Slavery in Ancient Greece

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A young slave gives her mistress a jewelry box. Grave stele, 430-410 BC Chr.

The slavery was, as in most ancient civilizations, an essential element of the economy and society of ancient Greece . In classical Athens , for example, most citizens owned at least one slave. For the ancient Greeks, slavery was a natural, indispensable and natural institution.

Slaves are known as early as 1700 BC in the earliest records of Greece. Mentioned BC, as well as in Homer's epics. With the Greek civilization, the slave trade and the economic importance of slaves also grew. The Greeks enslaved prisoners of war as well as the victims of pirates and foreign slave traders. The slaves were basically without rights, but their living conditions were different. Ordinary workers and prostitutes lived short and hard lives, while professionals sometimes lived like free people, were able to buy themselves out or were released.

The Greek philosophers mostly justified slavery with the natural superiority of masters and could not imagine a society without slaves. In the 19th and 20th centuries, research into Greek slavery was shaped by the dispute over Marxism after Marx described the " slave-holding society " as the scene of the first class struggle . The historian Eduard Meyer powerfully explained slavery as a by-product of the political and economic boom in Greece, for which he was later heavily criticized.

Basics

The study of slavery in ancient Greece is fraught with significant methodological problems. The sources are incoherent and incomplete; they are also almost exclusively related to ancient Athens . No work is specifically devoted to the subject of slavery. The Athens court records of the 4th century BC Chr. Deal with slaves only as a source of income. In Theater slaves occur merely as a type in appearance, and in the pictorial representations slaves and artisans can hardly be distinguished from each other. Even the terms are not used consistently. The current understanding of ancient Greek slavery therefore remains incomplete.

This article only describes ancient slavery in the narrower sense, i.e. a form of human existence that meant for the enslaved to be someone's property that could be disposed of like property or cattle ( English chattel slavery ). Here, however, the various other forms of bondage in antiquity are not dealt with, such as the status of the Penestians in Thessaly , the Helots in Sparta or the Clarots in Crete , all of which can be compared with the serfs of the European Middle Ages .

terminology

Mr. (right) and slave (left) on a Phlyakenvase v, ca. 350-340. Chr.

The Ancient Greek knows many different terms for slaves. Only some are unique in any particular context.

The archaic authors, such as Homer , Hesiod or Theognis von Megara , refer to the slave as δμώς dmōs and mean in particular prisoners of war. The word is derived either from the Indo-European * dom- ("house") or from ancient Greek δαμάω damáo ("to bind").

In the classical period the slave was referred to as ἀνδράποδον andrápodon , which means "human foot " when it came to distinguishing him from other cattle , which was called τετράποδον tetrapodon , so "quadruped". In the military context, the prisoner of war is also referred to as part of the booty . If, on the other hand, the slave's economic function was not in the foreground, but his legal position, he was called δοῦλος doū́los and thus distinguished him from the free ( ἐλεύθερος eleútheros ) and especially from the citizen ( πολίτης polítēs ). The word δουλεῖα douleía generally denotes a subordination relationship and thus not only the master's power over the slave, but also that of the father over his child and that of the rulers over the citizens. With οἰκέτης oikétēs is meant "the one living in the house", that is, the servant .

The word θεράπων therápōn still means " squire " in Homer (for example, as the name of Patroclus compared to Achilles and Meriones compared to Idomeneus ), but in the classical era it was "servant". Also as ἀκόλουθος akólouthos , d. H. "Follower", slaves were sometimes called. παῖς pais , literally “child”, were called young slaves (“house boys”), but older slaves were also used to humiliate them. Finally, in the context of the act of emancipation , the person to be released was referred to as σῶμα sṓma , i.e. H. "Body".

Origins of Slavery

Mycenaean culture

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Slaves (do-e-ro) are already recorded in the Mycenaean culture (approx. 1700–1050 BC). The linear B tables from Pylos name 140 slaves. The "slaves of God" (te-o-jo do-e-ro) , who are always named by name and owned land, held a special legal position . The law treated them similarly to freedmen , but the nature of the god (presumably Poseidon ) over them is unknown.

The other slaves were probably prisoners from wars or raids, since slaves from Kythera , Chios , Knidos , Miletus , Lemnos and probably Zephyra / Halicarnassus are mentioned in the texts. Mainly female slaves and their children are mentioned. According to the Linear B documents, partnerships between slaves and free were not uncommon; slaves could also become independent craftsmen and even own land. The most important distinction in Mycenaean society therefore does not seem to have run between slaves and free, but between the members of the ruler's palace and the others.

Homeric epics

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Women as spoils of war: Ajax the Little harassed Kassandra during the fall of Troy . Kodros painter , around 440–430 BC Chr.

The slavery described by Homer in the Dark Ages is unrelated to Mycenaean practice. The terms are already changing: instead of do-e-ro , we are now talking about dmôs . The slaves mentioned in the Iliad are mainly women captured in war, while defeated men either die in battle or are set free for ransom.

Most of the slaves in Homer's Odyssey are also women. They are mostly servants, but sometimes also concubines .

In the Odyssey in particular, some male slaves are mentioned, including the sow-shepherd Eumaios . It should be emphasized that the Homeric slaves belong entirely to the household ( oikos ) : Laertes dines with his slaves and sleeps by their side in winter. The term dmôs is not used disparagingly, and Eumaios, the “divine” sow-shepherd , bears the same Homeric epithets as the Greek heroes. Nevertheless, slavery is considered a disgrace. Thus says Eumaios: "Zeus' all-ruling advice already takes half of virtue / one man as soon as he loses holy freedom."

Archaic time

It is difficult to determine when the slave trade began in the archaic period . In the Works and Days (around 700 BC), Hesiod mentions having several dmôes , although their status is unclear. Douloi can be found among poets such as Archilochus (7th century BC) and Theognis of Megara (6th century BC). According to inscriptions, the law against the Dracon's murder (around 620 BC) mentioned slaves. According to Solon's laws (around 594 BC), slaves were prohibited from pederasty with free boys, as was visiting the palaces . From this point on, slaves are mentioned more and more frequently. So slavery and the democratic foundations Solon developed for Athens went together. Moses Finley points out that Chios - the city which, according to Theopompus, was the first to introduce the slave trade - in the 6th century BC. Experienced early democratization. According to him, therefore, "one aspect of Greek history, in short, is the progress of freedom and slavery hand in hand."

Economical meaning

Olive harvest. Most of the slaves were used in agriculture. Antimenes Painter , Attica, around 520 BC Chr.

For a citizen among the Greeks only politics was considered a worthy occupation. All other activities were delegated to non-citizens (women, strangers and slaves) whenever possible. Basically every form of work was done (also) by slaves; on the other hand, there were no tasks reserved for them alone.

Slaves were mainly used in agriculture, the basis of the Greek economy. Small property owners often had one, sometimes two slaves. The many handbooks that have survived for landowners (such as the Oikonomikos of Xenophon or the Pseudo-Aristotle ) attest to the use of several dozen slaves on large estates, both as workers and as overseers. There is still no agreement on the share of slave labor in agriculture. It is only clear that rural slavery was very widespread in Athens, but also that the huge numbers of slaves that were to be found on the later Roman latifundia are not to be found in Greece.

