Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio

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Posthumous portrait of Caravaggio by Ottavio Leoni, around 1614, Bibliotheca Marucelliana, Florence Caravaggio's signature

Michelangelo Merisi , also Michael Angelo Merigi, named Caravaggio [ karaˈvadd͡ʒo ] after the place of origin of his parents ( Caravaggio in Lombardy ) (born  September 29, 1571 in Milan ; †  July 18, 1610 in Porto Ercole on Monte Argentario ), was an important one Italian painter of the early baroque .

Caravaggio was characterized by his novel and realistic image design. Primarily in the treatment of Christian subjects he broke new ground by linking the sacred with the profane . His most important painterly innovation was the chiaroscuro , the light-dark painting, as a design element of the scenes. Together with Annibale Carracci, he is considered to be the overcomer of Mannerism and the founder of Roman baroque painting.

Caravaggio led an eventful life. After an apprenticeship with Simone Peterzano in Milan, he traveled to Rome, where he rose from a penniless artist to the preferred painter of the Roman cardinals . He was banished from Rome for manslaughter and settled in Naples and later Malta . In Malta he was made a Knight of the Order of Malta , but fled from there to Sicily after an argument and returned to Naples after a year. Waiting for his exile from Rome to be lifted, he died at the age of 38. Soon after his untimely death, legends were formed that made him the “ archetype of the wicked artist”. The "Myth of Caravaggio" has remained unbroken to this day.

He had a lasting influence on many Italian, Dutch, French, German and Spanish painters of his time, some of whom are also referred to as Caravaggists .

Life

Sources and legend

Portrait of Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte , Caravaggio's First Patron , by Ottavio Leoni
This detail from the Martyrdom of Matthew is interpreted as a self-portrait of the master (around 1600)

The sources of Michelangelo Merisi's life are extensive, but not yet fully explored. His first biographer was the Sienese doctor and art lover Giulio Mancini , who was friends with Caravaggio's first patron, Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte (1549–1627), and who had treated Caravaggio in his household. His notes, which he had completed in 1619, were never published during his lifetime, but they circulated in transcripts and were known to other biographers and art writers. Among them was Giovanni Baglione , an enemy and rival of Caravaggio, who, 32 years after his death, published a biography (1642) in which he portrayed his former opponent as an unpredictable character with distortions of facts and subtle defamations .

Caravaggio's biography (Le vite de 'pittori, scultori e architetti moderni), which was printed in Giovan Pietro Bellori's 1672, is also a tendentious text that says a lot about his work and his clients, but Caravaggio focuses on an idealizing, antiquity and Raphael measures declining art theory. For Boris von Brauchitsch he was “ stylized as the antipode of the beautiful, pure, divine Raphael ”.

None of the early biographers wrote about Caravaggio out of disinterested pleasure. Newer biographers rate them as unreliable sources, including the British art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon. Caravaggio's German biographer, Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, traces the “black legend” about Caravaggio back to these sources. She demystifies this legend on the basis of documents that have been brought to light by intensive archival research in recent decades. Caravaggio was undoubtedly involved in disputes, violent disputes and legal proceedings and was also imprisoned several times in Rome and Malta for insults, illicit possession of weapons and severe physical attacks, nevertheless, in the opinion of Ebert-Schifferer, his way of life was not unusual for the times in Italy . Graham-Dixon comes to a similar conclusion.

Such attacks were not socially outlawed, especially in circles of the nobility and among members of the middle class who orientated themselves towards them and strived for social advancement. Nevertheless, a myth of the violent, bisexual and promiscuous painter genius who violates all social conventions emerged, which is still widespread today . Derek Jarman's cult film Caravaggio from 1986 has given this artist legend a wider distribution. He interpreted Caravaggio "as an outsider of society [...] in whom he could recognize himself", as an outlaw "who does not allow himself to be restricted by any laws or conventions in his artistic or sexual freedoms". On the occasion of the Düsseldorf exhibition in 2006, the museum director Jean-Hubert Martin tried to revitalize the Caravaggio myth by inviting eight renowned writers (among them Henning Mankell and Ingrid Noll ) to write fictional short stories about the “rebellious character” of Caravaggio and his work to be inspired and "to bring the artist to life". The anthology bears the significant title painter, murderer, myth .

John the Baptist is portrayed as a naked youth in 1610

Caravaggio's sexual orientation was and is a frequent subject of rumors and legends. Partly from his subjects , partly from his lifestyle conclusions were about his homosexuality drawn and tendency to young men, but they were filled with sources that do not stand up to examination. Under source-critical aspects and with a historically informed view not settled Ebert-Schifferer According valid statements make about whether the sensual presence in his art is now "the expression of a homosexual personality" or a "left without saying" owe in his time. The Anglo-Saxon art historians Creight E. Gilbert and Helen Langdon similarly reject unambiguous statements regarding his sexual orientation in their Caravaggio biographies. Graham-Dixon suspects a bisexual tendency in his practiced sex life.

Origin, youth and teaching: Milan (1571–1592)

The youth is the least documented period of Caravaggio's life. He was the son of Fermo Merisi, a self-employed master mason from Caravaggio , a town near Bergamo , and his second wife Lucia Aratori, whose family owned small estates.

Caravaggio got its name after the Archangel Michael , whose name festival coincided with his date of birth. Michelangelo first grew up in Milan. The family returned to Caravaggio because of a plague epidemic in 1576. The father and an uncle probably died of this disease. At the age of 10 he became an orphan .

In 1584, thirteen-year-old Michelangelo began a four-year apprenticeship with the famous painter Simone Peterzano in Milan. Peterzano, according to his own admission, a student of Titian , worked for the high Milanese aristocracy . The family brought up the not inconsiderable hardship. According to Ebert-Schifferer, Caravaggio spent the first 21 years of his life in a “largely fatherless, but sheltered childhood and youth in a well-networked, solidarity family association of the middle class in a small town”.

Rise to Painter of Cardinals: Rome (1592–1606)

Boy with a Fruit Basket (1593/94), Museo Galleria “Borghese”, Rome
Little sick Bacchus (1593), Museo Galleria “Borghese”, Rome
The Lute Player (first version 1595/96), State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg

Whether Caravaggio made a stop in Venice on his trip to Rome is disputed, but not that he was familiar with Venetian painting, even through his teacher Peterzano, who had close ties there. It is more likely that he made a stop in Bologna , where the two brothers Agostino and Annibale Carracci and their cousin Ludovico Carracci first achieved fame for their revolutionary painting style.

