macrochemical characteristics.
In the last century, a whole series of classification systems were set up, whereby the appearance of the fruiting bodies, the spore powder color, the taste and the discoloration of the meat were mostly used as decisive characteristics. In addition, microscopic features were increasingly taken into account, such as the development of the hat skin and the spore ornamentation. The four most important classification systems come from Rolf Singer (most recently 1986), Henri Romagnesi (1967, 1985, 1987), Marcel Bon (1988) and Mauro Sarnari (1998).
Singer's system was the first of the four mentioned. Singer published it in his 1932 monograph on the genus Russula. He later adapted this system again and again to the latest findings of Russula research; his last revision dates from 1986. While the later systematists built their system mainly on European species, Singer also considered non-European species from the start. Singer divides the genus Russula into section and subsection level and manages without any sub-genres in his classification. In his classification, he placed greater emphasis on macroscopic features. A particularly important feature for him is the discoloration of the meat in the air. In contrast to later systems, the Rigidae section is a particularly extensive one, which combines the Heterophyllidia and the light-pored Incrustatula species. His Constantes section, on the other hand, is originally a large group of leftovers with mushrooms, the flesh of which does not discolor or only yellow. In later revisions, this section was reduced in size by moving its representatives to other sections. Because of the neglect of microscopic features, Singer's system is given relatively little importance.
| Original features | Derived characteristics |
|---|---|
| Lack of pigmentation or dirty (brownish) | Colors vivid |
| Spores white or pale | Spores colored |
| Hat skin grown or not very differentiated, dry, frosted or hairy | Hat skin easily detachable from Hut trama , gelatinous, smooth and shiny |
| Fruiting body strongly built, firm flesh | Fruiting bodies delicate and fragile |
| Meat bitter or spicy | Mild meat |
| Slats of unequal length (with intermediate slats), sloping down | Lamellae of equal length, running from the edge of the hat to the base of the stem (without intermediate lamellas) |
| Edge of the hat sharp, smooth | The edge of the hat is rounded, grooved |
| Stalk filled in, tapering towards the base | Stalk hollow, club-shaped |
| Spores elongated, with low, weak and possibly net ornamentation | Spores rounded, with strong ornamentation, possibly consisting of isolated warts or spines |
| Cystidia present in the cap skin | Cap skin with specialized elements or primordial hyphae |
Probably the most influential system was proposed by Romagnesi in his standard work Les Russules d'Europe et d'Afrique du Nord in 1967 . Ultimately, all later systems are only modifications of the Romagna system or extensions that extend it to include species from North and South America or tropical Africa. By consistently evaluating all feature complexes, he succeeded in developing a natural system that is largely coherent. He placed particular emphasis on the microscopic features of the hat skin. Theoretically established evolutionary tendencies that were established by Julius Schäffer as early as 1935 form the basis for creating the system .
Marcel Bon's system is also a revision of Romagna. Bon divides the genus Russula into two subgenus, the Compacta and the ( Eu ) Russula . His system is supported in many points by the work of Ludwig Beenken. Beekens investigated the mycorrhizae within the genus Russula and found a whole series of new features that are independent of the fruiting body. On the basis of the complex of features he found, he created a system that largely matches the receipt. Modern DNA analyzes also support Bon’s classification system in many ways.
The Romagnesi and Bon classifications are limited to European species. Sarnari also includes non-European species. Bon and Sarnari rate macroscopic features, such as macrosthetic color reactions of the pulp, less than Romagnesi. For this, the microscopic properties, such as microchemical reactions and characteristics of the basidia , are given more importance. In addition, the taste of the fruiting bodies receives significantly less attention at Sarnari.
Genetically
The genus of the deafblings has also been studied phylogenetically . According to the maximum likelihood method , the relationships can be represented as follows. In the classification, Romagnesi (1967, 1985, 1987) and Bon (1988) were compared with one another. Sub-genera are underlined; the sections and subsections are not underlined. Bon only differentiates between the two sub-genera Compacta and Russula . The former contains the same species as the Romagnesi classification. Russula comprises significantly more sections in Bon than the Romagnesian system contains subgenera. Differences between the two concepts in comparison to the phylogenetic system are illustrated in the cladograms below.
Molecular genetic studies have shown that the genus Russula is very likely to be paraphyletic . It was also found that Russula earlei phylogenetically has very original properties. It also turned out that microscopic and macroscopic properties of the fruit bodies can only be used to a limited extent for classification; The structure of the mycorrhiza is more suitable (see cladograms). The analyzes showed that the Plorantinae and Nigricantinae sections probably do not have a common origin (not monophyletic ). In addition, the subgenus Heterophyllidae and the section Foetentinae are closely related. From this it can be concluded that the subgenus, which contains the sections Foetentinae and Felleinae , is paraphyletic. The genetic analyzes allowed the subgenus Insidiosula and Russula to be confirmed as monophyletic, the latter being expanded to include the gall bladder ( R. fellea ) and the lemon blubber ( R. ohroleuca ) as well as the hard vermilion blotch ( R. lepida ) and the Sun deaf ( R. solaris ) is reduced (see cladograms).