Most of the time slaves worked in mines and quarries. The number of slaves working in the mines and metal extraction of Laurion alone is estimated at 30,000. These slaves were often loaned out to the mines in large groups by their wealthy owners. The strategist Nikias , for example, loaned a thousand slaves to the silver mines of Laurion and, according to Xenophon, received an obolus per slave per year. Xenophon also suggested that the state should buy up to three slaves per citizen in order to secure the livelihood of the citizenry by lending the slaves to the mines.

Slaves were also used in handicrafts, just like in agriculture, for work that exceeded the labor of one's own family. The share of slave labor was greatest in the workshops. 120 slaves worked in Lysias ' shield factory , and Demosthenes' father owned 32 cutlers and 20 bed-makers.

Slaves also represented the master in his profession if necessary and accompanied him on work assignments and on trips. During the war they accompanied the soldiers as personal servants; some also believe that they played an even more important military role. Slaves did household chores, including baking and weaving. Only the poorest citizens did not have at least one servant.

Demographics

Number of slaves

Ethiopian slave calms a horse. Date of presentation unknown.

The number of slaves in ancient Greece is difficult to estimate as there were no accurate censuses and the proportion of slaves in the population changed dramatically over time.

It is certain that the largest number of slaves were kept in Athens. Their number there is estimated to be up to 80,000 in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Estimated, so an average of three to four per household. In the 5th century BC Thucydides mentions the flight of 20,000 slaves, mainly craftsmen, during the war for Dekeleia . The lowest estimate of around 20,000 slaves at the time of Demosthenes (4th century BC) corresponds to around one slave per household.

The census in Attica , the Demetrios of Phaleron between 317 and 307 BC. In contrast, it resulted in 21,000 citizens, 10,000 settled foreigners ( Metöken ) and 400,000 slaves. In his speech against Aristogiton , the speaker Hypereides recalled the plan to use 150,000 slaves for military service after the defeat of Chaironeia (338 BC). Since these had to be men of war age, this number is compatible with the results of the Demetrios census.

The sources suggest that most Athenians had at least one slave. Aristophanes mentions poor peasants in Plutos who own several slaves; Aristotle's definition of a house includes free and slaves. Not having slaves was seen as a sign of poverty. In a speech given by Lysias, for example, an invalid who is denied a pension complains that he cannot afford a slave to represent him in his trade. That of Athenaios mentioned Mnason, friend of Aristotle, who owned a thousand slaves, introduced an exception. According to Plato , who possessed even five slaves who very wealthy citizens called fifty slaves their own.

This information is considered to be clearly exaggerated in historical research. The American ancient historian Walter Scheidel estimates that no more than 50,000 slaves lived in Athens.

Thucydides mentioned that of all the Greek poles except Sparta ( see below ) the island of Chios had the greatest number of slaves per head of the population.

Origin of the slaves

The slaves in ancient Greece were usually prisoners of war or victims of piracy or raids, or they were brought into Greece from outside through the slave trade.

Prisoners of war

According to the ancient custom of war, the victors had all rights over the vanquished, regardless of whether they were fighters or civilians. The vanquished were not systematically, but very often enslaved. For example, Thucydides names the 7,000 inhabitants of Hykkara in Sicily, whom Nikias captured and sold to the neighboring city of Catania for 120  talents . Other conquered cities that were fully enslaved were for example Olynth (348 BC by Philip II ), Thebes (335 BC by Alexander ) and Mantineia (223 BC by Antigonus III ).

However, the free Greeks found the existence of enslaved Greeks a shame, and enslavement of entire cities remained highly controversial. Some military leaders refused to practice this, such as the Spartians Agesilaus II and Kallikratidas . It was also occasionally banned by treaties between cities. For example, Miletus and Knossos committed themselves in the 3rd century BC. BC to each other not to enslave the citizens of the other city.

In addition, the liberation of an enslaved city by paying a ransom was considered very honorable. Thus, in 316 BC , Kassander liberated Thebes enslaved by his predecessor Alexander. Before him, Philip II had already enslaved the city of Stageira and later liberated it.

Piracy and robbery

Not only in war, but also in peace, no Greek was immune from the danger of slavery. Because pirates and highwaymen , who, depending on the region and epoch, made the whole of Greece unsafe to a greater or lesser extent, often sold their victims into slavery if they could not obtain a ransom . In individual areas, broad strata of the population lived from robbery and piracy, which Thucydides calls the “traditional way of life”. This was true for example for Akarnania , Crete and Aetolia , in the Hellenistic period also for Cilicia and the hill tribes of the Anatolian coast. Strabo explains the Cilician predilection for robbery with the profitability of this activity: In nearby Delos , "tens of thousands of slaves were moved every day."

With Rome's rise to a great power in the Mediterranean area, there was also an increased demand for slaves, which exacerbated the piracy problem. Only in the 1st century BC The Romans largely eradicated piracy in the Mediterranean Sea to protect the trade routes to their provinces.

Slave trade

The barbaric neighboring peoples regularly sold slaves to the Greeks. The slave trade followed the same pattern as the later trade in African slaves : non-Greek slave traders sold their tribal members or the captured members of other peoples to Greek importers. The centers of the slave trade were Ephesus , Byzantion or Tanais on the Don .

There are few sources on the slave trade itself, but various elements testify to it. Members of certain peoples are represented regularly and in large numbers among the slaves, such as the Scythian archers who were used by the Athenians as police (initially 300, later up to 1000). The names of the slaves in Greek comedies also often point to their origin: the name Thratta , used repeatedly by Aristophanes , means “ Thracian ”. In a surviving list of slaves from the 5th century BC 32 names can be assigned to foreign peoples: 13 were Thracians, 7 Carians and the others came from Cappadocia , Scythia , Phrygia , Lydia , Syria , Illyria , Macedonia and the Peloponnese . The nationality of the slaves was of great importance to the buyers, and on several occasions the advice is given not to house too many members of the same people in one place in order to minimize the risk of rebellion.

The price of a slave depended on his ability. Xenophon estimates the price of an underage Laurier at 180  drachmas , while Demosthenes ' father's cutlers were worth 500 to 600 drachmas each (for comparison: the daily wage of a construction worker was one drachma). In addition, the price changed with the offer: In the 4th century BC BC slaves were in abundance and accordingly inexpensive. The slave markets levied a levy on the selling price. The law provided for a guarantee against hidden defects: Anyone who bought a slave who later turned out to be sick could reverse the purchase.

Growth of the slave population

Grave stele for two boys and their Paidagogos who were killed in an earthquake. Nicomedia , 1st century BC Chr.

The Greeks of the classical period made no special effort to increase their slave population through children. Xenophon advises that men and women should be separated “so that they do not father children against the will [of the owners], for while good servants become more loyal when they raise children, family life makes the bad more inventive in what is evil. “Perhaps the reason for this was economic: since even trained slaves were available for little money, it was possibly cheaper to buy a slave than to raise one. In addition, childbirth was risky for the mother's life, and child mortality was high.

