SARS-CoV-2 vaccine

A SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (also SARS-Coronavirus-2 vaccine or COVID-19 vaccine ) is a vaccine against the SARS-CoV-2 virus . The aim of vaccine development is to generate an adaptive immune response in vaccinated persons through vaccination , which protects against the disease COVID-19 caused by the virus or against infection itself.

properties

According to an assessment by the World Health Organization (WHO) from February 2020, no SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (synonymous with COVID-19 vaccine) will be available before August 2021. A group of vaccine developers coordinated by the WHO asked the public in an open letter to abide by the measures to limit the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in order to gain time for vaccine development.

The WHO recorded 41 vaccines on March 13, 2020, 60 vaccines in development on April 4, and 167 vaccines in development on August 13. On March 16, 2020, a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (called mRNA-1273) was tested on 45 people for the first time. The drug safety and vaccine efficacy must be clarified for the vaccine candidates . Between 2006 and 2015, the US drug approval success rate for biologics (including vaccines) after completing the required Phase I to III clinical trials was 11.5%. Each of the different approaches to developing a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine has advantages and disadvantages, and it is impossible to predict which approach will be faster or more successful.

Various conspiracy theories claim that SARS-CoV-2 was known before the outbreak and that a vaccine existed - but the patents mentioned deal with SARS-CoV, among other things.

immunology

The central antigens of SARS-CoV-2 in vaccine development are two proteins of the virus envelope , the S- glycoprotein (the viral docking protein on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2) and the membrane protein (M) and the nucleocapsid protein inside the virus. Neutralizing antibodies have been described against two proteins of the virus envelope (S-glycoprotein and membrane protein) of the SARS-CoV . Neutralizing antibodies against the S-glycoprotein are mainly responsible for protection against infection by SARS or MERS-CoV, but the cause of protection is probably dependent on the type of vaccine, the antigens used, the animal models and the form of administration . Conserved epitopes have been identified in the S-glycoprotein and in the nucleocapsid protein, which could be useful for broad-spectrum vaccines. There is cross-reactivity in mice of neutralizing antibodies against the S-glycoprotein, which inhibit the cell entry of both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Both SARS-associated viruses use the same receptor for cell entry, ACE2 , while MERS-CoV uses CD26 . In March 2020, there were no monoclonal antibodies against the receptor-binding protein domain (RBD) of the S-glycoprotein of SARS-CoV that showed any significant binding affinity for SARS-CoV-2. In the S-glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2, 13 epitopes were identified for MHC I (generate a cellular immune response ) and 3 for MHC II (generate a humoral immune response ).

A problem in vaccine development is the high mutation rate of some RNA viruses , which means that the vaccine, as with the influenza vaccine, has to be continuously adapted to the changing circulating virus strains or only covers part of the circulating virus strains. The receptor-binding protein domain of the S-glycoprotein (as an antigen for generating neutralizing antibodies) is the most variable part of SARS-CoV-2. Another problem is that in SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, infection-enhancing antibodies (against proteins in the virus envelope) have been described, which are undesirable and can be suspected in SARS-CoV-2. To avoid infection-intensifying antibodies against the S-glycoprotein, immunization can presumably be carried out with shortened variants, such as the RBD or the S1 subunit of the S-glycoprotein. A third problem is that in a vaccine against SARS-CoV immunopathogenesis of the alveoli by the migration of eosinophils and type 2 T-helper cells was observed, which can be suspected in SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. The immunopathogenesis could be avoided in a SARS-CoV vaccine by adding a certain adjuvant (a delta- inulin- based polysaccharide ). Therefore, criteria for vaccine development of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are minimization of undesirable immune reactions , suitability for vaccinating adult employees in the health care system , suitability for vaccination of people with risk factors (people over 60 years of age or with diabetes mellitus or high blood pressure ) and suitability for storage.