In 1592 at the latest, he settled in Rome penniless. There he found accommodation with a prelate , Pandolfo Pucci, which, according to his early biographers, he soon left because of the modest and down-to-earth (frugal) meals. Presumably during a lengthy stay in hospital, he created the painting of a young man with a greenish skin color, with the modern title of Bacchus, who was ill as a little boy ( Bacchino malato 1593, Galleria Borghese , Rome). In the opinion of the experts, this youth, loosely draped in a shirt-like cloth, with ivy in his dark curls and grapes in his right hand is a self-portrait in mythological disguise.

He worked in various painting workshops, including in the studio of Giuseppe Cesari , the artist preferred by Pope Clement VIII . Initially responsible for flowers and fruits, he was able to learn in the workshop of his famous colleague, who was only three years his senior, "how to market your art and how to behave in an advancement-oriented manner". It was probably there that he also met Prospero Orsi , a colleague who specialized in painting grotesques and “who would develop into Caravaggio's most important advocate and his agent on the art market”.

In one of the workshops he made friends with the Sicilian Mario Minniti , who was six years his junior and who was also a painter. Their friendship lasted through the spatial separation until Caravaggio's death. He was also friends with the lawyer, poet and architect Onorio Longhi , a “doctor of both rights” and “rioter known to the police”.

After a few years Caravaggio went into business for himself and joined the brotherhood of painters. Prospero Orsi was very likely to help him. Not only did he provide him with accommodation in the palace of Monsignor Fantino Petrignani, which the latter had left to his nephew during a long absence from Rome; he also had his brother-in-law Gerolamo Vittrici, the papal deputy chamberlain , buy three paintings by Caravaggio. These paintings were the Gypsy woman reading the palm (1594, Louvre , Paris), the repentant Magdalena and rest on the flight into Egypt (both 1594, Galleria Doria Pamphilj , Rome). It was during this time that Caravaggio turned to sacred themes.

After the art-loving and influential Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte became aware of Caravaggio, he probably took him on as a member of the household (the famiglia ) in his Palazzo Madama at the end of 1595 . “This gave him board, lodging and, above all, a high level of protection , but was also allowed to work for other clients with the consent of the patron .” He lived in Del Monte's palace for about five years. He then found acceptance in the Palazzo Mattei, the household of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei and his brothers Ciriaco and Asdrubale.

The number of aristocrats and church dignitaries who commissioned pictures from him grew by leaps and bounds. Cardinal Scipione Borghese , the nepot of Pope Paul V and founder of Villa Borghese with the collection of paintings, Galleria Borghese, was one of them . Six of the 18 members of the Apostolic Chamber were among Caravaggio's clients. The music-loving Del Monte, who advocated the reform of church music, gave him commissions for paintings such as The Musicians (1595, Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York), in which Caravaggio is said to have portrayed himself as one of the four musicians, and for the lute player , of which two versions exist (1595/96, Hermitage , St. Petersburg - replica 1596, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). Del Monte's neighbor, the banker Vincenzo Giustiniani , ordered the first version with a masterful still life of flowers and fruits , from whom Del Monte then received a replica from Caravaggio's hand. The Del Montes estate also contained the painting of St. Catherine (1597/1598, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza , Madrid), which the cardinal particularly venerated. Caravaggio portrayed the martyr in splendid robes and unspoiled beauty.

The Last Supper at Emmaus (1601), National Gallery , London

The aristocratic collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei , who was a friend of Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte , gave the Lord's Supper in Emmaus (1601, National Gallery, London ), John the Baptist with the Aries ( 1602, Capitoline Museums , Rome) and the Capture of Christ (1602, National Gallery of Ireland , Dublin). The version of the latter painting, stolen from the Odessa Museum in 2008 and seized in 2010, is, according to the experts, a contemporary copy.

The commissions for two funeral chapels (Cappella Contarelli in the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi and Cappella Cerasi in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo ) [see below: “Commissions for Roman Churches”] made his style known to a wider audience. The resulting fame brought him new orders and contacts with the wealthy and established his status as one of the city's leading painters.

The Seven Works of Mercy (1606/07), Naples, Pio Monte della Misericordia

Caravaggio's involvement in a violent confrontation with manslaughter led him to flee Rome in 1606. During a street festival on the anniversary of the papal election of Paul V on May 28, 1606, he got into a quarrel with Onorio Longhi, in which he wounded Ranuccio Tomassoni, son of the commander of Castel Sant'Angelo , which serves as a state prison , so seriously with a sword cut , that this died shortly afterwards. Caravaggio was initially only a minor character in relation to the cause of the dispute, because he only wanted to support his friend Longhi in the dispute between Longhi and the Tommasoni. The dispute with the fatal outcome was based on an older dispute, about the causes of which, however, the sources make different statements. All those involved in the violent dispute were searched for by arrest warrant, convicted and banished into exile. Since neither investigation files nor judgments have been preserved, the exact sentences are unknown. After Graham Dixon, Caravaggio met the heaviest punishment: In a public announcement (Avvisi of May 31, 1606) he was banished indefinitely from Rome and, as a convicted murderer, was awarded the "bando capitale", which said that everyone from the papal states would kill him with impunity could.

Favorite of the Neapolitan nobility: Naples (1606–1607)

The Flagellation of Christ (1607)

Caravaggio himself had been seriously injured in the sword fight. After his wounds had been taken care of, he packed the most necessary utensils in his accommodation and went with his young assistant Cecco to the neighboring palace of the Colonna family, who protected him . The next morning he fled in their carriage to the Principality of Paliano , south of Rome , which was ruled by the Colonna family.

In the autumn of 1606 he moved on to the Spanish kingdom of Naples , where the exile from Rome became "within a few months [...] the most famous and productive artist in Naples". The Neapolitan nobility commissioned him with the altar painting Seven Works of Mercy (1606/07) for the Pio Monte della Misericordia , the leading charitable association in Naples. He received other well-paid commissions from wealthy upstarts and from the viceroy himself. The rich and later ennobled Tommaso de Franchis acquired the flagellation of Christ from him (1607, Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte , Naples). According to Graham-Dixon, the two paintings experienced "stunned admiration" and changed Neapolitan painting overnight.

Knights of the Order of Malta: Malta and Sicily (1607–1608)

Caravaggio left Naples after about ten months. On June 25, 1607, he boarded a galley belonging to his patron family, Colonna, who brought him to Malta , where he was accepted as a celebrated artist and on July 14, 1608, he became a Knight of the Order of Malta . The order was under the Vatican, while the island was a Spanish fief. Caravaggio had prepared the friendly reception presumably with picture gifts to high-ranking personalities. Nevertheless, his acceptance into the order required a special permit from the Pope.