In the Hellenistic era there were more slaves born in the house, the oikogeneis . In Ptolemaic Egypt and the Hellenistic release documents to Delphi many are detected by them. The homeborn were often a privileged class among the slaves. For example, they were entrusted with the task of leading the boys to school and looking after them; these paidagogoi were educators in the original sense of the word. Some of them were children of the landlord, but in most cities (especially Athens) the legal status of children followed that of their mother.

Legal status of the slaves

Which rights slaves had depended on the respective polis . In addition, there were many different levels of lack of freedom or the restriction of rights. Equipped with all rights (and the bearer of special religious and military duties) only the free man was a citizen in his respective city. For example, he could own property, exercise political rights, be brought to trial in the event of charges, and marry and inherit.

Women were already severely restricted socially and legally because of their gender. Disenfranchised citizens, foreigners ( metics ), freedmen, the members of the local serfs (-box Penestae , helots , Klaroten u. A.) And the slaves described here, regarded as the property did not have all of these rights or individual.

Slaves in Athens

Economic life, religion and society

Grabritual- Loutrophoros , v 380-370. The bearded slave on the right is wearing his master's helmet and shield.

Slaves in Athens were the property of their master or of the state, which could dispose of them at will. Slaves did not have property rights, but their owners often allowed them to save money to buy themselves out later. There are also reports of slaves who went about their own business and merely paid their owner a fixed fee.

The slaves took part in most of the cult acts; they were specifically invited to the Choes' banquet on the second day of Anthesteria . They were also introduced to the Mysteries of Eleusis . Like free people, they could seek asylum in a temple or at an altar . They worshiped the gods of their masters, but were allowed to continue to practice their own religion.

A possible marriage or child relationship of slaves was not legally recognized and the owner could divide a slave family at any time. However, slaves belonged to their master's household. Newly purchased slaves were welcomed with nuts and fruits, like a newly married woman.

Slaves generally wore the same clothes as freemen, and other Greeks were amazed that the Athenians tolerated contradictions from their slaves. Athenian slaves fought alongside the free at Marathon , and the monuments erected after the battle were dedicated to them too. Before the Battle of Salamis , citizens were called to "save themselves, their wives, children and slaves".

Legal protection

Slaves had no legal capacity and were represented by their master in all legal matters. They were legally protected primarily as a thing: Anyone who injured a slave risked a claim for damages by the owner ( δίκη βλάβης díkē blábēs '). Anyone who excessively abused his slave as the owner could be sued by another citizen ( γραφὴ ὕβρεως graphḗ hýbreōs ); this lawsuit did not aim to protect the slave for his own sake, but was directed against the violent excess ( hybris ) of the owner.

In contrast to Roman law, a slave owner was not allowed to arbitrarily kill a slave. According to Isocrates , not even the most worthless slave could be executed without trial. Dracon's law apparently also punished the murderer of a slave with death. The lawsuit against the murderer of a slave ( δίκη φονική díkē phonikḗ ) was not aimed at damages, but was intended to punish the religious contamination caused by the blood shed. Therefore, in the 4th century BC BC not the Areopagus , but the court of Palladion is responsible for the punishment. The punishment he pronounced was apparently more severe than a fine, but less than death - possibly exile, as for negligent homicide or for the murder of a metecan .

For crimes, slaves were not punished with a fine like free people, but with lashes. Apparently a lash was worth a drachma. With a few exceptions, a slave's testimony was only permitted under torture.

Debt slavery

Until it was abolished by Solon around 600 BC. The Athenians practiced debt slavery : a citizen who could not pay his debts fell to his creditor as a slave. In Athens, this lot hit the peasants who leased land from large landowners and owed the rent. They were called hektēmoroi (“ sixths ” or “sixths”) because they owed the lessor either one sixth or five sixths of their harvest, depending on the interpretation of the sources.

It is controversial in research whether the debt slavery that arose in the Middle East and is also mentioned in the Bible was real slavery or some other form of bondage. In theory, the debt slaves should be released as soon as they had worked off their debts.

Solon ended this system with a debt cancellation called σεισάχθεια seisáchtheia ). He also forbade any recourse by the creditor to the person of the debtor and the sale of free Athenians, including self-sale. Aristotle quotes Athens Solon in his constitution as follows:

“And many a man who sold deceit or law
far away from his land built by gods, an outcast slave,
I brought back to Athens, yes, and some,
banished from home because of their crushing guilt,
No longer able to speak the dear Athenian language,
And wandering far and wide, I brought home;
And those who trembled here in the worst slavery (douleia)
under the scowl of a master (despōtes) , I freed. "

Although Solon uses the terms “classical” slavery, debt slavery differed from ordinary slavery in that the debt slave remained an Athenian who was dependent on another Athenian at his place of birth. This aspect explains the great wave of discontent with slavery in the 6th century BC. BC, which did not aim at the liberation of all slaves, but only the debt slaves. Solon's reform kept one exception: the guardian of an unmarried woman who lost her virginity was allowed to sell the woman as a slave.

Slaves in Gortyn

Excerpt from the town charter of Gortyn

The town charter of the 6th century BC, carved in stone in Gortyn on Crete . Chr. Regulates the legal status of the slaves in detail. Thereafter, the owner was responsible for all crimes committed by his slaves, but was entitled to compensation for crimes committed against his slaves. The law only provided fines, which were doubled for crimes committed by slaves. Conversely, the amount of the penalty was greatly reduced when an offense was committed to the detriment of a slave. So was z. For example, the rape of a free woman by a slave is punished with a fine of 200  staters (400 drachmas), while the rape of a non-virgin female slave by another slave is only punished with a penalty of one obolus (one sixth drachma).

The Gortyn slaves could own a house and cattle and bequeath them to their descendants, as well as clothes and household items. The family of slaves was legally recognized; like free marriages, they could get divorced, make a will and inherit. But her children, like herself, were the property of their master.

Slaves in Sparta

The citizens of Sparta were served by helots , an unfree class of the population that was jointly owned by the state. Whether the Spartans also had personal slaves is not entirely clear.

The sources mention people who were released by Spartans, allegedly forbidden in relation to helots, or who were sold outside of Laconia . They include the poet Alkman , who is said to have been enslaved when his city was conquered by Spartans and later sold to an Athenian, a Spartan cook bought by Dionysius I of Syracuse or a king of Pontus , as well as the famous Spartan wet nurses , who Athenian parents appreciated very much.

Some sources mention both slaves and helots, which suggests that the two terms were not congruent. The dialogue Alkibiades I from Plato's environment counts "the possession of slaves and especially helots" to the Spartan riches, and Plutarch also mentions "slaves and helots". According to Thucydides, the agreement that led to the Helot Rebellion of 464 BC BC ended that every Messenian insurgent who was subsequently apprehended in the Peloponnese should be the slave of the one who apprehends him. Hence, most historians believe that Sparta kept slaves as personal property, at least after the victory over the Athenians in 404 BC. BC, but not in large numbers and only from the Spartan upper class.

