History of Mumbai

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Victoria Station, Bombay, circa 1903

The history of Mumbai recounts the growth of a collection of islands on the western coast of India becoming the commercial and cultural capital of the nation and one of the most populous cities in the world. Although the islands were inhabited by humans since the Stone Age, the city was founded by Portuguese and British colonists in the 17th century. The city was named Bombay by the Portuguese and it served as the city's official name until 1995, when it was changed to Mumbai, and both names are popularly and commonly used. Its inhabitants are informally known as Bombayites or Mumbaikars.

The present city was originally made up of seven small islands, composing mostly of mangrove forests and marshland dissected by rivers, streams and the sea. Fishing villages and settlements of the Koli and Aagris tribes developed on these islands, and the area became a centre for Hindu and Buddhist and Christian culture and religion under the Maurya Empire. Many of the Koli were christains from the early ages. The ancient port of Sopara served to connect western India with West Asia, and in the 9th century the area came under the rule of the Silhara dynasty, before falling in 1343 to the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. The arrival of the Portuguese in India in 1498 resulted in them appropriating much of the west coast of India. In 1508, Francis Almeida sailed in the archipelago and named it Bom Bahia or "Good Bay." In 1661 the seven islands were ceded to Charles II of England as the dowry of Catherine de Braganza. The islands were leased to the British East India Company in 1668.

The British undertook land-filling and draining of the marshlands, developing a modern port and city, which attracted migrant workers from across India. In the 19th century, Mumbai emerged as an important centre of international commerce, industry and culture and in the 20th century, it became an important centre for politics and government, becoming a strong base of the Indian independence movement. Following India's independence in 1947, the city's population has expanded exponentially. Modern service, commerce and technology sectors have replaced the older, heavier industries and the expansion of city limits has been accompanied by the foundation of the sister city of Navi Mumbai. Although suffering from widespread crime, pollution, and overpopulation, Mumbai remains the most attractive centre of life, culture and commerce in India, with its inhabitants enjoying a far higher quality living conditions and a vibrant, modern economy and urban infrastructure.

Beginnings of civilization

The present day Mumbai city region was originally an archipelago of seven small islands. The islands were Bombay, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and the Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba). Further lay a large group of islands that came to be known as the Sashti, meaning sixty-six villages – antecedent to the modern Salsette Island that forms the bulk of the city. To the southeast of the Sashti lay the island of Trombay. The entire area composed of 22 hills, mangrove forests, marshes, beaches and wetlands, dissected by many rivers and streams. The geographic contrasts gave rise to rich and diverse aquatic, bird and wildlife. Artifacts found near Kandivali in northern Mumbai indicate that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age. The Sashti group of islands were settled largely by the Koli tribe of deep-sea fishermen, and the Aagris tribe of salt-makers – ancestors of Konkani people. Their villages dotting the coastline, including the Arnala, Datiware, Kore, Edvan, Kelva-Mahim, Vadrai, Satpati, Alewadi, Navapur, Uchhali, Murabe, Chinchani and Dahanu, which still are existent and settled today. The Koli Goddess Mumbadevi, considered a form of Mother Goddess Devi and Parvati is the namesake of the archipelago and modern city.

A few kilometres north of the islands lay the ancient port of Sopara near the present day suburb of Nala Sopara. Over successive periods, the ancient port became an important trade and commercial link in ancient times to the ports of Khambhat, Surat and the southern port of Calicut, as well as Aden and the west coast of Africa. The economy of the port area was closely connected to the western region of Gujarat. In 3rd century BCE, the islands were incorporated into the Maurya Empire under the expansion campaign of Emperor Ashoka of Magadha. The empire's patronage gradually made the islands a centre of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture, with the establishment of monasteries and trading routes. Buddhist monks, scholars and artists created the artwork, inscriptions and sculpture of the Kanheri Caves, Elephanta Caves, Jogeshwari Caves and the Mahakali Caves. The total number of Buddhist caves number 109, dating from the end of the 2nd century BCE, and the Buddhist settlement continued after the collapse of the Maurya empire.