See also : RNA vaccine , coronavirus vaccine , and DNA vaccination

SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates

Vaccine class	Type	developer	progress	Study participants	Platform for other vaccines
RNA	Liposome -umhüllte mRNA	Moderna NIAID	Phase 3	Phase 3: 30,000	various
Inactivated virus	with adjuvant (aluminum salt)	Sinovac	Phase 3	Phase 3: 8,870	SARS-CoV
Inactivated virus		Beijing Institute of Biological Products Wuhan Institute of Biological Products	Phase 3	Phase 3: 15,000
Non-replicating viral vector	Combined two-component vector vaccine, based on human adenoviruses (type 5, type 26)	Gamaleja Institute for Epidemiology and Microbiology	Registration in Russia in August 2020; Phase 3 in planning	Phase 1/2: 38 Phase 3: 40,000
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus type 5 vector	CanSino Biologics Beijing Institute of Biotechnology	Phase 3	Phase 3: 40,000	Ebola virus
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus (Ad26), alone or with MVA-Boost, applied nasally	Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies	Phase 3	Phase 3: 60,000	Ebola virus, HIV, RSV
Non-replicating viral vector	Modified Chimpanzee Adenovirus (ChAdOx1 vector, tentative name AZD1222)	University of Oxford AstraZeneca	Phase 2/3	Phase 1/2: 1,112 in the UK Phase 2/3: 10,000 UK, 30,000 USA, 2,000 in Brazil	MERS-CoV , influenza virus , tubercle bacillus , Chikungunya virus , Zika virus , meningococcal B, plague bacterium
RNA	Liposome-enveloped mRNA	BioNTech Fosun Pharma Pfizer	Phase 2/3	Phase 2/3: 30,000
DNA	Plasmid with electroporation	Inovio Pharmaceuticals	Phase 1/2 in South Korea Phase 1 in the USA		Lassa Virus , Nipah Virus , HIV , Filovirus , HPV , Cancer , Zika Virus, Hepatitis B Virus
RNA	Liposome-enveloped self-amplifying RNA, RNA coding for VEEV - replicase and antigen	Imperial College London	Phase 1	320	Ebola virus, Lassa virus, Marburg virus, Influenza A virus H7N9, rabies virus
protein	Baculovirus vector S-glycoprotein in insect cell culture	Sanofi Pasteur GlaxoSmithKline	Phase 1/2		Influenza virus, SARS-CoV
Non-replicating viral vector	Lentiviral vector in dendritic cells by adoptive cell transfer	Shenzhen Geno-Immune Medical Institute	Phase 1
Non-replicating viral vector	Lentiviral vector in antigen presenting cells by adoptive cell transfer	Shenzhen Geno-Immune Medical Institute	Phase 1
protein	S-glycoprotein trimer as nanoparticles with matrix M	Novavax	Phase 1		RSV, Crimean-Congo fever , HPV, varicella-zoster virus , Ebola virus
DNA	S-glycoprotein-coding plasmid in Bifidobacterium longum , administered orally	Symvivo Corporation University of British Columbia Dalhousie University	Phase 1
RNA	Liposome-enveloped mRNA	Curevac	Phase 1	168	Rabies Virus, Lassa Virus, Yellow Fever Virus , MERS-CoV, Influenza A Virus, Zika Virus, Dengue Virus, Nipah Virus
DNA		Genexine	Phase 1	40
protein	S-glycoprotein trimer	Clover Biopharmaceuticals GlaxoSmithKline Dynavax Technologies	Phase 1	150	HIV, reticuloendotheliosis virus , influenza virus
DNA	DNA with electroporation	Karolinska Institute Cobra Biologics (OPENCORONA Consortium)	Preclinical
DNA	Plasmid	Osaka University AnGes Takara Bio	Preclinical
DNA	Linear DNA by PCR	Takis Applied DNA Sciences Evvivax	Preclinical
DNA	Plasmid, needle-free	Immunomic Therapeutics EpiVax PharmaJet	Preclinical		SARS-CoV
DNA	Plasmid	Zydus Cadila	Preclinical
DNA		BioNet Asia	Preclinical
DNA		University of Waterloo	Preclinical
Inactivated virus		Osaka University BIKEN NIBIOHN	Preclinical
Inactivated virus	with adjuvant CpG oligonucleotide 1018	Sinovac Dynavax Technologies	Preclinical