Living conditions of the slaves

Black prisoner with tied hands, Ptolemaic Egypt

It is difficult to assess the living conditions of the slaves in ancient Greece because the picture drawn by the ancient authors is not uniform. According to Pseudo-Aristotle , the daily routine of the slaves could be summarized in three words: "work, chastisement and nutrition". Xenophon recommends treating slaves like pets, that is, punishing disobedience and rewarding good behavior.

Beatings were a means of forcing slaves to work, as was the withholding of food, clothing, and rest. Violence against slaves could be exercised by the master or by an overseer who was often a slave himself. Ancient Greek literature is full of scenes of slaves being whipped. For example, two slaves in the Knights of Aristophanes complain about being continuously beaten green and blue by their overseer. Aristophanes himself was critical of the cliché of the beaten slave, which always appeared in the comedy of his time :

“He [Aristophanes] also renounced the slaves who kept escaping or deceiving someone or being whipped. They would be brought out crying all the time so another slave could mock their welts and ask, 'Oh, you poor fellow, what happened to your skin? Surely a host of lashes fell on you and devastated your back? '"

The living conditions of the slaves differed greatly according to their use. The life of Laurion's mine slaves and brothel prostitutes ( pornai ) was particularly tough. State slaves, on the other hand, lived quite independently, as did artisans, tradespeople and moneylenders among the slaves: they were often able to live alone and pursue their profession independently as long as they paid their master a fee ( ἀποφορά apophorá ). Sometimes they could save enough money to buy themselves out.

In the judgment of the ancient authors, the Attic slaves lived "particularly happily". Pseudo-Xenophon complains about the outrageous behavior of the Athens slaves: “The slaves and metics in Athens take what they want; you can't just beat them and they won't get out of your way in the street. ”This supposedly good treatment did not prevent the escape of 20,000 Athenian slaves - mainly artisans (kheirotekhnai) , probably the best treated slaves - in the end of the Peloponnesian War . The title of a comedy by Antiphanes from the 4th century BC. BC, The Slave Catcher ( Δραπεταγωγός Drapetagōgós ) suggests that the escape of slaves was not uncommon.

In contrast, there is no known major uprising by the slaves that could be compared with the Roman slave uprisings . Individual acts of revolt by slaves against their masters are seldom handed down; a judicial defense speech mentions the attempted killing of a master by a slave who was not yet twelve years old.

release

The release of slaves in Chios dates back to the 6th century BC. Proven. The practice is probably of an older origin, as releases were made orally. Informal releases are also known from the classical period. It was sufficient to declare the slaves free in front of witnesses and in public, which was usually done in the theater or in a public court. In Athens this practice was started in the 6th century BC. Banned to avoid public unrest.

From the 4th century BC BC releases became more frequent. They are evidenced by stone inscriptions that were found in temples, for example in Delphi and Dodona , and mainly from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. BC and the 1st century AD. The collective release of slaves was possible; one such took place, for example, on the island of Thasos in the 2nd century BC. It was believed to be a reward for the loyalty of slaves during wartime. But in most cases the sources testify to a voluntary act of the Lord (or especially in the Hellenistic period also the mistress) of the freed man.

In order to be released, the slaves often had to buy their way out by paying for their market value. For this purpose, they could sometimes also take out a loan ( ἔρανος éranos ) from their master, a friend or a customer. The latter was often possible for prostitutes, as in the famous case of the hetaera Neaira .

The release often took place as a religious act by which the slave was "sold" to a god (often Apollo at Delphi ) or consecrated to the god after his release. The temple received part of the ransom and guaranteed the validity of the contract. The release could also be made before the secular authorities, in which case the magistrate assumed the role of god.

The Lord decided whether the release was complete or partial. In the former case, the freed person was legally protected from any re-slavery (e.g. by the heirs of his former master). In the latter case, the freedman could remain subject to various obligations towards his former master. The most restrictive release contract was the paramone , a type of temporary enslavement that gave the master (often until his death) almost absolute rights over the released person.

From a legal point of view, the freedman was anything but equal to the freeborn citizens. He was subject to various obligations, which one can get an idea of from Plato's suggestions in the laws :

“Even a freed man should be allowed to be imprisoned if he does not show his freed person any honors or at least not the proper honors. But it belongs to these honors that he [the freed man] go three times a month to his house [of the former master] and promise him to do everything for him that is cheap and in his power and to marry only as it is find the applause of his past master. Nor should it allow him to become richer than him, but what more he acquires he should deliver to him. Also, he should not be allowed to stay in the state for more than twenty years, but after this period leave the country like all other foreigners taking his entire property with him, unless he obtains permission to stay longer from the authorities and his freedman Has."

Overall, the status of the freedmen was comparable to that of the settled strangers ( Metöken ).

Conceptions

Contemporary views

A slave sits on an altar and opens the purse he stole. Around 400–375 BC Chr.

No ancient author questions slavery as such - some only criticize that certain people were wrongly enslaved. For Homer and the other pre-classical authors, slavery is the inevitable consequence of war. Thus keeping Heraclitus said: "War is the father of all, the King of all ... he enslaves the one and sets the other free."

In the classical period, slavery was partly economically and socially justified. Aeschylus said of the Greeks that they “are not a slave or subject to any human being”, while the Persians, according to Euripides, “are all slaves except for one man” - the king. On the other hand, the idea of ​​“natural slavery” of certain peoples emerged. Hippocrates represented in the 5th century BC The view that the temperate Anatolian climate made the inhabitants of the region tolerant and submissive. This explanation was taken up by Plato , then also by Aristotle in politics : “The peoples of Asia […] are probably intelligent and have artistic talents, but they lack courage; therefore they live in submission and slavery. ”According to Aristotle, a slave, unlike an animal, is accessible to reason, but not able to make decisions.

Aristotle declared slavery to be natural as follows:

“The second of the simplest natural connections is that between master and servant, between rulers and rulers, and its purpose is to maintain both. This connection, I say, is natural. For if one of two people has the necessary understanding to make decisions on the issues at hand, the other has the physical strength necessary to carry out what has been decided: then, by his nature, the first is lord and ruler; and the second, after his own, is the servant and obedient of both. And this natural supremacy is just as useful to the subject as it is to the overlord. "

Alkidamas , a contemporary of Aristotle, who does not seem to have written any written works, evidently took the view that “nature” had “made no one a slave”, that everyone was born free.

The sophists had developed the view that all people, whether Greeks or barbarians, belong to the same race and that therefore certain people are slaves, although they have the soul of a free one, and vice versa. They had concluded that true slavery was not a question of status but a question of mind. Therefore Menander advised, “Be free in spirit, even though you are a slave, and that will stop you being a slave.” This opinion, adopted by the Stoics and the Epicureans , was not actually a rejection of slavery, but according to Garlan their trivialization. Despite certain concessions to the sophists in the sense of his conception of a natural slavery, Aristotle maintained that slavery could only be used where the master was better than the slave.