The islands were ruled by a succession of Hindu kingdoms and under the Gupta empire. The Silhara dynasty ruled the region between 810 AD and 1240 AD. The kingdom were split into three branches; one branch ruled North Konkan, the second South Konkan (between 765 AD to 1029 AD), while the third ruled what is now known as modern districts of Satara, Kolhapur and Belgaon between 940 to 1215 after which they were overwhelmed by the Chalukya[1]. The dynasty originally began as vassals of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, which ruled the Deccan plateau between the 8th and 10th centuries. Govinda II, a Rashtrakuta king conferred the kingdom of North Konkan (modern districts of Thane, Mumbai and Raigad) on Kapardin I, founder of the Northern Silhara family, around 800 AD. Since then North Konkan came to be known as Kapardi-dvipa or Kavadidvipa (Island of Kapardin). The capital of this branch was Puri, now known as Rajapur in the Ratnagiri District. The dynasty bore the title of Tagara-puradhishvara, which indicates that they originally hailed from Tagara (modern Ter in the Osmanabad District). Historians also have evidenced a 13th century ruler Raja Bhimdev who had his capital in Mahikawati, which was around the present day neighbourhood of Mahim and Prabhadevi. Subsequently the archipelago was peopled by merchants and agriculturists.

The modern Banganga Tank was constructed under Silhara patronage. Legend has it that Rama, the God-king hero of the Ramayana epic had paused at that spot on his way from Ayodhya to Lanka in pursuit of the demon-king Ravana who had kidnapped his wife, Sita. When Rama was thirsty, as there was no fresh water readily available, he shot an arrow and brought Ganga river over to the spot. The tank was thus named Ban-ganga (Ganga from the arrow). The water that feeds the tank stems from an underground spring at that spot, despite the proximity to the sea. The Walkeshwar Temple, dedicated to Shiva was constructed under the patronage of the Silhara rulers. Rama is said to have constructed the original lingam of sand, after having tired of waiting for his brother, Lakshmana to bring an idol. The name is etymologically derived from the Sanskrit name for an idol made of sand – Valuka Iswar, an avatar of Shiva. It was built in 1127 AD under the direction of Lakshman Prabhu, a minister in the Silhara court. In 1343, the islands came under the control of the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. The Haji Ali Dargah was built as a mosque in 1431 by a wealthy Muslim merchant and saint named Haji Ali, who had renounced all his wordly possessions before making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Legend has it that Haji Ali died on his way to Mecca and his body floated back to Mumbai. His followers converted to the structure into a mausoleum.

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European colonization

A photo of a Bazaar Scene in Bombay by John Mitchell Holms Circa 1890

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A postcard of Bombay Arsenal

In 1508, Portuguese explorer and trader Francis Almeida's ship sailed into the deep natural harbour of the island. Pleasantly impressed by the geography and conditions, the Portuguese came to call it Bom Bahia (Good Bay). Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to cede the main islands to the Portuguese in 1534. The Portuguese colonists built a fort in Bassein, but they were not interested in the islands, although some fortifications in Sion, Mahim, and Bassien, which although in disrepair can still be seen. Sashti was part of the northern province of Portuguese India, which was governed from Baçaím (present-day Vasai) on the north shore of Vasai Creek. The forts served as watchtowers for enemy ships, particularly from other European colonial powers. Nine Roman Catholic churches were built on Sashti island by the Portuguese: Nirmal (1557), Nossa Senhora dos Remédios (1557), Sandor (1566), Agashi (1568), Nandakal (1573), Papdy (1574), Pale (1595), Manickpur (1606), and Nossa Senhora das Mercês (1606). The St. Andrews Church and the Mount Mary's Basilica in Bandra, the Cross at Cross Maidan, Gloria Church (1632) in Mazagaon and the remnants of a church in Santa Cruz are the sole places of worship that have survived till today.

In 1554, the islands around Bombay were handed over to Garcia de Orta, a renowned physician and botanist, and the author of "Colloquies on the Simples, Drugs and Materia Medica of India" [1], a seminal work on Indian and Eastern medicine of its time. On the island of Mazagaon, the Jesuits had set up base claiming the land. The Portuguese king refused to entertain their claim, and in 1572 permanently leased the island to the de Souza e Lima family. By now, the island had a large Roman Catholic population. The Portuguese also brought with them African slaves known as "Kaffirs", who soon entered the ethnic mix of the people. The Portuguese had established Goa, which lay south of the islands, as their headquarters in India. Goa was then known as the "Lisbon of the East" and was Capital of the Portuguese Indian Vice-Kingdom, and due to its prominence the islands were never important to the Portuguese.