The beheading of John the Baptist (1608)

His main work during his stay in Malta was the monumental painting The Beheading of John the Baptist (1608, Oratory of the Basilica San Giovanni, Valletta ), his work with the largest format. When the painting was unveiled, Caravaggio was in jail for having been involved in a riot involving the injury of a knight. Without waiting for the proceedings to be completed, he escaped from prison on October 6, 1608. Because he left the island contrary to the statutes, he was expelled from the order on December 1, 1608.

Caravaggio fled to Sicily , where his friend from earlier years, Mario Minniti, lived. Here he stayed for about a year in various cities, including Syracuse and Messina . In Syracuse he left the altar painting Burial of St. Lucia (1608, Santa Lucia al Sepolcro, Syracuse) and in Messina The Raising of Lazarus (1609, Museo Regionale di Messina ).

Last Years: Waiting for Pardon and Early Death (1608–1610)

The Martyrdom of St. Ursula from 1610 is one of the last works of Caravaggio

After almost a year, he left Sicily and initially settled in Naples again, where he again worked for high-ranking clients. He painted The Martyrdom of St. Ursula for Prince Marcantonio Doria (1610, Palazzo Zevallos, collection of the Banca Intesa, Naples). He suffered a serious facial injury from a robbery in Naples.

On the way from Naples to Rome he reached Porto Ercole , which belonged to the Spanish Stato dei Presidi , where he wanted to receive his pardon. Before she reached him, he died on July 18, 1610 at the age of 38 in a hospital in Porto Ercole, where he was also buried. The exact cause of death is unknown. Andrew Graham-Dixon thinks a heart attack is possible. Boris von Brauchitsch suspects malaria as the cause of death, Michel Drancourt and others, on the other hand, suspects sepsis , caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus .

plant

Working method and design features

Calling St. Matthew (1600), San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome

According to Valeska von Rosen's judgment, "[no] there was something about Caravaggio's works [...] what his contemporaries were used to seeing." Many paintings have an incidence of light that illuminates the painted scenery, while the background is often very gloomy, whereby the superficiality of the actual representation is reinforced by the contrast .

In the design of the scenes with the Chiaroscuro , the light-dark painting, Caravaggio worked with a dramatic use of inclined, non-scattering spotlight and created spatiality with the gestures and movements highlighted by light effects, in which the figures were placed with an unusual likeness ( see adjacent figure). The "polarizing light direction [...] takes the place of the architecture that defined the structures in the Renaissance". This painterly innovation helped him to gain fame, imitation and envy among his painter colleagues. The competitors he respected during his lifetime were Giuseppe Cesari , Federico Zuccari and Annibale Carracci .

Educated contemporaries valued the integration of the sacred into the profane in his paintings, that is, the connection between “sacred events and everyday experience”, his endeavor to “integrate pious devotion into the sphere of the sensual”, the “lower, creatural aspects” highest objects of biblical history [to impose] ”. While Carracci strived for the Raphaelian ideal of beauty, Caravaggio sought to represent the unidealized reality; for this he often chose the moment of greatest drama. In contrast to the Renaissance painting, which guided the viewer's gaze into the depths of the space, Caravaggio preferred an extension of the pictorial space to the front and thus draws the viewer into the picture.

In many of his paintings, Caravaggio has adopted gestures and details from the works of his great predecessors and competitors, among them first and foremost ancient sculptures, Michelangelo Buonarroti and Raphael , in whose art, according to Giorgio Vasari, history was fulfilled. He also took over motifs from his contemporaries Giuseppe Cesari, Annibale Carracci and Giovanni Girolamo Savoldo . Valeska von Rosen sees his imitatio as a subversive and ironic form of imitation, as it mainly relates to ambiguous aspects (e.g. potentially lascivious and homoerotic ) of the works that were not considered worth imitating in the eyes of his contemporaries. She sees in it a game with the artistic norms that have become fragile.

In his paintings, Caravaggio combined the processing of models (di maniera) with the representation of nature and model ( alla prima ) . “His angels are painted just as 'according to nature' as his earthly protagonists.” Through the model arrangements he usually “staged”, he brought both principles to bear. One of the most widespread misinterpretations is the opinion that Caravaggio painted his pictures without a preparatory drawing. Recent studies have shown traces of a signature in Caravaggio's works . Instead of the usual detailed preliminary drawings, he made preliminary brush drawings in lead white on the primed canvas and marked prominent areas by incisioni with the brush handle. Finds of mercury salts in the primers of his paintings suggest that he projected his models with a pinhole camera onto the canvas prepared with light-sensitive salts and was thus able to preserve the picture for half an hour, time enough to trace it. Even the geometrical layout (e.g. according to the golden section ) does not suggest a purely primaeval technique, as it has often been represented in research since Roberto Longhi's Caravaggio studies.

In the artist's oeuvre there are some nudes of boys and young men, but according to Howard Hibbard the absence of erotic female figures or a female nude is striking .

Caravaggio did not use to sign his works. On the painting of the beheading of John the Baptist , however, his signature can be found in the painted blood of the martyr; Another exception: on an earlier version of Medusa (1596, private property, Milan) he signed with the painted blood of the severed head "Michel A. f." ( Michel Angelo fecit [= has done]).

Although there are many contemporary copies and derivative second and third versions of his paintings with varying composition, it remains unclear whether these were made in Caravaggio's own workshop.

Bacchus (around 1596), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence
The Death of the Virgin Mary (1606)
Portrait of Fillide Melandroni (after 1601)

Caravaggio's models

The fantasy of the Caravaggio legend was inspired not least by his models: androgynous youths and prostitutes who are well known in the city. They are used as evidence of Caravaggio's penchant for homo- and bisexuality. In general, the people he creates reflect a “lower social background”.

A type preferred by Caravaggio were fair-skinned, "soft yet muscular boys", as shown in the paintings Bacchus ( Uffizi , Florence), Young Man Bitten by a Lizard (Fondazione Longhi, Florence and National Gallery, London ), Victorious Cupid ( Picture Gallery Berlin ) were portrayed. Whether Caravaggio's servant or assistant Francesco Boneri , called “Cecco dal Caravaggio”, who was a model for the victorious Cupid and John with the ram (Capitoline Museums, Rome), probably also for The Sacrifice of Abraham (Uffizi, Florence ), at the same time his “ Lustknabe “was, as Baglioni's loyal student Tommaso Salini rumored in 1603 and a later hearsay statement by the English traveler Richard Symonds suggested, remains speculation . Caravaggio's younger friend, Mario Minniti , presumably also modeled for him.

His relationships with prostitutes are documented , namely Lena and Fillide Melandroni. Both have been models for biblical women. Possibly for a later beau he also portrayed Fillide himself (1601, portrait Fillide Melandroni; last in German possession, missing since 1945). It is regarded as the one of the Magdalena in converted Martha Magdalena, the St. Catherine. And for Judith in Judith and Holofernes said to have stood model, while Lena presumably the model for the pilgrims Madonna (also: Loreto Madonna ), the death of Mary and the Madonna dei Palafrenieri was.