The ancient Greeks could not imagine a society without slaves. There are slaves even in the Cloud Cuckoo Land of the Birds of Aristophanes , as well as in the utopian society that Plato outlined in the Laws and in the Politeia . The utopian cities of Phaleas and Hippodamos provide for the equal distribution of wealth among all, but public slaves are used to work. In the “turned upside down” cities of the comedies Lysistrata or The Women's People's Assembly , women rule over men or private property is abolished, but there is no talk of the end of slavery. The only slaveless societies in the minds of the Greeks were those of the past, mythological golden age , in which nobody had to work because the earth produced food without agriculture, the dough kneaded itself, the wine jug poured itself and so on.

Later views

Theater mask of a "first slave" in Greek comedy , 2nd century BC Chr.

Slavery in ancient Greece was the subject of apologetic Christian discourse for a long time , which credited Christianity with the abolition of slavery. From the 16th century onwards, against the background of the slavery practiced in the European colonies at that time, the discourse took on moralizing traits. Some authors extolled the civilizing function of ancient slavery, while others denounced its abuses. For example, in 1847 , Henri-Alexandre Wallon published a History of Slavery in Antiquity as part of his fight against slavery in the French colonies .

Ideologization of Slavery Research in the 19th and 20th Centuries

In the 19th century the political and economic struggle with ancient slavery began. She first dealt with the structure of the development of human societies in phases and with the classification of Greek slavery in this structure. The influence of Karl Marx (1818–1883) determined the debates. According to him, ancient society was characterized by the development of private property and by the predominant (instead of earlier secondary) importance of slave labor as a mode of production ; for this purpose, Marx coined the term slave owner society .

Eduard Meyer (1855–1930) set another continuing emphasis , especially in his lecture “The Slavery in Antiquity” (1898). In it he blamed democracy for the spread of slavery:

“The very shaping of the state from which one should least expect that has opened the way for slavery: the formation of the constitutional state, the elimination of all class differences and political privileges, the full implementation of political freedom and legal equality for all citizens who Creation of a universal citizenship that regards all citizens as equal and equal. "

Analogous to modern industrial capitalism, Meyer noted an increasing demand for labor in the poleis, which were becoming prosperous with trade and commerce, which was largely met by slaves. “That is the root,” says Meyer, “from which slavery has grown into economic importance. For a small amount of capital, the entrepreneur can buy labor that he can train for his own purposes and use it to the full. "

In the opinion of Moses I. Finley (1912–1986), Meyer's view shaped the image of non-Marxist research on ancient slavery in Germany until the 1960s, although his lecture only contained a series of assertions and violated the “most fundamental rules of historical research” .

Even when a research program on ancient slavery was founded in Mainz in 1951, Meyer's interpretation was maintained, which, according to Finley, aimed to push slavery aside as "historically insignificant, as a by-product of the political development of the city-state". Joseph Vogt (1895–1986) became head and coordinator of the Mainz project . "The elementary urge to live and the devotion to spiritual vision both had slavery as a postulate", it says in Vogt's first 1953 article Slavery and Humanity in Classical Greece . “These Hellenic basic forces wrested the marvel of the polis and its culture from the poverty of the country, the unfavorable climate, the resistance of a hostile world. One of the sacrifices that the Greeks had to make on their way was slavery and the loss of humanity associated with it. ”Finley also quotes Vogt's aim of research, the search for a standard of determination as to whether it is slavery, with recognizable astonishment "It is about a benign cell formation or a cancer in the flesh of ancient society."

At a height of the Cold War in 1960, as Finley reports, ancient slavery became a major issue at the International Congress of Historians in Stockholm, particularly between East German Marxists and West German opponents of Marxism. That this confrontation was nourished by powerful trends in time shows, among other things. a. in the fact that the historical journal Saeculum devoted the entire 1960 volume to the criticism of Marxism.

Focus of current research

The relationship between democracy and slavery in ancient Greece is still controversial today. For the German ancient historian Egon Flaig (* 1949) "the greatest freedom demands the worst slavery": Attic democracy required all full citizens who took part in the deliberations of the popular assembly and could be elected or drawn into political offices every year. Slavery was the necessary condition for this high level of citizen participation. Walter Ameling (* 1958), on the other hand, argues that medium-sized Attic farms in the 5th and 4th centuries had too little yield to feed slaves; the farmers managed to get by with family members and day laborers and hardly had a chance to take part in the democratic decision-making processes. It is a “fiction” that “the civil identity of the numerically largest part of the population [...] was based on slave labor”.

In the opinion of ancient historian Yvon Garlan , two questions remain at the center of the scientific discourse on slavery in ancient Greece at the beginning of the 21st century:

  • Does the term “slave-owning society” match the core feature of this historical epoch?
  • Did the Greek slaves represent an independent social class ?