Inactivated virus	with adjuvant CpG oligonucleotide 1018	Valneva Dynavax Technologies	Preclinical
Attenuated virus	multiple attenuated virus	Codagenix Serum Institute of India	Preclinical		Hepatitis A virus , influenza A virus , Zika virus, foot and mouth disease , SIV , RSV , dengue virus
Non-replicating viral vector	MVA -coded virus-like particle	GeoVax BravoVax	Preclinical		Lassa virus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus , HIV
Non-replicating viral vector	Simian immunodeficiency virus (GRAd) with S-glycoprotein	ReiThera	Preclinical
Non-replicating viral vector	MVA-S encoded	German Center for Infection Research	Preclinical		various
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus-based NasoVAX, applied nasally	Altimmune	Preclinical		Influenza virus
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus (Ad5 S) (GREVAX platform)	Greffex	Preclinical		MERS-CoV
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus (Ad5 S)	Stabilitech Biopharma	Preclinical
Non-replicating viral vector	Adenovirus (Ad5) with antigen and TLR3 agonist , applied orally	Vaxart	Preclinical		Influenza A virus, Chikungunya virus, Lassa virus, norovirus , Ebola virus, Rift Valley fever virus, hepatitis B virus, VEE virus
Non-replicating viral vector	MVA	Centro Nacional Biotecnología	Preclinical		Various
Non-replicating viral vector	in dendritic cells by adoptive cell transfer	University of Manitoba	Preclinical
Non-replicating viral vector	Parainfluenza virus 5 with S-glycoprotein	University of Georgia University of Iowa	Preclinical		MERS-CoV
protein	Capsid- like particle	AdaptVac (PREVENT-nCoV consortium)	Preclinical
protein	Virus-like particles from Drosophila S2 insect cell culture	ExpreS2ion	Preclinical
protein	Peptides in liposomes	IMV	Preclinical
protein	S-glycoprotein	WRAIR USAMRIID	Preclinical
protein	S-glycoprotein with adjuvant	National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Japan	Preclinical		Influenza virus
protein	Virus-like particle with adjuvant	Osaka University BIKEN National Institute of Biomedical Innovation	Preclinical
protein	S-glycoprotein with microneedles	University of Pittsburgh	Preclinical		MERS-CoV
protein	peptide	Vaxil Bio	Preclinical
protein	Receptor-binding protein domain with adjuvant	Biological E Ltd.	Preclinical
protein	peptide	Flow Pharma Inc.	Preclinical		Ebola virus, Marburg virus, HIV, Zika virus, influenza virus, HPV, breast cancer
protein	S-glycoprotein	AJ Vaccines	Preclinical
protein	Peptide on MHC class II complex (Ii-key peptide)	Generex EpiVax	Preclinical		Influenza virus, HIV, SARS-CoV
protein	S-glycoprotein	Epivax University of Georgia	Preclinical		Influenza A virus H7N9
protein	gp-96 - fusion protein	Heat Biologics University of Miami	Preclinical		NSCLC , HIV, malaria , Zika virus
protein	S-glycoprotein bracket	University of Queensland GlaxoSmithKline Dynavax Technologies	Preclinical		Nipah virus, influenza virus, ebola virus, Lassa virus
protein	Peptides	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical		Ebola virus
protein	Subunit vaccine	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical
protein	S1 or RBD protein	Baylor College of Medicine	Preclinical		SARS-CoV
protein	Lichenase fusion protein from transgenic plants	iBio CC Pharming	Preclinical
protein	Virus-like particle with S-glycoprotein and other epitopes	Saint Petersburg Research Institute for Vaccines and Serums	Preclinical
protein	Abbreviated S-glycoprotein	Innovax Xiamen GlaxoSmithKline	Preclinical		HPV
protein	Peptide with adjuvant	VIDO-InterVac University of Saskatchewan	Preclinical