Mycorrhiza : pseudoparenchymatic mycorrhizal coats Compacta, Heterophyllidia and Foetentinae
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Mycorrhiza : mycorrhizae with cystides Types
Further sub-genera
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meaning
As symbiotes
As important mycorrhizal fungi, pigeons are of great ecological importance and, since they are associated with important timber species, also of forestry importance. Many species of deafness are popular and important edible mushrooms that are also traded in some countries.
As edible or poison mushrooms
Numerous deaf mushrooms are good edible mushrooms. Despite the sometimes difficult identification of individual species, they can be differentiated into edible and inedible or poisonous species using the so-called Täubling rule, if the genus is reliably identified. In Central Europe, the mild to slightly spicy tasting species are considered edible; if the mushroom tastes hot, it is an inedible or poisonous species. It can also take one to two minutes for the fungus to feel hot. This rule only applies to pigeons and milklings and must not be used for other types of mushrooms. With some poisonous mushrooms, even chewing small amounts can lead to serious poisoning. Most spicy species are inedible. Some can be used after appropriate pre-treatment.
Deaths from deafblings
Deaths from deafblings are known only from East Asia . There are hardly any highly poisonous species, apparently only the Nisekurohatsu ( Russula subnigricans ), which occurs in Japan , China and Taiwan and has been identified as the only life-threatening poisonous deaf. It cannot be safely recognized as poisonous by the deaf rule. Consumption can lead to potentially fatal rhabdomyolysis caused by cycloprop-2-ene-carboxylic acid (picture) as its toxins are different from those of European species of deafness.
determination
In addition to the colors of the hat, lamellae and handle, the color of the spore powder is particularly important for determining the number of deafnesses . This is only variable to an extremely small extent in the respective species, especially with regard to the external color properties of the fruit body mentioned. Exceptions are, among others, the beech-herring-deafbling ( R. faginea ), the lemon- leaved deafblings ( R. sardonia ), the iodoform-deafblings ( R. turci ) and the gooseberry-deafblings ( R. queletii ), whose spore powder colors vary a little can, as well as the large and small pink deafblings , whose spore dusts darken slightly, or the flame-stemmed deafblings ( R. rhodopoda ), which has gradually fading spore powder. The spore powder color can be determined with the help of a spore shedding preparation and the resulting spore print, which is compared with a color table.
| Romagnesi | Crawshay | Schäffer | Examples according to Romagnesi | Representation ( CMYK / RGB ) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I a | blanche | A. | White | Women's Täubling ( R. cyanoxantha ), Russula nigricans ( R. nigricans ) | 0C, 0M, 0Y / (255,255,255) |
| I b | blanchâtre | FROM | nearly white | Russula Emetica ( R. emetica var. Emetica ) | 0C, 0M, 10Y / (255,255,229) |
| II a | crème blanchâtre | B. | pale | Hard cinnabar blubber ( R. rosea ) | 0C, 2M, 20Y / (255,249,204) |
| II b | crème pâle | C. | pale | Violet-brown Täubling ( R. brunneoviolacea ), Camembert Täubling ( R. amoenolens ) | 0C, 5M, 30Y / (255,242,178) |
| II c | crème moyen | D. | pale cream | Tauben-Täubling ( R. grisea ) | 0C, 5M, 40Y / (255,242,153) |
| II d | crème foncé | D-E | cream | Rätlings-Taubling ( R. amoenicolor ) | k. A. |
| III a | ocre pâle | E. | cream | Blood deafblings ( R. sanguinaria ) | 0C, 10M, 40Y / (255,229,153) |
| III b | ocre clair | E-F | hellocker | Brick red pigeon ( R. velenovskyi ) | |
| III c | ocre foncé | F. | hellocker | Red herring blubber ( R. xerampelina s. Str.) | 0C, 28M, 60Y / (255,183,102) |
| IV a | jaune pâle | F? | ocher | Beech herring deaf ( R. faginea ) | |
| IV b | jaune clair | F-G | ocher | Ocher-leaved cinnabar blotch ( R. pseudointegra ), purple blotchy blotch ( R. veternosa ) | 0C, 30M, 80Y / (255,178.50) |
| IV c | jaune moyen | G | full of ocher | Brown leather blotch ( R. integra ) | 0C, 40M, 80Y / (255,153.50) |
| IV d | jaune foncé | G-H | yolk orange | White-stemmed leather blubber ( R. romellii ) | |
| IV e | jaune vif | H | yolk yellow | Wine-red yolk-Täubling ( R. decipiens ), purple-brown yolk-Täubling ( R. cuprea ) | |
Another important characteristic for the determination is the taste or sharpness of the meat. However, this can also vary for some species. Also relevant is the ornamentation of the spore powder, which is considered in Melzer's reagent under oil immersion . The condition of the hat skin is also important; Characteristics are surface properties such as frosting, roughness, gloss, stickiness and the presence of mucus as well as the peelability of the hat skin. The consistency and discoloration of the meat are also important. The latter can manifest itself as reddening, graying or blackening. In addition, chemical reactions in macro and microscopic dimensions are used for determination. These can be characteristic of species or groups of species.