literature

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  • Pierre Brulé: Infanticide et abandon d'enfants. In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. Volume 18, 1992, pp. 53-90.
  • Walter Burkert : Greek Religion . Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1985, ISBN 0-631-15624-0 (first published as Greek Religion of the Archaic and Classical Epoch. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1977, ISBN 3-17-004345-5 ).
  • Pierre Carlier: Le IV e siècle grec jusqu'à la mort d'Alexandre . Seuil, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-02-013129-3 .
  • Paul Cartledge: Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece , Spartan Reflections . University of California Press, Berkeley 2003, ISBN 0-520-23124-4 , pp. 127-152.
  • Pierre Chantraine : Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Histoire des mots . Klincksieck, Paris 2009, ISBN 978-2-252-03681-5
  • Rodolphe Dareste, Bernard Haussoullier, Théodore Reinach : Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques. Volume 2. E. Leroux, Paris 1904.
  • Jean Ducat: Les Hilotes . 20. Supplementum Bulletin de correspondance hellénique . Paris 1990, ISBN 2-86958-034-7 .
  • Christiane Dunant, Jean Pouilloux : Recherches sur l'histoire et les cultes de Thasos. Volume 2. De Boccard, Paris 1958.
  • Moses Finley : Économie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, ISBN 2-02-014644-4 (Original title: Economy and Society in Ancient Greece . First edition: 1981).
  • Moses Finley: Slavery in Ancient Times. History and problems. CH Beck, Munich 1981 (title of the original English edition: Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology , London 1980).
  • Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne . La Découverte, Paris 1982, ISBN 2-7071-2475-3 .
  • Peter Hunt: Slaves, Warfare, and Ideology in the Greek Historians. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998, ISBN 0-521-58429-9 .
  • Peter Hunt: Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden (MA) 2018, ISBN 978-1-405-18805-0 .
  • Michael H. Jameson: Agriculture and Slavery in Classical Athens. In: Classical Journal. Volume 73, 1977-1988, pp. 122-145.
  • Arnold Hugh Martin Jones : Athenian Democracy. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1957.
  • Geoffrey Stephen Kirk (Ed.): The Iliad: a Commentary. Volume 2: Chants V-VIII. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-28172-5 .
  • Siegfried Lauffer : The mining slaves of Laureion . tape 12 . Treatises of the Academy of Sciences and Literature, Humanities and Social Sciences Class, Mainz 1956, p. 904-916 .
  • Edmond Lévy: La Grèce au V e siècle de Clisthène à Socrate. Seuil, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-02-013128-5 .
  • Edmond Lévy: Division. Seuil, Paris 2003, ISBN 2-02-032453-9 .
  • Marie-Madeleine Mactoux: Douleia: Esclavage et pratiques discursives dans l'Athènes classique. Belles Lettres, Paris 1980, ISBN 2-251-60250-X .
  • Marie-Madeleine Mactoux: L'esclavage comme métaphore: “douleo” chez les orateurs attiques. In: Actes du colloque du GIREA de 1980. Kazimierz, 3. – 8. November 1980, index. 10, 1981, pp. 20-42.
  • Olivier Masson : Les noms des esclaves dans la Grèce antique. In: Actes du colloque du GIREA de 1971. Besançon, 10. – 11. May 1971. Belles Lettres, Paris 1973, pp. 9-23.
  • Alfonso Mele: Esclavage et liberté dans la société mycénienne. In: Actes du colloque du GIREA de 1973. Besançon, 2. – 3. May 1973. Belles Lettres, Paris 1976.
  • Glenn R. Morrow: The Murder of Slaves in Attic Law. In: Classical Philology. Bad 32, No. 3, 1937, pp. 210-227.
  • Pavel Oliva: Sparta and her Social Problems . Academia, Prague 1971.
  • André Plassart: Les Archers d'Athènes. In: Revue des études grecques. Volume 26, 1913, pp. 151-213.
  • Sarah B. Pomeroy : Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves . Schoken, New York 1995, ISBN 0-8052-1030-X .
  • William Kendrick Pritchett , Anne Pippin : The Attic Stelai, Part II. In: Hesperia. Vol. 25, No. 3, 1956, pp. 178-328.
  • William Kendrick Pritchett: Five New Fragments of the Attic Stelai. In: Hesperia. Volume 30, No. 1, 1961, pp. 23-29.
  • Ellen M. Wood : Agriculture and Slavery in Classical Athens. In: American Journal of Ancient History. Volume 8, 1983, pp. 1-47.
  • Ellen M. Wood: Peasant-Citizen and Slave: The Foundations of Athenian Democracy . Verso, New York 1988, ISBN 0-86091-911-0 .