In 1661 the seven Bombay islets were ceded to Britain as part of the dowry of Catherine of Bragança to King Charles II of England. Sashti remained in Portuguese hands. King Charles in turn leased the Bombay islets to the British East India Company in 1668 for £10 per year. The company found the deep harbour at Bombay eminently opposite, and the population rose from 10,000 in 1661 to 60,000 people by 1675. In 1687, the British East India Company transferred their headquarters there from Surat. In 1737 Sashti was captured by the forces of the Maratha empire and most of the Portuguese province was ceded to the Marathas in 1739. The British occupied Sashti in 1774, which was formally ceded to the British East India Company in the Treaty of Salbai signed in 1782.

Changing demographics

The first Parsi to arrive in Bombay was Dorabji Nanabhoy in 1640. The Parsis had fled their native Iran after Arab invaders forced many to proselytise to Islam. They were to play an important part in the city's development. Later in 1670 the first printing press was imported by Parsi businessman Bhimji Parikh marking the city's long tradition with publishing. Two years later in 1672, the Tower of Silence, a place to dispose their dead was built by Seth Modi Hirji Vachha on Malabar Hill. The first fire-temple was also built in the same year by Seth Vachha opposite his residence at Modikhana on the island of Bombay. Between 1689 to 1690, the islands were struck by the plague epidemic with many Europeans succumbing to the dreaded disease. The Siddi of Janjira, a Mughal admiral sought to take advantage of this situation by making repeated forays into the region. Rustomji Dorabji, son of Dorabji Patel successfully warded off the invaders with the help of the Kolis on behalf of the British. The British gave him the title "Patel" and they were the only Parsis to get the honorific Patel title.

Foundation of Bombay city

Middle ground off the harbour.

In 1782 William Hornby, then Governor of Bombay Presidency, initiated the project of connecting the isles. The Hornby Vellard was the first of the engineering projects, started in 1784, despite opposition from the directors of the East India Company. The cost of the vellard was estimated at Rs. 100,000. The project gained momentum in 1817, and by 1845 the seven southern islands had been connected to form Old Bombay, with an area of 435 km². Railway viaducts and road bridges were built in the 19th century to connect Bombay island to Sashti, and Sashti to the mainland. These railway lines encouraged wealthier merchants to build villas on Sashti, and by 1901 the population of Sashti was 146,993, and became known as Greater Bombay. The channels separating Bombay and Trombay islands from Sashti Island were filled in the early 20th century. Charles II, eager to set up base in India, leased the islands in 1668 to the fledgling British East India Company for a paltry sum of £ 10 per annum in gold. The company, in search of a deep water port for its large vessels, found the deep harbour opposite for this purpose. After the East India Company shifted base to the islands in 1668, Sir George Oxenden became the first governor of the new province. He was succeeded by Gerald Aungier in 1672. He offered various incentives to skilled workers and traders to move to this British possession. The opportunities for business attracted many communities from Gujarat — the Parsis, the Dawoodi Bohras, the Jews and the Gujarati community. Aungier was given the title "Father of Bombay" by historians as it was his foresight to develop the islands into a centre of commerce to rival other ports which were in the hands of other kingdoms which resulted in the boom in the economy. He fortified defences by embarking on the construction of the Bombay Castle and established courts of law to provide justice.

In 1682, the Company fortified an isle — The Middle Ground Coastal Battery in the archipelago to curb the sea piracy in the area. Later a marine police force comprising of Bhandaris were stationed there to keep an eye on the pirates who used to board the ships. The police were a formidable sight and soon the area was devoid of pirates. After surpassing Surat in importance as the Company's chief port on the west coast the population was estimated to rise from 10,000 in 1661 to 60,000 by 1675. In 1687, the presidency of the East India Company shifted from Surat to Bombay and consequently it became its headquarters in 1708. In 1715 the construction of Bombay Castle was finished. The southern limit of the castle was the present day Flora Fountain area where a gate stood. The castle also known as Fort St George or Bombay Fort fortified the island of Bombay from a sea attack by the Portuguese and Mughals. This enclave proved to be a safe haven for many skilled workers away from the power struggles on the mainland. The shipbuilding industry moved to Bombay from Surat with the coming of the Wadias who were Parsis. In 1753, the Naval Dockyard was opened which remains the oldest docks in the city. Artisans from Gujarat, such as goldsmiths, ironsmiths and weavers moved to the islands and coexisted with the slave trade from Madagascar. During this time period, the first land-use laws were set up in Bombay, segregating the British part of the islands from the black town. In 1757, Kamathis, construction workers from Andhra Pradesh arrived here and set up base. The region was the low-lying area near present day Mahalaxmi. The region became known as Kamathipura, now notorious for its red-light area. In 1794 the Presidency Post Office was established.