Types (selection)
The following list gives a selection of well-known and relatively common species of the deafblings.
| German name | Latin name |
|---|---|
| Amethyst blubber | Russula amethystina |
| Apple blubber | Russula paludosa |
| Blue-green ripe deafblings | Russula parazurea |
| Blood deaf | Russula sanguinaria syn. Russula sanguinea |
| Patty blubber | Russula amoenicolor |
| Brown leather blotch | Russula integra |
| Buchen-Spei-Täubling | Russula nobilis syn. R. mairei |
| Humpback hornbill | Russula caerulea syn. Russula amara |
| Camembert pigeon | Russula amoenolens |
| Dense-leaved black blotch | Russula densifolia |
| Thick-leaved black blotch | Russula nigricans |
| Flesh red edible pigeon | Russula vesca |
| Women's Taubling | Russula cyanoxantha |
| Gallen-Täubling | Russula fellea |
| Yellow gray-stalked blubber | Russula claroflava |
| Common white-deaf | Russula delica |
| Gold deaf | Russula aurea |
| Gray-violet blubber | Russula grisea |
| Grass-green blubber | Russula aeruginea |
| Green edible pigeon | Russula heterophylla |
| Green fielded Täubling | Russula virescens |
| Hard cinnabar blubber | Russula rosea syn. R. lepida |
| Iodoform deaf | Russula turci |
| Cherry red Spei-Täubling | Russula emetica |
| Scratching comb blubber | Russula recondita |
| Short-handled leather blubber | Russula curtipes |
| Mehlstiel-Taubling | Russula farinipes |
| Mild wax dusting | Russula puellaris |
| Fuzzy Pink Bluebird (Morgenrottäubling) | Russula aurea |
| Ocher-leaved vermilion blotch | Russula pseudointegra |
| Orange blubber | Russula aurantiaca |
| Orange-red gray-stalked deafbling | Russula decolorans |
| Purple-black blubber | Russula atropurpurea |
| Smoky brown black blotch | Russula adusta |
| Red herring blubber | Russula xerampelina |
| Red-handled leather blubber | Russula olivacea |
| Red-stalked mature deaf | Russula lilacea |
| Soot-gray blubber | Russula consobrina |
| Velvet blubber | Russula amoena |
| Sharp-leaved black blotch | Russula acrifolia |
| Sharp honey deaf | Russula veternosa |
| Sharp vermilion blubber | Russula pungens syn. R. rubra |
| Narrow-leaved white blubber | Russula chloroides |
| Gooseberry Bluebird | Russula queletii |
| Stink-deaf | Russula foetens |
| Fading blubber | Russula exalbicans |
| Multi-colored blubber | Russula versicolor |
| Violet-stalked deafblings | Russula violeipes |
| Alternating colored Spei-Täubling | Russula fragilis |
| Alternating colored yolk blubber | Russula risigallina |
| White-leaved ripe-deaf | Russula azurea |
| Soft yolk blubber | Russula intermedia syn. R. lundellii |
| Weasel-deaf | Russula mustelina |
| Cedar wood blubber | Russula badia |
| Brick-red Täubling | Russula velenovskyi |
| Vermilion ripe deafness | Russula emeticicolor |
| Lemon-leaved blubber | Russula sardonia |
| Lemon deadening (ocher deafening) | Russula ochroleuca |
See also
literature
- German Josef Krieglsteiner (Eds.), Andreas Gminder , Wulfard Winterhoff: Die Großpilze Baden-Württemberg . Volume 2: Stand mushrooms: inguinal, club, coral and stubble mushrooms, belly mushrooms, boletus and deaf mushrooms. Ulmer, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-8001-3531-0 .
- Edmund Michael, Bruno Hennig, Hanns Kreisel: Handbook for mushroom friends. Volume five: Agaric mushrooms - milk lice and deaf lions. 2nd Edition. Fischer, Stuttgart 1983, ISBN 3-437-30350-3 .
- Heinrich Dörfelt , Gottfried Jetschke (Ed.): Dictionary of mycology. 2nd Edition. Spectrum, Academic Publishing House, Heidelberg a. a. 2001, ISBN 3-8274-0920-9 .