Web links

Commons : Slavery in Ancient Greece  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ δμώς in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Klincksieck, Paris 2009.
  2. ↑ E.g. in Odyssey 1, 398 ( Memento of September 27, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), where Telemachos describes "the slaves that Odysseus captured" as such.
  3. ↑ The term is used once in Homer ( Iliad 7, 475 ) for prisoners of war. This passage was later rejected as inauthentic by Aristarchus of Samothrace , who followed Zenodot and Aristophanes of Byzantium , see Geoffrey Stephen Kirk (ed.): The Iliad: a Commentary. Volume 2: Chants V-VIII. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990, p. 291.
  4. ↑ δοῦλος in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009; see also Marie-Madeleine Mactoux: L'esclavage comme métaphore: douleo chez les orateurs attiques. In: Actes du colloque du GIREA de 1980 , Kazimierz, 3–8 . November 1980, Index , 10, 1981, pp. 20-42.
  5. ↑ LSJ δουλεία
  6. ↑ οἰκος in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009.
  7. ^ Iliad, 16, 244 ( memento of September 23, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) and 18, 152 ( memento of January 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive ).
  8. ^ Iliad, 23, 113 ( Memento of January 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive ).
  9. ↑ θεράπων in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009.
  10. ↑ ἀκόλουθος in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009; hence later also acolyte .
  11. ↑ παῖς in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009.
  12. ^ Paul Cartledge: Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece , Spartan Reflections . University of California Press, Berkeley 2003, p. 137.
  13. ↑ σῶμα in: Pierre Chantraine: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque . Klincksieck, Paris 2009.
  14. ^ Walter Burkert: Greek Religion . Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1985, p. 45.
  15. ↑ See e.g. B. Tassilo Schmitt : From the end of success. Reflections on the fall of the Mycenaean palace civilization. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann , Dorit Engster, Alexander Nuss (eds.): From the Bronze Age history to the modern reception of antiquities , Syngramma vol. 1, Universitätsverlag Göttingen 2012, p. 120.
  16. ↑ Alfonso Mele: Esclavage et liberté dans la société mycénienne , Actes du colloque du GIREA de 1973 , Besançon, 2–3. May 1973. Belles Lettres, Paris 1976, pp. 115-155.
  17. ↑ For example Chryseis ( 1, 12–13, 29–30, 111–15 ( Memento from November 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive )), Briseis ( 2, 688–9 ( Memento from May 31, 2010 in the Internet Archive )) , Diomede ( 6, 654–55 ( memento from January 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive )), Iphis ( 6, 666–68 ( memento from January 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive )) and Hekamede ( 11, 624–27 ( Memento of May 31, 2010 in the Internet Archive )).
  18. ↑ In the Iliad, Adrastos ( 1, 46–50 ( Memento from November 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive )), the sons of Antimachus ( 11, 131–5 ( Memento from May 31, 2010 in the Internet Archive )) and Lykaon ( 21, 74–96 ( memento of September 23, 2015 in the Internet Archive )) about being left alive and triggered.
  19. ↑ There are fifty of them in the palace of Odysseus ( 12, 421 ) and in that of Alcinous ( 7, 103 ( memento of October 24, 2010 in the Internet Archive )).
  20. ↑ Before his fight against Achilles, Hector speaks of a possible future as a servant for his wife Andromache ; he mentions weaving and fetching water ( 6, 454-58 ). In the Odyssey, the servants fire the stove ( 20, 123 ), prepare the suitors' feast ( 1, 147 ( Memento from September 27, 2011 in the Internet Archive )), and grind the grain ( 7, 104 ( Memento from 24 September 2011 ) . October 2010 in the Internet Archive ), 20, 108–9 ), make the bed ( 7, 340–342 ( Memento from October 24, 2010 in the Internet Archive )) and serve guests.
  21. ↑ In the Iliad Chryseis share the bed of Agamemnon , Briseis and Diomede the bed of Achilles and Iphis that of Patroclus . In the Odyssey, twelve maidservants sleep with the suitors ( 10, 6–8 ), contrary to Eurykleia's orders ( 12, 423-425 ).
  22. ↑ Odyssey, 16, 140-41 .
  23. ↑ Odyssey, 11, 188-91 ( memento of October 24, 2010 in the Internet Archive ).
  24. ↑ Odyssey, 14, 3 .
  25. ↑ Odyssey 17, 322-323 , quoted from the translation by Johann Heinrich Voss .
  26. ↑ E.g. Werke and Tage , 405.
  27. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 43.
  28. ↑ " κατὰ ταὐτὰ φόνοθ δίκας εἷναι δοῦλον κτείναντι ἢ ἐλεὐτερον ." Rodolphe Dareste, Bernard Haussoullier, Théodore Reinach : Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques. Volume 2. E. Leroux, Paris 1904, pp. 4, 5, 8.
  29. ↑ Aeschines , Against Timarchos 1, 138-139 ; Plutarch , Life of Solon 1, 6 .
  30. ↑ Athenaios , 6, 265bc = FGrH 115, Frag. 122.
  31. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, pp. 170-71.
  32. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, pp. 148, 180.
  33. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 149.
  34. ^ Michael H. Jameson: Agriculture and Slavery in Classical Athens. In: Classical Journal . Volume 73, 1977-1988, pp. 122-145 takes the view that slaves were used in great numbers; denied by Ellen M. Wood: Agriculture and Slavery in Classical Athens. In: American Journal of Ancient History . Volume 8, 1983, pp. 1-47 and this: Peasant-Citizen and Slave: The Foundations of Athenian Democracy . Verso, New York 1988.
  35. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 150.
  36. ^ A b Siegfried Lauffer: The mine slaves of Laureion . 12, Treatises of the Academy of Sciences and Literature, Humanities and Social Sciences Class, Mainz 1956, p. 916.
  37. ↑ a b Xenophon: On State Income (Poroi) , 4.
  38. ↑ Demosthenes 12: 8-19.
  39. ↑ Aeschines (XXVII, 9–11)
  40. ↑ Peter Hunt: Slaves, Warfare, and Ideology in the Greek Historians . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998, ISBN 0-521-58429-9 .
  41. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, pp. 151-52.
  42. ↑ These have come down to us in fragments from the Chronicle of Ctesicles by Athenaios .
  43. ↑ Lysias: On the refusal of a pension to an invalid , 3.
  44. ^ Athenaios, VI, 264d.
  45. ^ Plato, Politeia , IX, 578d-e.
  46. ^ Walter Scheidel: Demography. In: Heinz Heinen (Hrsg.): Concise dictionary of ancient slavery. Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2011, quoted from Andrea Binsfeld: Slavery as an economic form. Slaves in antiquity - omnipresent, but also profitable? In: History in Science and Education 66, Issue 5/6 (2015), p. 277.
  47. ↑ Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War 8, 40, 2.
  48. ^ Pierre Ducrey: Le traitement des prisonniers de guerre en Grèce ancienne. Des origines à la conquête romaine. De Boccard, Paris 1968.
  49. ^ A b Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 57.
  50. ↑ Plutarch: Life of Agesilaus 7, 6 .
  51. ↑ Xenophon , Helleniká 1, 6, 14 .
  52. ^ Diodorus , XIX, 53, 2.
  53. ↑ Plutarch: Alexander 7, 3 .
  54. ↑ Both were indiscriminately called λῃσταί lēstaí or πειραταί peirataí by the Greeks (Pierre Brulé: Signification historique de la piraterie grecque. In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. Volume 4, 1978, p. 2).
  55. ↑ See in particular Henry A. Ormerod: Piracy in the Ancient World . Liverpool University Press, Liverpool 1924; Pierre Brulé: La Piraterie crétoise hellénistique. Belles Lettres, Paris 1978 and Vincent Gabrielsen: La piraterie et le commerce des esclaves. In: Andrew Erskine (ed.): Le Monde hellénistique. Espaces, sociétés, cultures. 323-31 av. J.-C. Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Rennes 2004, pp. 495-511.
  56. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 230.
  57. ↑ Thucydides 1: 5, 3.
  58. ^ Strabo, XIV, 5, 2
  59. ^ Pierre Brulé: Signification historique de la piraterie grecque. In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. Volume 4, 1978, pp. 6-7.
  60. ↑ Herodotus , Historien V, 6; Flavius ​​Philostratos , The Life of Apollonios of Tyana , 18, 7, 12.
  61. ^ André Plassart: Les Archers d'Athènes . In Revue des études grecques. Volume 26, 1913, pp. 151-213.
  62. ↑ Plato, Laws 777cd; Pseudo-Aristotle: Oikonomika 1, 5.
  63. ↑ Hypereides , Against Athenogenes, 15 and 22.
  64. ↑ Xenophon: Oikonomikós 9 .
  65. ^ William Kendrick Pritchett , Anne Pippin: The Attic Stelai, Part II . In Hesperia. Volume 25, No. 3, 1956, pp. 276-281.
  66. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 58; Moses Finley: Économie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, pp. 154–155 doubts it.