Consolidation of Bombay islands

A view of Oval Ground from the stand opposite to The Bombay High Court and Rajabai Tower of Bombay University, Circa 1875

The first indications of a project to link the islands was carried out in long before the Portuguese arrived, when Bombay was connected to the island of Worli by a rudimentary stone causeway that could be accessed during the low tide. In 1708, the island of Parel and Mahim were connected by a causeway providing easy access between the two islands and was the first major reclamation. By 1730, land on the main Bombay Island was at a premium owing to the burgeoning of the city's population. Since the sea was shallow and marshy, travelling between islands were hazardous especially during the monsoon season. A practical solution was to raze the numerous hills on the islands and use the debris to fill the shallows.

The British governor William Hornby launched the Hornby Vellard project to connect the islands for a sum of Rs 1 lakh (100,000). An approval for the reclamation was sought from the directors of the East India Company in England and Hornby expected it to be approved and proceeded on with the reclamation without official permission. In 1772 the second reclamation took place to fill in the shallows between the islands of Parel, Worli, Bombay, Mahim and Mazagaon by building a bund to prevent the ingress of the sea, thus gaining valuable land. However, Hornby's project was denied by the Company a year later and the project deemed illegal, resulting in Hornby being sacked. The bund however, was already completed by then, so reclamation had to take place. By 1884, the entire sea portions between the islands were reclaimed connecting five islands.

The British refused to build causeways between the amalgamated landmasses and the other islands and people continued to perish during inclement weather. Lady Avabai Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, wife of the first baronet Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy decided to fund the building of causeways on the stipulation that no toll be levied. In 1803, the first causeway linking the landmass to Salsette through Parel was completed. Later in 1838, the island of Colaba and Little Colaba was connected to Bombay by a causeway known as the Colaba Causeway. In 1845 the Mahim Causeway, connected Mahim to Bandra on Salcette island was completed. This causeway was estimated to cost Rs 1 lakh in 1842, but as work commenced the cost escalated and finally cost Rs 1.57 lakhs which was paid by Lady Jeejeebhoy.

City development

The Asiatic Society of Bombay in its early days

Under British influence, Mumbai became home to progressive institutions that helped spearhead social and economic modernization across India. In 1845, the Grant Medical College and hospital, only the third in the country, was founded by Governor Robert Grant. The foundation of the University of Bombay in 1857 made it the first modern institution of higher education in India, along with the University of Calcutta. In 1887 the Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute was founded, becoming the first-ever Indian institute offering degrees in engineering and technical subjects. On April 16, 1853 the first-ever Indian railway line began operations between the city and neighbouring Thane, over a distance of 21 miles. The Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) and the Bombay Baroda and Central India (BB&CI) Railway were started in 1860 and a regular service of steamers on the west coast was commenced in 1869. By 1900, this railway network served more than 1 million passengers annually.

Administrative headquarters of the Bombay Municipal Corporation today.

Bullock Carts on the streets of Bombay, circa 1910

Raw cotton from Gujarat was being shipped to Lancashire in England through Mumbai, and after being spun and woven into cloth, returned to be sold in the Indian market. The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West and the first cotton mill was established in 1854, and the numbers of mills rapidly multiplied as Mumbai provided the industrial infrastructure and raw materials, and importantly access to foreign trade and markets. The industry attracted thousands of workers from across India, transforming the city's economy and demographics – Mumbai's population had swelled from 13,726 in 1780 to 644,405 people by 1872, in a little over a hundred years. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 brought the West closer to Mumbai, and as the city became even more prosperous, many schemes were launched for reclaiming additional land and building more roads and wharves. In 1870 the docks were consolidated under the Bombay Port Trust, and the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872, providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly-growing city.

The later half of the 19th century was also to see a feverish construction of buildings in Bombay, many of which such as, the Victoria Terminus, the General Post Office, Municipal Corporation, the Prince of Wales Museum, Rajabai Tower and Bombay University, Elphistone College and the Cawasji Jehangir Hall, the Crawford Market, the Old Secretariat (Old Customs House) and the Public Works Department (PWD) Building, still stand today as major landmarks. The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the visit of king George V and Queen Mary for the Darbar at Delhi in 1911.