protein	S-glycoprotein and M-protein peptides	OncoGen	Preclinical
protein	E. coli with S-glycoprotein and nucleocapsid protein, administered orally	MIGAL Galilee Research Institute	Preclinical
protein	recombinant S-glycoprotein with adjuvant (Advax)	Vaxine Pty	Preclinical
protein	based on S-glycoprotein	University of Alberta	Preclinical		Hepatitis C virus
Replicating viral vector	Measles virus vector	Zydus Cadila	Preclinical
Replicating viral vector	Measles Virus Vector	Pasteur Institute Themis Bioscience University of Pittsburgh	Preclinical		West Nile Virus , Chikungunya Virus , Ebola Virus, Lassa Virus, Zika Virus
Replicating viral vector	Measles Virus Vector	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical
Attenuated virus	Measles virus vector with S-glycoprotein and nucleocapsid protein	German Center for Infection Research	Preclinical		Zika virus, Influenza A virus H7N9, Chikungunya virus
Replicating viral vector	Horsepox virus vector with S-glycoprotein	Tonix Pharmaceuticals Southern Research	Preclinical		Smallpox virus , monkey pox virus
Replicating viral vector	Attenuated influenza virus vector	BiOCAD IEM	Preclinical
Replicating viral vector	modified influenza virus, applied nasally	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical
Replicating viral vector	modified influenza virus with RBD, applied nasally	Hong Kong University	Preclinical
Replicating viral vector	VSV vector with S-glycoprotein	IAVI Batavia	Preclinical		Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa virus
Replicating viral vector	VSV vector with S-glycoprotein	University of Western Ontario	Preclinical		HIV, MERS-CoV
Replicating viral vector	VSV vector	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical
RNA	Liposome -umhüllte VLP -encoding mRNA mixture	Fudan University Jiaotong University Shanghai RNACure Biopharma	Preclinical
RNA	Liposome-enveloped RBD mRNA	Fudan University Jiaotong University Shanghai RNACure Biopharma	Preclinical
RNA		Centro Nacional Biotecnología	Preclinical
RNA	Liposome-enveloped mRNA	Tokyo Daiichi Sankyō University	Preclinical		MERS-CoV
RNA	Liposome-enveloped mRNA	BIOCAD	Preclinical
RNA	mRNA	FBRI SRC VB VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Kolzowo	Preclinical
RNA	mRNA	China CDC Tongji University Stermina	Preclinical
RNA	Liposome-enveloped self-replicating RNA	Arcturus Therapeutics Duke-NUS	Preclinical		various
RNA	mRNA, applied intranasally	eTheRNA	Preclinical
Virus-like particle	Virus-like particle with RBD	Saiba	Preclinical
Virus-like particle	Virus-like particle of SARS-CoV-2 from transgenic tobacco plants	Medicago	Preclinical		Influenza virus, rotavirus , norovirus, West Nile virus, cancer
Virus-like particle	ADDomerTM	Imophoron Ltd. University of Bristol	Preclinical
Virus-like particle		Doherty Institute	Preclinical
Virus-like particle		Osivax	Preclinical		SARS-CoV
Unknown	Unknown	ImmunoPrecise Antibodies	Preclinical
Unknown	Unknown	Tulane University	Preclinical
Unknown	Unknown	Laval University	Preclinical
Avian coronavirus	modified infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)	MIGAL Galilee Research Institute	Preclinical
Non-replicating viral vector	Orf Virus - vector-based, polyvalent vaccine with multiple antigens	Prime Vector Technologies	Preclinical		Infectious agents, cancer
Unknown	Unknown	Alpha-O peptides	Preclinical
mRNA / DNA based	mRNA / DNA based	Translate Bio Sanofi	Preclinical
Dead vaccine	Inactivated vaccine with genetically engineered antigens (produced in tobacco)	Kentucky BioProcessing	Preclinical
Unknown	Unknown	Sorrento Therapeutics	Preclinical