  67. ^ A b Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 58.
  68. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 59.
  69. ↑ a b c Pierre Carlier: Le IV e siècle grec jusqu'à la mort d'Alexandre . Seuil, Paris 1995, p. 203.
  70. ^ Pierre Carlier: Le IV e siècle grec jusqu'à la mort d'Alexandre . Seuil, Paris 1995, p. 204.
  71. ↑ a b Walter Burkert: Greek Religion . Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1985, p. 259.
  72. ↑ a b c Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 47.
  73. ^ Pseudo-Xenophon: Constitution of the Athens I, 10.
  74. ↑ Pausanias 1:29 , 6 .
  75. ↑ Plutarch: Life of Themistocles 10, 4–5 .
  76. ^ Antiphon , First Tetralogy 2, 7; 4, 7; Demosthenes , Against Pantainetos 51 and Against Euergos and Mnesibulos 14, 15, 60.
  77. ^ Aeschines, Against Timarchus 17 .
  78. ↑ Isocrates, Panathenaikos 181.
  79. ↑ Lykurgos , Against Leocrates 66.
  80. ^ Glenn R. Morrow: The Murder of Slaves in Attic Law. In: Classical Philology , Vol. 32, No. 3, 1937, p. 213.
  81. ↑ See for example Lykurgos , Against Leocrates 29.
  82. ↑ See below Aristotle, as well as Plutarch , Leben des Solon 13, 2 .
  83. ↑ 5 Mos 15,12-17  EU
  84. ↑ 12, 4 ; Translation by the author based on the English translation by FG ​​Kenyon.
  85. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 174.
  86. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 160.
  87. ↑ Plutarch: Life of Solon 23, 2 .
  88. ^ A b Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 200.
  89. ↑ Moses Finley: Economie et société en Grèce ancienne . Seuil, Paris 1997, p. 201.
  90. ^ Edmond Lévy: La Grèce au V e siècle de Clisthène à Socrate . Seuil, Paris 1995, p. 179.
  91. ^ Edmond Lévy: La Grèce au V e siècle de Clisthène à Socrate . Seuil, Paris 1995, p. 178.
  92. ↑ Herakleides Lembos , fgt. 9 Dilts and Suda , keyword Ἀλκμάν , Adler number: alpha 1289 , Suda-Online .
  93. ↑ Suda , keyword Φιλόξενος , Adler number: phi 393 , Suda-Online
  94. ↑ Plutarch mentions both variants: Life of Lykurgus 12, 13 .
  95. ↑ Plutarch: Life of Lykurgus 16, 5 ; Life of Alcibiades 5, 3 .
  96. ↑ " [...] ἀνδραπόδων κτήσει τῶν τε ἄλλων καὶ τῶν εἱλωτικῶν " in: Plato: Alkibiades I 122d.
  97. ↑ " [...] δοὐλοις καὶ Εἴλωσι " in: Plutarch: Leben des Lykurgus 2 .
  98. ^ Pavel Oliva: Sparta and her Social Problems . Academia, Prague 1971, pp. 172-173; Jean Ducat: Les Hilotes . 20. Supplementum Bulletin de correspondance hellénique . Paris 1990, p. 55; Edmond Lévy: Division . Seuil, Paris 2003, pp. 112-113.
  99. ^ Pseudo-Aristotle: Oikonomika , 1344a35.
  100. ↑ Xenophon: Oikonomikós 13, 6 .
  101. ↑ Aristophanes : The knights in the Gutenberg-DE project
  102. ↑ Aristophanes, The Peace , 743-749. Translated by the author from the English translation by Ian Johnston . Cf. also the German translation by Johann Jakob Christian Donner (1861): Aristophanes : Der Friede im Projekt Gutenberg-DE
    “[...] And the refugees there and the crooks, and what whips through for fun / He drove them away with shame at first ; He also created redemption for servants. / Who always appeared with loud howling, only for the delightful reason / That their fellow servant then questioned them with malicious mockery about the blows: / Poorer, oh, what hit your skin? Did the bristly Zagel break into your flanks with army force and bleed your back hard? "
  103. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 148.
  104. ^ Glenn R. Morrow: The Murder of Slaves in Attic Law . In Classical Philology , Vol. 32, No. 3, 1937, p. 210. See Plato , Politeia 8: 563b; Demosthenes , Third Speech against Philip , 3; Aeschines , Against Timarchus 54 ; Aristophanes , Die Weibervolksammlung 721–22 and Plautus , Stichus 447–50.
  105. ^ Pseudo-Xenophon: Constitution of the Athens I, 10.
  106. ↑ Thucydides 7:27 .
  107. ↑ Narrated in Athenaios , Deipnosophistai 4, 161e.
  108. ^ Paul Cartledge: Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece , Spartan Reflections . University of California Press, Berkeley 2003, p. 139.
  109. ↑ Antiphon: On the murder of Herod 69.
  110. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 79.
  111. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 80.
  112. ^ Christiane Dunant, Jean Pouilloux: Recherches sur l'histoire et les cultes de Thasos. Volume 2. De Boccard, Paris 1958, pp. 35-37, no. 173.
  113. ↑ Demosthenes , Against Neaira , 59: 29–32.
  114. ↑ See for further literature: Paul François Foucart: Mémoire sur l'affranchissement des esclaves par forme de vente à une divinité d'après les inscriptions de Delphes . Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires, 2nd series, Vol. 2, 1865, pp. 375-424.
  115. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 82.
  116. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 83.
  117. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 84.
  118. ^ Plato, Laws 11, 915 a – c, translation by Franz Susemihl
  119. ↑ Heraclitus, fragment 53.
  120. ↑ Marie-Madeleine Mactoux: douleia: Esclavage et pratiques discursives dans l'Athènes classique . Belles Lettres, Paris 1980, p. 52.
  121. ↑ Aeschylus, The Persians 242.
  122. ↑ Euripides, Helena 276.
  123. ^ Corpus Hippocraticum , About Air, Water, Soil 23
  124. ↑ Plato: Politeia 4, 435a-436a.
  125. ^ Aristotle: Politik 7, 1327b, translation by Carl and Adolf Stahr (1860), p. 394.
  126. ↑ Aristotle: Politics 1, 13, 17 .
  127. ↑ Aristotle: Politics 1, 2, 2; Translation by Carl and Adolf Stahr (1860), pp. 7–8 (with modernized spelling).
  128. ↑ Russell Meiggs et al. a .: A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great , 4th ed., St. Martin's Press, New York 1975, p. 375
  129. ↑ So z. B. Hippias of Elis according to Plato, Protagoras 337c; Antiphon, Oxyrhynchus Papyri 9, 1364.
  130. ↑ So already Euripides , Ion 854–856 frag. 831.
  131. ↑ Menander, ask. 857
  132. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 130.
  133. ↑ Aristotle: Politics 1, 5, 10 .
  134. ^ After Aristotle: Politics 2, 7 .
  135. ↑ Telekleides , Amphiktyonen , after Athenaios 6, 268 b – d .
  136. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 8.
  137. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, pp. 10-13.
  138. ↑ Eduard Meyer: The slavery in antiquity , lecture given in the Gehe Foundation in Dresden on January 15, 1898 , p. 28 f.
  139. ↑ “But then a consequence with compelling force imposes itself: If the bondage of the aristocratic epoch of antiquity, the Homeric period, corresponds to the economic conditions of the Christian Middle Ages, then the slavery of the following epoch is in line with the free labor of the modern age , it grew out of the same moments as this. ”( Eduard Meyer: Die Sklaverei im Antiquity , lecture given at the Gehe Foundation in Dresden on January 15, 1898 , p. 24.)
  140. ^ Eduard Meyer: Slavery in Antiquity , lecture given in the Gehe Foundation in Dresden on January 15, 1898 , p. 33.
  141. ↑ "All in all, I have to say that Meyer's lecture on ancient slavery is not only one of the most nonsensical things a historian of this rank has ever written to my knowledge, but that it also describes the most fundamental rules of historical research in general and German historical research in general Particularly hurt. ”As an explanation of the nevertheless outstanding and lasting effect of Meyer's theses, Finley cites his professional authority (“ the most respected ancient historian in German university life of the generation after Mommsen ”) and an already existing tendency among the professional historians of the time to accept such ideas. (Moses Finley: Slavery in antiquity. History and problems . CH Beck, Munich 1981, pp. 52–56.)
  142. ↑ Moses Finley: Slavery in Antiquity. History and problems . CH Beck, Munich 1981, p. 54.
  143. ^ Joseph Vogt: Slavery and Humanity in Classical Greece. quoted from Moses Finley: Slavery in antiquity. History and problems . CH Beck, Munich 1981, pp. 70/76
  144. ↑ Moses Finley: Slavery in Antiquity. History and problems . CH Beck, Munich 1981, p. 71 f., Explains that the first Saeculum booklet with a lengthy treatise by Friedrich Vittinghoff under the title The theory of historical materialism on the ancient "slave-holding state" was distributed at the said congress , in which the author did not address any of the main questions of ancient slavery, but noted that everything essential to this had already been said by Eduard Meyer in his fundamental lecture of 1898.
  145. ↑ Egon Flaig: World history of slavery. CH Beck, Munich 2009, p. 48 (here the quote) ff.
  146. ↑ Walter Ameling: Agriculture and slavery in classical Attica. In: Historische Zeitschrift 266, Heft 2 (1998), pp. 281-315 (the quotation on p. 310).
  147. ^ Yvon Garlan: Les Esclaves en Grèce ancienne. La Découverte, Paris 1982, p. 201.