The docks at Bombay are a monument of the industry, enterprise and integrity of a Parsi family, the Wadias which moved in from Surat at the instigation of the British. In 1870 the Bombay Port Trust was formed. In 1872, Jamshedji Wadia, a Parsi master ship-builder constructed the "Cornwalis", a frigate of 50 guns, for the East India Company, a success which led to several orders from the British Navy. In all the Wadias, between 1735-1863 built 170 war vessels for the Company, 34 man-of-war for the British Navy, 87 merchant vessels for private firms, and three vessels for the Queen of Muscat at Bombay docks.

The Princess Dock was built in the year 1885 and the Victoria Dock and the Mereweather Dry Docks in 1891. Alexandra Dock was completed in 1914. The closing years of the 19th Century were tragic for Bombay as the bubonic plague caused great destruction of human life once more. One significant result of the plague was the creation of the City Improvement Trust which in later years encouraged the development of the suburbs for residential purposes to remove the congestion in the city.

The Port Trust Railway from Ballard Pier to Wadala was opened in 1915. Along this railway were built grain and fuel oil depots. The kerosene oil installations were developed at Sewri and for petrol at Wadala. Around 1860 the water supply from Tulsi and Vehar lakes (and later Tansa) was inaugurated. One reform which met with much superstitious opposition before it was implemented was the closure or sealing of open wells and tanks that bred mosquitos. A good drainage system was also constructed at the same time. In 1915 the first overhead transmission lines of the Tata Power Company were erected, and in 1927 the first electric locomotives manufactured by Metropolitan Vickers of England were put into service up to Poona and Igatpuri on the GIP railway and later electric multiple rake commuter trains ran up to Virar on the BB&CI railway.

Centre of national life

Kalbadevi Road - Glimpse of Mumbai circa 1890.

The Fort (downtown) area in Bombay derives its name from the fact that the area fell within the former walled city, of which only a small fragment survives as part of the eastern boundary wall of the St. George's Hospital. In 1813 there were 10,801 persons living in the fort, 5,464, or nearly 50%, of them Parsis. With the growth of the city more people came from the Fort to such suburbs as Byculla, Parel, Malabar Hill, and Mazagaon. European sports clubs for cricket and other games came in to existence early in the 19th century. The Bombay Gymkhana was formed in 1875 exclusively for Europeans. Other communities followed this example, and various Parsi, Muslim, and Hindu gymkhanas were started with fierce sports competitions among them being organized on a communal basis, such as the Bombay Quadrangular. Mumbai became one of the few citis in the world to include a large national park within its limits, and the Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883.

Mumbai's premier educational institutions, thriving economy and burgeoning activity in politics, government and law made it a vibrant centre of cultural, commercial and political activities, becoming a rival to the capital Kolkata. In 1885, Indian intellectual, professional and political leaders convened in the city to form the Indian National Congress, which would become the nation's largest political party and spearhead the Indian independence movement. The city was filled with wealthy barristers, industrialists, merchants, lawyers and artists, as well as by their younger contemporaries who aspired for exposure to the world. Mumbai became an access point for thousands of Indians travelling to study in different universities across Europe, most of whom would settle in the city upon return. Eminent city personalities of the time included Dadabhai Naoroji, Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, Sir Cowasji Jehangir, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bal Gangadhar Tilak as well as sportsmen Vijay Merchant and Palwankar Baloo. English was the lingua franca of these prominent and educated classes of '"Bombayites. Cultural activities including a vibrant opera and theatre circuit, and an emerging film industry that produced works in many languages and included filmmakers and artists such as Dadasaheb Phalke, Noor Jehan and Dilip Kumar. On October 15, 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. Tata pioneered civil aviation in India by flying a plane from Karachi to Mumbai, landing on a grass strip where the Juhu Aerodrome would be founded.

Bombay in 1909

But a vast majority of Mumbai's population lived in crowded shanty towns and slums. Mostly migrants from other parts of India, they struggled against poverty, diseases, malnutrition, illiteracy and unemployment on daily basis. While a majority of them were of Maratha background and spoke Marathi, Hindi was fast becoming the lingua franca of the city's lower and middle classes who hailed from southern, eastern and northern regions of India. Sizable communities spoke Tamil, Bengali, Sindhi and Punjabi. Urdu was the common medium used by the city's Muslims, and the large Gujarati community, which formed the bulk of the city's mercantile and business class used Gujarati. The city's sudden and rapid expansion spawned new professional classes – tens of thousands of people were employed as dabbawalas, delivering food tiffins to working people across the city. Thousands of men worked as porters and labourers on the construction of hundreds of roads and buildings. Both men and women filled the large, new servant class that performed the chores of cooking food, cleaning and looking after the families. Small but significant migrant communities came to work, study and live in the city from Iran, Afghanistan, Burma, Africa and different parts of the British Empire.