SARS-CoV-2 vaccine developer

The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention , the University of Hong Kong (nasally applied), the Shanghai East Hospital and various other universities such as Washington University in St. Louis are currently developing . Six vaccine developers were supported by the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) in March 2020 , including Curevac , Moderna (together with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ), Inovio Pharmaceuticals (together with the Wistar Institute and Beijing Advaccine Biotechnology ), which University of Queensland (together with adjuvant manufacturer Dynavax ), the University of Oxford and Novavax . In early March 2020, CEPI announced the provision of $ 2 billion to develop SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, funded by various public and private organizations including Germany, Denmark, Finland, the UK and Norway. In early March 2020, it was reported that the first phase 1 clinical trials of a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine from biotechnology company Moderna were expected to begin soon.

Europe

In Germany, Curevac is developing an RNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. BioNTech also developed an RNA vaccine that was further developed in cooperation with Pfizer and Fosun Pharma and received approval from the Paul Ehrlich Institute for clinical testing in Germany in April 2020 . There are also two projects of the German Center for Infection Research (DZIF) with partners in Munich, Marburg and Hamburg. IDT Biologika , based in Dessau (Saxony-Anhalt), is developing a vector-based vaccine.

A vaccine is being developed in Sweden by the Opencorona consortium led by the Karolinska Institute . In Denmark, the company Expres ² ion is developing a vaccine with partners. Bulgarian biotechnology company Mirka21 has developed a general coronavirus vaccine for the past four years and announced that it will begin clinical trials for a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in mid-2020. The UK universities of Oxford and Cambridge are developing vaccines.

Asia

In Israel there is a project of the Biological Research Institute , as well as another development by Vaxil . The Galilee Research Institute (MIGAL) is also developing a vaccine. The Indian companies Zydus Cadila and the Serum Institute of India (in cooperation with the US company Codagenix ) develop vaccines. In India, the Indian Ministry of Health's National Institute of Virology announced on March 12, 2020 that it had successfully isolated 11 strains of the coronavirus and that even on a fast track it would take at least a year and a half to two years to develop a vaccine. Of the more than 100 clinical studies on SARS-CoV-2 ongoing in China in February 2020, around 15% are on vaccines. Clover Biopharmaceuticals makes an adjuvant protein vaccine from GlaxoSmithKline .

America

The United States of America is partnering with Moderna to manufacture an RNA vaccine against the coronavirus peplomer , for which clinical trials began in May 2020. Inovio Pharmaceuticals is developing a DNA vaccine in collaboration with a Chinese company and is planning clinical trials in mid-2020. In February, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) of the US Department of Health announced that it would work with Janssen and later with Sanofi , to develop a vaccine. Sanofi has already worked on a DNA vaccine for SARS and said it could expect a vaccine candidate within six months and be ready for clinical trials within 12 to 18 months. On February 26, 2020, a representative from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) said it would take "at least a year to a year and a half" to develop a vaccine against the coronavirus. Janssen Pharmaceutica (a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson ) began vaccine development in January 2020 , using the same technologies as their experimental Ebola vaccine . Janssen is developing an oral vaccine together with its biotechnology partner Vaxart. Emergent Biosolutions worked with Novavax Inc. to develop and manufacture a vaccine. Emergent will manufacture a vaccine at one of its manufacturing facilities in Maryland based on technology developed by Novavax. The two companies are planning preclinical tests and a phase 1 clinical trial by July 2020. Emergent applied to the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) to be selected for the project. Emergent is also developing a treatment to be obtained from the blood plasma of those who have recovered from COVID-19. Furthermore Tonix Pharmaceuticals develop (based on a horse pox virus ), Altimmune (nasal applied) Greffex, GeoVax (with BravoVax in China) and LineaRx with Takis biotech vaccines. The US Army is developing a vaccine at the US Army Medical Research and Development Command (USAMRDC) with the Walter Reed Army Institute . In Canada, the University of Saskatchewan's Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization - International Vaccine Center (VIDO-InterVac) has received federal funding to work on a vaccine that is slated to begin animal testing in March 2020 and human testing in 2021.

Australia

In Australia, the University of Queensland is investigating the potential of a vaccine containing genetically modified viral proteins to increase an immune response.