The appearance of wickedness is put into perspective with regard to both relationship groups when you consider that Caravaggio was penniless at the beginning of his career and could not pay models and, secondly, that respectable women were difficult to win as models for his painting.

In some multi-figure pictures (the arrest of Christ, the martyrdom of St. Matthew, the martyrdom of St. Ursula) Caravaggio added himself as a model, not as an active participant, but as an observer of what was happening. In the Roman version of David and Goliath , the severed head bears its features. However, there is no self-portrait of him identified as such.

Selected Works

From Caravaggio's twenty-year creative period from 1591 to 1610, sixty-seven works have survived as handwritten paintings by Caravaggio and another twenty-one ascribed to him.

Early profane paintings

Fruit basket (1595/96). Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan

The earliest of the surviving pictures by Caravaggio is the boy peeling fruit (1591/92). The early subjects are young men and boys with fruits ( boy with a basket of fruit , 1593/94) or portrayed in dramatic moments ( young man bitten by a lizard , 1593/94 and 1596) or posing as Bacchus (1593 and 1593/94). His early paintings depict isolated people, two- and multi-figure group representations have been added over the years ( Die Cardigans , 1594/95; Die Musiken , 1595).

The lute player (1595/96 and 1596), masterfully painted in two versions for the banker Vincenzo Giustiniani and Cardinal Del Monte, as well as Caravaggio's smallest picture, the fruit basket (1595/96, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana , Milan), should be emphasized from this creative period . It is one of the earliest Italian still lifes. With the precision of scientific illustrations, he depicted fruits and leaves beginning to decay. It is his only surviving autonomous still life. In some paintings he combined still lifes with figures to create masterful compositions .

The discovery of the sacred

Judith and Holofernes (1598/99)

The first religious paintings show the repentant Magdalena (1594), rest on the flight into Egypt (1594) and Martha converts Magdalena (1597/98).

The commissioner for the painting Judith and Holofernes (1598/99, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Palazzo Barberini , Rome) was Maffeo Barberini (who later became Pope Urban VIII ), who was neighboring during Caravaggio's stay in the palace of Monsignor Fantino Petrignani as a chamber cleric was responsible for the papal finances. In it, Caravaggio depicts for the first time the sequence of events of the beheading of the Assyrian military leader by the beautiful Jewish widow Judith. As a contrast, Caravaggio places the face of an old maid who is ready to take the head of Holofernes next to the simultaneously determined and disgusted actor. The model for Judith was the prostitute Fillide Melandroni, a model that Caravaggio also preferred for other biblical female figures (Martha, Katharina).

Orders for Roman churches

Matthew and the Angel (1602), Contarelli Chapel
The crucifixion of the apostle Peter (1601/1604), Cesari Chapel
The Pilgrim Madonna (1604/05), Cavalletti Chapel

Six of his most famous paintings are in three Roman churches.

The Contarelli Chapel (the funeral chapel of the French Cardinal Mathieu Cointrel , in Italian called Contarelli) in the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi was designed with three works on the Apostle and Evangelist Matthew : the two side wings with the vocation of Matthew as the Apostle and the Martyrdom of St. Matthew , the altar with the evangelist Matthew and the angels (1599–1602). A first version of the evangelist with the angel (1599, St. Matthew ; last in German possession, missing since 1945) showed a barefoot peasant Matthew with crossed legs and a "cheeky boy" (Roberto Longhi) as an angel, who was rejected by the congregation and ended up in the Giustiniani's collection.

Two paintings in the Cappella Cerasi of the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo show the conversion of Pauli (1601/1604) and the crucifixion of Peter (1601/1604). They were commissioned by the papal treasurer Tiberio Cerasi for his funeral chapel. The Italian art critic Longhi described the works as "perhaps the most revolutionary in the entire history of sacred art" because of their extreme naturalism, coupled with an unmistakable sense of abstract form. At the same time, Cerasi commissioned the Bolognese Annibale Carracci to depict the Assumption of Mary (around 1600) for the altar of the chapel . Unlike Carracci's work, which the painter had delivered on time and had the client's approval, Cerasi rejected Caravaggio's works for the side walls and forced him to produce a new version, which was only completed after Cerasi's death (1601) and installed in 1605. The first rejected version is now in the Odescalchi Collection.

There is a brutal contrast between Carracci and Caravaggio's paintings. The Assumption of Mary is painted in precious light and brilliant colors (including ultramarine) and represents the idealized splendor and beauty of the High Renaissance and Mannerism. In contrast, Caravaggio designed the side pictures with the converted Paul and crucified Peter with aggressive directness using cheap colors, an earthy, ocher and lead-white coloring . In the picture of the crucified Peter, Peter, who was crucified upside down at his request (out of humility in front of the crucified Christ) protrudes into the foreground against a black background. He resembles a peasant old man and lies, dramatically illuminated, sloping diagonally on a rough cross. Together with the struggling three executioners (two only seen from behind) who do their work “dispassionately”, “like blunt beasts of burden”, the four people form a cross.

The Church of Sant'Agostino houses in the Cappella Cavalletti another painting by Caravaggio, the Pilgrim Madonna or Loreto Madonna (after the pilgrimage site Loreto ) from 1604/05. The altarpiece in the chapel shows Mary in the classic posture of an ancient statue, standing with the child in her arms, but in front of a simple brickwork as if she had just met the pilgrims at the threshold of her house. In the characteristic light-dark contrast, the light falls from the top left onto her face and onto the child. Two poorly dressed pilgrims kneel before her, barefoot like Maria. The picture is subject to a strictly composed golden ratio.

He created another altarpiece, the Entombment of Christ (1603/04, today in the Vatican Pinacoteca ) for a funeral chapel in the church of the Oratorians , Santa Maria in Vallicella . Caravaggio used the marble statue of Pietà (1499, St. Peter's Basilica ) by his namesake, Michelangelo Buonarroti , as a model for the design of the corpse . Immediately after being made public, it was viewed by Caravaggio's early biographers as one of his most accomplished works.

The pictures that Caravaggio painted on behalf of the church were often controversial: three of his Roman altarpieces were rejected by the responsible congregations or priesthoods “on the basis of the inadequate decor ”. Nevertheless, church dignitaries valued his representations of biblical subjects and incorporated them into their private collections. The painting Death of Mary (1605/06, today in the Louvre , Paris), ordered by the founder Laerzio Cherubini for the Church of the Reform Order of the Discalced Carmelites ( Santa Maria della Scala ), was removed from the altar by the Carmelites after a short time because of the rumor that the model of the portrayed Maria is a prostitute. On the recommendation of Peter Paul Rubens , the Duke of Mantua bought it afterwards .