Remarks
-
↑ a b
In the tropics of Africa there are ringed species that may be saprophytic ; Examples are R. annulata and R. radicans . It is controversial whether these are original or derived characteristics and whether this group should be summarized in a separate genus.
(A. Gminder et al .: Die Großpilze Baden-Württemberg. P. 430.
E. Michael et al .: Handbook for mushroom friends. P. 85 f.)
Furthermore, apparently ringed species such as R. adelae have been described in Europe . However, these are specimens of common species (in the example mentioned, the lemon deafblings ( R. ochroleuca )) that have been attacked by a parasitic fungus that has a thin, membranous structure under the cover of the infected fungus and simulates a ring belonging to the host .
(E. Michael et al .: Handbook for Mushroom Friends. P. 86.) - ↑ The information for the CMYK color model comes from: Josef Breitenbach, Fred Kränzlin: Pilze der Schweiz. Volume 6. Milklings and deafblings. Mycologia, Luzern 2005, ISBN 3-85604-060-9 . Since they were determined independently of the overall classification, they do not necessarily result in a color gradation. It has already been shown that the specifications for color shades, for which Romagnesi has given several examples, sometimes differ significantly. In the above illustration, the first example was chosen. The information for the CMYK model was converted into the RGB system . The color representation takes place via the hexadecimal color definition .
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c d J.M. Vidal, P. Alvarado, M. Loizides, G. Konstantinidis, P. Chachuła: A phylogenetic and taxonomic revision of sequestrate Russulaceae in Mediterranean and temperate Europe . In: Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi . tape 42 , no. 1 , July 19, 2019, ISSN 0031-5850 , p. 127–185 , doi : 10.3767 / persoonia.2019.42.06 ( ingentaconnect.com [accessed April 3, 2020]).
- ^ Maria P. Martín, Nils Högberg, Jaume Llistosella: Macowanites messapicoides, a hypogeous relative of Russula messapica . In: Mycological Research . tape 103 , no. 2 , February 1999, p. 203-208 , doi : 10.1017 / S0953756298007035 ( elsevier.com [accessed April 3, 2020]).
- ^ A b c Mauro Sarnari: Monografia illustrata del Genere Russula in Europe. Tomo primo . AMB, Centro Studi Micologici, Trento 1998, p. 1-800 .
- ^ Fabrizio Boccardo, Mido Traverso, Alfredo Vizzini, Mirca Zotti: Funghi d'Italia . 6th edition. Zanichelli, 2013, p. 1-623 .
- ↑ Julius Schäffer: Russula monograph . In: Annales Mycologici . tape 32 , 1934, pp. 161 ff . ( online [accessed July 8, 2011]).
- ^ Rolf Singer: Monograph of the genus Russula . In: A. Pascher (Ed.): Supplements to the Botanisches Centralblatt . 1932, p. 227 ( online [accessed July 8, 2011]).
- ↑ Russulas. (PDF) Micologia.biz Web de micología Europea, p. 19 , accessed on July 8, 2011 (Spanish).
- ^ A b Ludwig Beenken: The genus Russula: Investigations into their systematics based on ectomycorrhizae . Dissertation, LMU Munich: Faculty of Biology (2004). PDF for download
- ↑ Steven L. Miller et al .; Molecular phylogeny of the genus Russula in Europe with a comparison of modern infrageneric classifications PDF for download ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Archived copy ( memento of the original dated June 6, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Singer "Monograph of the genus Russula"; published in “Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt”, editor A. Pascher (1932) p. 205ff
- ↑ a b Ursula Eberhardt: Molecular analyzes on the relationship of the agaricoid Russulaceae in comparison with mycorrhizal and fruiting body features. Dissertation. Göttingen 2000. p. 15.
- ↑ Archived copy ( memento of the original dated June 6, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ U. Eberhardt: Molecular analyzes on the relationship of the agaricoid Russulaceae in comparison with mycorrhizal and fruiting body features. P. 13 f.
- ↑ U. Eberhardt: Molecular analyzes on the relationship of the agaricoid Russulaceae in comparison with mycorrhizal and fruiting body features. P. 14.
- ↑ U. Eberhardt: Molecular analyzes on the relationship of the agaricoid Russulaceae in comparison with mycorrhizal and fruiting body features. Pp. 123, 127.
- ↑ U. Eberhardt: Molecular analyzes on the relationship of the agaricoid Russulaceae in comparison with mycorrhizal and fruiting body features. P. 173 f.
- ^ E. Michael et al .: Handbook for mushroom friends . P. 86.
- ↑ Linda Gail Price: Milkcaps. California Academy of Sciences , October 29, 2014
- ^ University of Adelaide : Russula subnigricans.
- ^ E. Michael et al .: Handbook for mushroom friends. P. 87.