Russia

On August 1, 2020, according to media reports, Russian Health Minister Mikhail Murashko announced the completion of clinical trials of the COVID-19 vaccine developed by the Gamaleja Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology in Moscow. The vaccine ("Gam-COVID-Vac", Cyrillic : Гам-КОВИД-Вак) was "registered" by the state in Russia on August 11, 2020. A phase 3 study , which serves to determine the effectiveness and safety of the drug and is the prerequisite for approval, had not yet started at this time. According to the FAZ , it is planned to start vaccinating the Russian population in October. The Pharmaceutical newspaper informed with reference to the Russian register of medicinal products that it constitutes an emergency admission, not a "regular" approval, the ARD-Tagesschau cleared up that allowing for a simplified procedure was carried out, which in emergency situations and security could be used. The Ärzteblatt reported that, according to Russian authorities, individual population groups, including teachers and doctors, should first be vaccinated in August or September, while the third test phase should run in parallel with around 2,000 volunteers. According to Russian agencies, a large-scale market launch is planned from January 1, 2021. In the first two completed phases, the vaccination was only tested on 38 people, according to the researchers. Skipping the third phase sparked sharp criticism, according to the President of the German Medical Association, Klaus Reinhardt, regarding the approval at this stage as "a high-risk experiment". According to a report by Reuters, 52 percent of 3,040 Russian doctors and other health professionals said in a survey that they did not want to be vaccinated. The reason is the lack of sufficient data in connection with the rapid approval of the vaccine.

Based on Sputnik , the first satellite in space with which the Soviet Union won a race against the USA , the vaccine was nicknamed "Sputnik V" in Russia.

Debate on stress studies

In the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, it was proposed to shorten the duration of drug approval through exposure studies. A stress study consists of a vaccination followed by a targeted infection to check immunity and protection against infection and disease. Exposure studies have been carried out in various other infectious diseases in humans, such as influenza , typhoid , cholera and malaria . While exposure studies on humans are ethically problematic and their ethical aspects are generally poorly researched, this could reduce the number of COVID-19 deaths worldwide. Therefore, ethical guidelines for exposure studies in humans have been developed with regard to SARS-CoV-2. The clinical studies of phases II and III, which usually last several years, can be shortened to a few months through stress studies. After initial evidence of the drug safety and effectiveness of a vaccine candidate in animal experiments and then in healthy people (<100 people), exposure studies can be used to skip a phase III clinical study. Exposure studies in humans include vaccination and subsequent infection of previously uninfected, low-risk volunteers in comparison to a group similarly composed of placebo- vaccinated as a negative control . If necessary, patients are then monitored in clinics that have SARS-CoV-2 drugs ready for treatment.

Passive immunization

Until an approved active vaccine is available, antibody transfer from COVID-19 convalescents (in the form of passive immunization by transfusion of convalescent sera containing polyclonal antibodies against SARS-CoV-2) can provide short-term protection against infection and therapy offer in case of illness. In addition, various monoclonal antibodies are being developed, for example by AbCellera Biologics (from Canada) with Eli Lilly (from the USA), from Harbor Biomed (from China) with Mount Sinai Health System (from the USA), from ImmunoPrecise Antibodies (from Canada) and by Vir Biotechnology (from the USA) with WuXi (from China) and Biogen (from the USA).

Vaccination with VPM1002

Like BCG, the vaccine VPM1002, which is derived from the tuberculosis vaccine Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), is intended to strengthen the unspecific or innate immune system and thus alleviate the course of COVID-19 diseases and prevent severe COVID-19 courses.

Citizen Science

On February 27, the Citizen Science project Folding @ home announced that it would press ahead with vaccine development through the elucidation of the structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (the peplomer). Interested parties can use Folding @ home to make part of their computer power available for molecular modeling . About BOINC can also volunteer computing -projects Rosetta @ home , World Community Grid and TN grid SARS-CoV-2 proteins provide computing power for the elucidation of the structure of disposal. Furthermore, the experimental computer game Foldit offers those interested the opportunity to help scientists in the elucidation of SARS-CoV-2 proteins.

Worldwide access

The international Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator campaign is helping to ensure that tools against COVID-19, including vaccines, are developed more quickly and made available to all countries in a fair manner.

Web links

Commons : COVID-19 Vaccine Development  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

• Draft landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines , regularly updated WHO overview list of COVID-19 vaccine candidates
• Vaccines to protect against Covid-19 , the state of vaccine development compiled by the Association for Research into Pharmaceutical Manufacturers (vfa)
• How a vaccination works , description of the COVID-19 vaccine types on addendum.org

Individual evidence

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