Further Roman orders

Presumably for the banker Ottavio Costa, he painted Martha Converted Magdalena (1597/98, Detroit Institute of Arts ). The painting shows the two women as half-length figures. It represents the moment of the conversion of the sinner Magdalena, which Martha seems to have not yet grasped. Magdalena points to the (divine) light bundling in the mirror, which at the same time illuminates her face. Caravaggio was the first to depict the moment of Magdalena's conversion in painting.

Cupid as the winner (1601/02), Gemäldegalerie Berlin

One of Caravaggio's most famous pictures is Amor as the winner (1601/02, Gemäldegalerie Berlin ). It shows a winged boy in provocative nakedness. Showing off his gender and step with a smile, he walks over the props of music (lute, violin, music book), symbols of power and fame (armor, crown circlet, laurel branch) and utensils of learning (square measure, book, quill pen). Caravaggio's competitor Giovanni Baglione painted a counterpart with the title Amor sacro e amor profano “Heavenly and earthly Cupid” (1602, Gemäldegalerie Berlin) on which the heavenly Cupid chastises the earthly. Baglione received scorn and ridicule for this painting. The dispute led to a defamation process that Baglione brought against Caravaggio and two other painters ( Orazio Gentileschi , Fillipo Trisengni) and the architect Onorio Longhi in 1603 .

The painting The Incredible Thomas ( Sanssouci Art Gallery ), which was created around 1603, presumably at the order of the rich and educated collector Marchese Vincenzo Giustiniani , also has iconic status , which immediately after its completion "triggered numerous copies and derivations". The picture shows in a demonstrative gesture how the doubting apostle puts his finger into Christ's side wound, while Christ is still guiding his hand. The unbeliever is depicted as a peasant, clad in a robe torn open at the shoulder and with dirt under his fingernails. The image composition is designed in such a way that the viewer is directly involved in the action and, as it were, feels the pain of penetration.

The Rosary Madonna (1605/06), Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien , a large altarpiece (364.5 × 249.5 cm) with Dominican iconography , is the only donor painting in Caravaggio's work. It is not known who commissioned the painting; the founder portrayed on the left side of the picture could not be identified.

Saint Jerome (1606), Borghese Gallery

Probably his last Roman work is Saint Jerome (1606, Galleria Borghese , Rome), which he painted for Cardinal Scipione Borghese. It shows the Church Father, wrapped in a cardinal red cloak and concentrated in his work, translating the Bible from Hebrew or Greek into Latin. “In perfect symmetry, the central axis of which forms the binding of the open text, the skull and the head of the saint are set in balance [...]. Still life and figure, red and white are connected to one another by an extra-long arm that dips into the pen as if controlled by others. The focus of the image structure is the text, the Vulgate , the only valid Bible text for the Counter-Reformation Church. "

Works from the years of exile

David with the head of Goliath , around 1600/01, Kunsthistorisches Museum , Vienna
David with the head of Goliath (Roman version), 1606/07, Galleria Borghese , Rome

The years of exile that Caravaggio spent in Naples, Malta, Sicily and again in Naples were productive years. The first works of this period include a second version of the Last Supper in Emmaus (1606, Pinacoteca di Brera , Milan) and the second version of the famous painting David and Goliath (1606/07, Galleria Borghese, Rome). The first version from 1600/01 hangs in the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna . Both pictures show a boyish David holding the severed head of Goliath with his horizontally outstretched left hand. The different physiognomies of Goliath are striking. In the Roman painting Caravaggio provided the severed head with a self-portrait, in which Ebert-Schifferer sees a “shocking self-humiliation”. Caravaggio wanted, it is assumed, with his portrayal as a “dying defeated man” to persuade Cardinal Scipione Borghese to appeal to his uncle, Pope Paul V , for his pardon. Thanks to his protectors, Caravaggio was able to take the works to Rome in a carriage belonging to the Colonna family , of which the Emmausfahl was dedicated to his client, the banker Ottavio Costa, who David and Goliath the gifted Scipione Borghese.

Two different versions of the flagellation of Christ from this period should be emphasized (one around 1606/07 in the Musée des beaux-arts de Rouen , the other in 1607 in the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte , Naples; see illustration above) as well as three left behind at the stations of his escape Altarpiece: The Seven Works of Mercy (1606, Pio Monte della Misericordia, Naples), The Beheading of John the Baptist (1608, St. John's Co-Cathedral , Valletta), and the Burial of St. Lucia (1608, Santa Lucia al Sepolcro , Syracuse).

The monumental painting The Beheading of John the Baptist (see picture above) is the largest picture (361 × 520 cm) that Caravaggio ever painted. In the geometrically strictly composed picture, all figures are on the left half, the exception are two prisoners who are witnesses of the event on the right half behind a lattice window. The picture captures the moment when Johannes' head was severed with sword and dagger, a work that the hangman impassively performs on a person lying on a sheepskin, like a butcher slaughters an animal. A maid stands beside him ready for duty, staring at the golden bowl in her hands that is supposed to hold the head of the martyr for Salome. The prison director and an old woman can be seen as another couple. The prison warden with massive keys on his belt points emotionlessly at the bowl. The old woman next to him is the only person showing emotion. Covering her head with her hands, she looks at the gruesome process. It stands for Christian mercy.

Caravaggio, who usually did not sign his pictures, provided them with a spectacular signature: In the (painted) blood of the martyr he wrote fMichelAn [ meaning : Frater (brother) Michelangelo ]. With that he enrolled in the community of friars of the Maltese. The painting was in a way his entry mite .

More paintings

Medusa (around 1597), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Aftermath and reception

Caravaggio worked largely alone and had no direct students. Nevertheless, his work had a lasting influence on Baroque painting : hardly any well-known painter who was able to escape his influence in the years after his death. Caravaggio's first imitator was Bartolomeo Manfredi , who also contributed to the international spread of Caravaggism . Among the artists attributed to Caravaggesque painting who still knew Caravaggio personally include Manfredi, Orazio Gentileschi , Carlo Saraceni and Mario Minniti . Roberto Longhi sees influences in the Neapolitan Battistello Caracciolo and the Calabrese Mattia Preti .