Following World War I, which had seen large movements of troops, supplies, arms and industrial goods to and from Mumbai, the city became a strong base of nationalist activities. City life was shut down many times during the Non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922, and again during the Salt satyagraha in the early 1930s. Hundreds of thousands of people participated in protests and strikes across the city, and a large number of political organizations and trade unions were established. Mumbai became home to a large number of publications companies churning out newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets in almost every Indian language. With World War II, the movements of thousands of troops, military and industrial goods and the fleet of the Royal Indian Navy made Mumbai an important military base for the battles being fought in West Asia and South East Asia. The climactic Quit India rebellion was promulgated on August 7, 1942 by the Congress Party in a public meeting at Gowalia Tank, where an estimated one million people congregated to listen to the message and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad and other leaders. Mumbai was the scene of the most intense rebellion, with the city paralyzed by strikes, protests and frequent acts of violence and industrial sabotage, prompting the imposition of martial law. Large numbers of people were arrested and hundreds of people were killed in police firings. The Bombay Mutiny of 1946 marked the first and most serious revolt by the Indian military personnel of the Western naval fleet against British rule. The partition of India accompanied independence on August 15, 1947 and caused intense violence between Hindus and Muslims, leaving tens of thousands of people dead.

Post-independence

Mumbai was one of the most progressive cities in independent India. The city was the centre of domestic and international trade, modern industries and home to a large pool of educated, skilled workers. The flow of migrants from different parts of India increased significantly, and the city population grew exponentially. City limits expanded with the incorporation of suburbs from the northern parts of Salsette Island. The Borivali National Park was expanded and large areas of wetlands were issued protection. The long-standing fishing villages dating back to the Koli peoples were given special status and their habitat was protected.

In 1995, the newly-elected Shiv Sena-led government would rename the city Mumbai and embark on renaming all roads and public institutions known by colonial-era names. The Victoria Terminus was renamed the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, after the legendary Marathi king and hero. The airport was named the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, and the VJTI was renamed after Shivaji's mother Jijabai, also a popular historical figure and heroine, as the Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute. Many citizens, journalists and political observers assailed these renaming as exploitation of nationalist sentiments.

Economic growth

Since independence, Mumbai has seen an exponential growth and diversification of service industries, from tourism, hoteling, cuisine and catering to information technology, telecommunications, finance, banking and commercial trading sectors. India's two largest stock markets, the BSE and the National Stock Exchange play a central role in the city's economic life, employing thousands of brokers, analysts and investors and attracting aspiring entrepreneurs and large corporations across the nation and the world. Mumbai has especially benefited from the liberalisation of the economy in the early 1990s, which resulted in a feverish growth for banking, finance, trading and investment sectors.

Mumbai's burgeoning population growth has made real estate and construction the fastest-growing and intensely competitive industries in the city. Mills and factories that characterized Mumbai's industrial economy were gradually relocated from the city owing to rising costs, unproductivity, militant trade unionist activities and concerns of pollution. In the 1990s, a sister township of Navi Mumbai was founded across Thane to help ease the overpopulation of Mumbai and relocate many of the city industries, and the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust was founded in Nahva Sheva to ease the increasing loads of the Mumbai harbour and docks. At the same time, the presence of scientific and high technology industries has increased manifold.

Cultural expansion

Modern educational institutions such as the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay were established and the University of Bombay was expanded to provide greater opportunities to young Indians. Mumbai's school system includes a large number of private institutions, considered of high national and international quality. The city attacts a large number of tourists from different parts of India and across the world, attracted to its vibrant cultural and commercial life, islands, beaches and seashores.