At that time Rome was regarded as the decisive center for painting, into which painters from all over Europe flocked. In the years immediately following his death, there was hardly a significant painter who did not succumb to his influence. Painters from the Netherlands in particular came to Rome to study Caravaggio's work. Among them were Hendrick Terbrugghen , Gerard van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen , who were later referred to as Utrecht Caravaggists . While they did not meet Caravaggio in person, they did reach Rome when his style was being imitated by his direct successors. They also had the opportunity to get to know Caravaggio's paintings in the churches. A drawn copy of Honthorst's has come down to us from the crucifixion of Peter in Santa Maria del Popolo. In addition, during his stay in Rome, Honthorst lived in the house of one of his clients, the banker Vincenzo Giustiniani , who allegedly had no fewer than fifteen Caravaggios in his collection. Rembrandt , who never visited Italy, got to know Caravaggio's painting style through the Utrecht Caravaggists. He can “also be regarded as a representative of Caravaggism, albeit a rather later one. His turn to a radical realism, to which he held fast to the end, is hardly conceivable without the example of Caravaggio and his successors. This also applies to Rembrandt's lighting. ” Caravaggio's paintings also made a deep impression on Peter Paul Rubens . He studied precisely the altarpiece The Entombment of Christ (1603/04, Vatican Pinacoteca , Vatican) and made a free variation of it (1614, National Gallery of Canada , Ottawa).

The most noticeable features of the style, called Caravaggism and adopted, were on the one hand the "realism" in the unadorned everydayness of the scenes depicted with the choice of the "dramatic moment shortly before or shortly after the climax", on the other hand its creative means of light and dark painting the effective foreshortening of the proportions in the composition. Both contradicted the maniera of the Renaissance and Mannerism , but also the idealizing academicism of Guido Reni . The still life and genre painting of the Italian, French and Dutch early baroque was called caravaggesque .

The painters influenced by Caravaggio include the Utrecht Caravaggists: Orazio Gentileschi , Artemisia Gentileschi , Georges de la Tour , Rembrandt van Rijn, Jusepe de Ribera and Johann Ulrich Loth . Caravaggio's influences are also evident in pictures by Jan Vermeer , Diego Velázquez and Francisco de Zurbarán . Andrew Graham-Dixon discovers a creative influence by Caravaggio in Jacques Louis David's Death of the Marat and in Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa .

While Caravaggio's contemporaries admired his naturalism, subsequent generations of artists, namely Nicolas Poussin , saw in him an anarchic fury that had come into the world to destroy painting.

A hundred years after his death, Caravaggio was almost forgotten. It was rediscovered in the 20th century. The Italian art historian Roberto Longhi, who, in addition to a highly regarded monograph, curated the major exhibition “Mostra del Caravaggio e dei Caraveggeschi” in Milan in 1951, made a significant contribution to this .

Caravaggio's eventful life has inspired writers, directors and choreographers . We owe a number of novels and films to them, in which primarily those events are dramatically highlighted from which his legend as a “wicked artist” is woven. Among the films, Derek Jarman's award-winning 1986 film Caravaggio has cult status. It is a refined construct of art, sex and violence, with an explosive three-way relationship, without any claim to historical truth. The ballet Caravaggio by the German choreographer Jochen Ulrich also takes up the characteristic events in the life and work of the painter, implemented in dance with constant, dynamic and high-contrast movement patterns and in the lighting of the light-dark colors that are significant for the painter.

various

Two Italian experts claimed in 2012, after two years of research into the estate of the painter Simone Peterzano, which is kept in Castello Sforzesco in Milan , to have discovered around one hundred posthumous early works by Caravaggio; he is said to have made them from 1584 to 1588 when he was taking lessons from Peterzano. The most renowned Italian Caravaggio expert Maurizio Calvesi questioned this assertion, as did the expert Sybille Ebert-Schifferer , who is recognized as a Caravaggio biographer . Other experts also doubt it.

In April 2014, another Judith and Holofernes (1610) oil painting was found in southern France near Toulouse . While some art experts such as Eric Turquin attribute it to Caravaggio and expect a sales value of already 100 million euros, others are skeptical and demand like u. a. the French minister of culture carried out a detailed examination of the painting.  

Caravaggio and his paintings Buona ventura and a basket of fruits on the Italian 100,000 lire banknote , issued 1983–2001

Caravaggio and his paintings Buona ventura and the basket of fruits were depicted on the last Italian 100,000 lire banknote issued by the Banca d'Italia between 1983 and 2001.

Exhibition locations

The works of Caravaggio can be seen in the following museums and churches:

Museums (sorted by city)

Churches

Exhibitions (selection)

  • Mostra del Caravaggio . Palazzo Reale, Milan, April to June 1951 (curator: Roberto Longhi).
  • Caravaggio in Prussia - The Giustiniani Collection and the Berlin Gemäldegalerie . Altes Museum Berlin, June 15 to September 9, 2001.
  • Caravaggio. The Final Years . The National Gallery, London, February 23 to May 22, 2005.
  • Rembrandt and Caravaggio . Rijksmuseum and Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, February 24 to June 18, 2006.
  • Caravaggio. On the trail of a genius. Düsseldorf, September 9, 2006 to January 7, 2007, Museum Kunstpalast.
  • Caravaggio in Holland. Music and genre with Caravaggio and the Utrecht Caravaggists . Frankfurt am Main, April 1, 2009 to July 26, 2009, Städelsches Kunstinstitut .
  • Caravaggio . Rome, Scuderie del Quirinale, February 20 to June 13, 2010.
  • Caravaggio e caravaggeschi a Firenze . Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi and Palazzo Pitti, May 22nd 2010 to October 27th 2010.
  • Homage to Caravaggio . Gemäldegalerie Berlin , 2011.
  • Beyond Caravaggio . National Gallery , London 2016/17.
  • Inside Caravaggio , Palazzo Reale Milan 2017/18.
  • Caravaggio & Bernini - The Discovery of Emotions , Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna , 2019/20.

literature

  • Exhibition catalog: Rembrandt and Caravaggio. Rijksmuseum and Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, February 24 to June 18, 2006. Waanders Publishers, Amsterdam 2006; Belser, Stuttgart 2006.
  • Giovan Pietro Bellori : Le vite de 'pittori, scultori e architetti moderni (1672). Ed. by Evelina Borca, Turin 1976.
  • Boris von Brauchitsch : Caravaggio. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-518-18225-3 .
  • Sybille Ebert-Schifferer : Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-59140-2 .
  • Philip Farrugia Randon: Caravaggio. Knight of Malta. AVC Publishers, Malta 2004, ISBN 99932-682-0-8 .
  • Friedhelm W. Fischer: The pictures of the Contarellikapelle (= Lynkevs [Lynkeus]. ) .Thomae Biberach 1970.
  • Michael Fried : The Moment of Caravaggio. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 2010.
  • Creighton E. Gilbert : Caravaggio and his Two Cardinals. Pensylania State University Press, University Park PA 1995, ISBN 978-0-271-04448-4 .
  • Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane. Allen Lane, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-7139-9674-6 / Penguin, London 2011, ISBN 978-0-241-95464-5 .
  • Jürgen Harten , Jean-Hubert Martin (Ed.): Caravaggio. Originals and copies in the mirror of research. (Catalog for the exhibition in the museum kunst palast Düsseldorf.) Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern 2006, ISBN 3-7757-1806-0 .
  • Jutta Held : Caravaggio. Politics and Martyrdom of the Body . 2nd edition, Reimer, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-496-01370-9 .
  • Howard Hibbard: Caravaggio . Harper & Row, New York 1983, ISBN 978-0-06-433322-1 .
  • Eberhard König: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio . Könemann, Cologne 1997, ISBN 3-8290-0685-3 .
  • Gilles Lambert: Caravaggio 1571-1610 . Taschen, Cologne 2005, ISBN 3-8228-0818-0 .
  • Helen Langdon: Caravaggio: A Life . Chattoo & Windus, London 1998.
  • Roberto Longhi : Caravaggio . (The Italian painting). Verlag der Kunst, Dresden 1968.
  • Alberto Macchi: L'uomo Caravaggio - atto unico. prefazione di Stefania Macioce, AETAS, Roma 1995, ISBN 88-85172-19-9 .
  • Stefania Macioce, Antonella Lippo, Massimo Moretti: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Fonti e documenti 1532-1724 . Bozzi, Rome 2003, ISBN 978-88-7003-036-5 .
  • Andreas Prater: Light and Color at Caravaggio. Studies on the aesthetics of iconology and chiaroscuro . Steiner, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-515-05441-3 .
  • Wolfgang Prohaska, Gudrun Swoboda (with the collaboration of Marco Cardinali, Barbara Eble, Eva Götz, Michael Odlozil , Maria Beatrice De Ruggieri, Ina Slama, Robert Wald): Caravaggio and the international Caravaggism (= collection catalogs of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Volume 6). Silvana Editoriale, Milano 2010, ISBN 978-88-366-1911-5 .
  • Catherine Puglisi: Caravaggio . Phaidon, London 1998, ISBN 978-0-7148-3966-0 .
  • Valeska von Rosen: Caravaggio and the limits of what can be represented. Ambiguity, irony and performativity in painting around 1600. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-05-004581-8 .
  • Herwarth Röttgen : Caravaggio. The earthly cupid or the victory of carnal love (= feat. Volume 3966). Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-596-23966-4 .
  • Sebastian Schütze: Caravaggio. The complete work . Taschen, Cologne 2009, ISBN 978-3-8365-0181-1 .
  • John T. Spike: Caravaggio . Abbeville Press, New York / London 2001, ISBN 0-7892-0639-0 .

Films about Caravaggio

  • Caravaggio . Indie Feature Film, Great Britain, 1986, directed by Derek Jarman .
  • Caravaggio - In the footsteps of a genius . Documentary, Germany, 2006, 29 min., Written and directed: Werner Raeune, production: ZDF , 3sat , first broadcast: September 10, 2006 on 3sat, synopsis by ARD .
  • Caravaggio . Feature film, two-part television series, Italy, 2007, written by: James Carrington, Andrea Purgatori, directed by: Angelo Longoni , first broadcast: 17./18. February 2008.
  • Caravaggio. Magician of light. (OT: Caravaggio, l'eredità di un rivoluzionario. ) Documentation, Italy, Switzerland, France, 2008, 55 min., Book: Massimo Magri, Valentina Torti, director: Massimo Magri, production: Polivideo, arte , SSR , German premiere : January 11, 2010, summary by arte ( Memento from December 2, 2013 in the Internet Archive ).
  • Caravaggio and Death. Documentary film, Germany, 2010, 26:13 min., Script and direction: Stefanie Appel, production: Hessischer Rundfunk , arte, first broadcast: December 6, 2010 on arte, synopsis by ARD .
  • Caravaggio - Playing with light and shadow. (OT: Caravage - Dans la splendeur des ombres. ) Documentary, France, 2015, 52:14 min., Script and direction: Jean-Michel Meurice, production: arte France, Cinétévé, France Télévisions , first broadcast: May 22, 2016 at arte, summary of arte, with Sybille Ebert-Schifferer and Michel Hilaire ( Musée Fabre ).
  • Caravaggio - L'anima e il sangue (Italian for: "The soul and the blood"), Italian documentary by Jesus Garces Lambert from 2018.