The Hindi film industry, popularly nicknamed "Bollywood", expanded exponentially in popularity and productivity after independence. Tens of thousands of aspiring artists flood into the city, hoping to work in film and television productions. Most Indian film actors, filmmakers, singers, musicians, celebrities and most of the technical staff of the industry are based in the city, along with most of the studios and production companies. India's theatre and television industry is also largely based in the city, including broadcasting and production companies of different languages and regions. This diverse entertainment industry is accompanied by the intensive presence of the media, cable networks, cinemas, auditoriums and a robust fashion industry. Mumbai's cultural life has over the years attracted increasing numbers of performing artists from foreign countries.

Modern challenges

Mumbai's cultural and socio-economic diversity has also spawned serious challenges of violence. The License Raj and intensive restrictions on imports gave rise to a sprawling smuggling network, shipping illegal goods from the Middle East and European countries. The city witnessed sectarian violence in the 1950s, when the city was included in the new state of Maharashtra, created on May 1, 1960. Intermittent incidents of religious and political violence occurred throughout the 1960s, and large-scale industrial strikes were frequently organized by militant trade unions. In the 1960s and 1970s, tensions between the local Marathi communities and migrant communities from southern and northern India provoked hostility from political parties such as the Shiv Sena and led to incidents of violence. The city's economy was paralyzed when trade unionist Dutta Samant led close to 300,000 mill workers on a year-long strike in 1982, causing the exodus of the historic textile mill industry from the city. Mumbai's prominent status and importance to national life has made it a target of extremists and terorists. In December 1992, hundreds of people were killed and the city paralyzed by religious violence caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. In 1993, serial bomb blasts killed more than 250 people and damaged the Bombay Stock Exchange; these were believed to be orchestrated by mafia don Dawood Ibrahim in retaliation for the mosque demolition. Similar bombings occurred in 1998, and on July 11, 2006 close to 200 people were killed in 7 bomb blasts that targeted key railway stations across the city. Political and religious extremist groups have frequently clashed in numerous incidents of violence, with rival political parties frequently calling for bandhs (shutdowns) in response to controversial events. Several acts disparaging Dalit political leader Dr. B. R. Ambedkar led to sectarian strife in the 1990s.

Although smuggling was reduced considerably by the 1990s, city life was characterized by criminal networks engaging in rampant extortion, arms, drugs and human trafficking, kidnapping and homicides. The Mumbai police under commissioner Julio Ribero launched intensive operations to crush organized crime, but was also criticized for using controversial tactics such as extra-judicial killings. The volatile and often-bloody events marking underworld activities have entered into popular culture, being the subject of successful films, documentaries and literature. Police and local government officials and politicians are frequently assailed for entrenched corruption. Large and mostly illegal slum settlements, illicit constructions and property disputes are common and serious problems faced by the city.

References

• Fox, Edmund A; Short History of Bombay Presidency (1887) — Thacker & Co — No ISBN
• Chaudhari, K.K; History of Bombay (1987) — Modern Period Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of Maharashtra
• Mohandas Gandhi; An Autobiography or the Story of My Experiments with Truth (1929)
• Rajmohan Gandhi; Patel: A Life (1992)

Further reading

• MacLean, James Mackenzie; A Guide to Bombay (1875 & 1902) — Various editions; No ISBN
• Tindall, Gillian; City of Gold (1992) — Penguin ISBN 0-14-009500-4
• Mehta, Suketu ; Maximum City : Bombay Lost and Found (2004) — Knopf ISBN 0-375-40372-8
• Patel, Sujata & Thorner, Alice; Bombay, Metaphor for Modern India (1995) — Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-563688-0
• Katiyar, Arun & Bhojani, Namas; Bombay, A Contemporary Account (1996) — Harper Collins ISBN 81-7223-216-0
• Contractor, Behram; From Bombay to Mumbai (1998) — Oriana Books
• Virani, Pinki; Once was Bombay (1999) — Viking ISBN 0-670-88869-9
• Mappls — Satellite based comprehensive maps of Mumbai (1999) — CE Info Systems Ltd. ISBN 81-901108-0-2
• Agarwal, Jagdish; Bombay - Mumbai: A Picture Book (1998) — Wilco Publishing House ISBN 81-87288-35-3

External links

• Portuguese India history:The Northern Province:Vasai(Baçaim),Bombay(Bombaim, Mumbai),Chaul(Revadanda),Damao,Thana,Caranja
• History of Bombay
• Detailed history of Bombay
• Official site of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
• The Mumbai Pages: The complete guide to the city of Mumbai (Bombay) from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
• Official city report
• Places and Pictures around Mumbai
• Mumbai Net
  • Bombay: history of a city - a learning resource from the British Library