Fictional prose

Web links

Commons : Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Works

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Different information about date and place of birth are no longer tenable after the baptism certificate found in 2007. S. Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, pp. 269 and 273 (fn. 1).
  2. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 23 ff.
  3. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main, p. 38.
  4. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, pp. 5-8.
  5. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 15 ff.
  6. ↑ “ He was a violent man, but it is important to remember that he lived in a violent world ”. Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, p. 64.
  7. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 138.
  8. ↑ Jean-Hubert Martin (Ed.): Painter, Murderer, Myth. Stories about Caravaggio. Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern 2006, p. 5.
  9. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 266 f.
  10. ^ Creighton E. Gilbert: Caravaggio and his Two Cardinals . Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park PA 1995. Helen Langdon: Caravaggio: A Life . Chattoo & Windus, London 1998, p. 6.
  11. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, pp. 4 f., 150 f.
  12. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 5.
  13. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 13.
  14. ^ Halilovic, L .: Painting as a system of signs: A semiotic analysis of three works, Diplomica Verlag 2010, p. 31
  15. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 32.
  16. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 48 f.
  17. ↑ The dates of creation of the works often differ in the literature; the data given here were taken from Ebert-Schifferer's biography.
  18. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 64.
  19. ^ Maurizio Marini: Caravaggio's 'Doppelganger'. Unknown originals, second versions and multiple mentions in Michelangelo Merisi's work . In: Jürgen Harten, Jean-Hubert Martin (Ed.): Caravaggio. Originals and copies in the mirror of research . Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern 2006.
  20. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 20.
  21. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 17.
  22. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 90.
  23. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2011, p. 220.
  24. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 33.
  25. ^ Creighton E. Gilbert: Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals . Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park 1995.
  26. ↑ Barbara Junge: Confiscated Caravaggio probably not the original . In: Der Tagesspiegel - Welt, from June 29, 2010, last accessed on May 1, 2014.
  27. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 141.
  28. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2011, pp. 203-204.
  29. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 195.
  30. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 195.
  31. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2011, pp. 203-204, pp. 324 f. - Reference to the Avvisi in Gilles Lambert: Caravaggio 1571–1610. Taschen, Cologne 2005, p. 78.
  32. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 329.
  33. ^ Gilles Lambert: Caravaggio 1571-1610 . Taschen, Cologne 2000, p. 82.
  34. ^ Ralf van Bühren, Caravaggio's 'Seven Works of Mercy' in Naples. The relevance of art history to cultural journalism , in Church, Communication and Culture 2 (2017), pp. 63-87.
  35. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 202.
  36. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 346.
  37. ↑ Stendhal Syndrome: A death without any martyr's splendor - Caravaggio's “Beheading of John” . On: syndrome-de-stendhal.blogspot.de from October 13, 2014; last accessed on October 28, 2015.
  38. ↑ Search for Caravaggio's bones between 200 deceased. Italian researchers want to clarify the cause of death . On: derstandard.at of December 5, 2009, last accessed on May 1, 2014.
  39. ↑ Porto Ercole, trovati resti di Caravaggio Nelle sue ossa il mercurio delle pitture ( Memento of the original from December 21, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ilmessaggero.it archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . In: Il Messaggero. dated June 16, 2010, last accessed on May 1, 2014.
  40. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, p. 432.
  41. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 46.
  42. ↑ Michel Drancourt, Rémi Barbieri, Elisabetta Cilli, Giorgio Gruppioni, Alda Bazaj: Did Caravaggio die of Staphylococcus aureus sepsis? In: The Lancet Infectious Diseases . tape 0 , no. September 0 , 2018, ISSN  1473-3099 , doi : 10.1016 / S1473-3099 (18) 30571-1 ( thelancet.com [accessed September 18, 2018]).
  43. ↑ Valeska von Rosen: Caravaggio and the limits of what can be represented. Ambiguity, irony and performativity in painting around 1600 . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2009, p. 1.
  44. ↑ Jutta Held: Caravaggio. Politics and Martyrdom of the Body . 2nd Edition. Reimer, Berlin 2007, p. 209.
  45. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 158.
  46. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 262.
  47. ↑ Jutta Held: Caravaggio. Politics and Martyrdom of the Body . 2nd Edition. Reimer, Berlin 2007, p. 206.
  48. ↑ Angelika Kindermann: Caravaggio brings the viewer into the picture and shows the beauty of reality . In: Art. Das Kunstmagazin , April 2010, p. 53.
  49. ↑ Valeska von Rosen: Caravaggio and the limits of what can be represented. Ambiguity, irony and performativity in painting around 1600 . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2009, pp. 287ff.
  50. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 73.
  51. ↑ Wolfgang Prohaska, Gudrun Swoboda: Caravaggio and the international Caravaggism. Milano 2010, p. 23.
  52. ^ Norbert Lossau: History of technology. The first photographer exposed in the 16th century . In: Die Welt , March 12, 2009.
  53. ^ Howard Hibbard: Caravaggio . Harper & Row, New York 1983, p. 97: "In his entire career he did not paint a single female nude."
  54. ^ Valeska von Rosen: Working on the image. Caravaggio's self-stylization in relation to his way of working . In: Jürgen Harten, Jean-Hubert Martin (Ed.): Caravaggio. Originals and copies in the mirror of research . Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern 2006, p. 62 ff.
  55. ↑ Jutta Held: Caravaggio. Politics and Martyrdom of the Body . 2nd Edition. Reimer, Berlin 2007, p. 206.
  56. ^ Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 50.
  57. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, pp. 158 and 266.
  58. ↑ After Catherine Puglisi suggesting Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti. See Catherine Puglisi: Caravaggio . Phaidon, London 1998, p. 199.
  59. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 162.
  60. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 191.
  61. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, pp. 148, 234, 266.
  62. ↑ For Michael Fried "an unmistakable self-portrait". See his contribution Severed Representations in Caravaggio in the anthology by Klaus Herding, Bernhard Stumpfhaus (Ed.): Pathos, Affekt, Emotion. The emotions in the arts . de Gruyter, Berlin 2004, p. 323.
  63. ↑ According to Sebastian Schütze: Caravaggio. The complete work . Taschen, Cologne 2009, p. 212 ff.
  64. ↑ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio's fruit basket: the earliest still life? In: Journal for Art History. Volume 65, Issue 1, 2002, pp. 1-23.
  65. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 162.
  66. ↑ While Caravaggio probably assumed that the apostle and the evangelist were identical people, according to recent scientific findings, they are two different people. See Who's is who in the Bible . dtv-Sachbuch, 4th edition, Munich 1990, p. 183 f.
  67. ↑ Valeska von Rosen: Caravaggio and the limits of what can be represented. Ambiguity, irony and performativity in painting around 1600 . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 2009, p. 19; Boris von Brauchitsch: Caravaggio . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 84.
  68. ^ Mauro Lucentini: ROM ways through the city - 2000. Pattloch Verlag, Munich, ISBN 3-629-01621-9 .
  69. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, p. 213.
  70. ↑ The sources differ in dating. Graham-Dixon dates its completion at the end of 1601, immediately after the first version of 1601 was rejected (Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 220). Ebert-Schifferer dates the new version around 1604 (Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - Marvel - Believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 139).
  71. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, pp. 212, 218 f.
  72. ^ Andreas Prater: Light and Color in Caravaggio. Studies on the aesthetics of iconology and chiaroscuro. Steiner, Stuttgart 1992, p. 159.
  73. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 175 f.
  74. ↑ On the dispute over the Madonna dei Pellegrini see Werner Goez : Caravaggio: Four controversial pictures by a controversial painter . In: Karl Möseneder (Ed.): Dispute about images. From Byzantium to Duchamp . Reimer, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-496-01169-6 (on this picture pp. 121–123 (lit.); color illus. After p. 25).
  75. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 279.
  76. ↑ Valeska von Rosen: Caravaggio and the limits of what can be represented. Ambiguity, irony and performativity in painting around 1600. p. 269.
  77. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 106.
  78. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 156.
  79. ^ Herwarth Röttgen: Caravaggio. Earthly Cupid or The Victory of Carnal Love. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1992, pp. 16f.
  80. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 170.
  81. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 177 ff.
  82. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 187.
  83. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 213.
  84. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 333.
  85. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 221.
  86. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, pp. 377-380.
  87. ↑ SybilleEbert Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, p. 223.
  88. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin, London 2011, p. 439.
  89. ^ W. Prohaska, G. Swoboda: Caravaggio and the international Caravaggism. Milano 2010, p. 15.
  90. ↑ Roberto Longhi: Short but True History of Italian Painting . DuMont, Cologne 1996, ISBN 3-7701-3814-7 , p. 229.
  91. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, p. 439.
  92. ^ Taco Dibbits: Prologue: Caravaggio, the Utrecht Caravaggists and the young Rembrandt. In: Exhibition catalog: Rembrandt and Caravaggio. Rijksmuseum and Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, February 24 to June 18, 2006, p. 34 ff.
  93. ↑ Margriet van Eikema Hommes, Ernst van der Wetering: light and color in Caravaggio and Rembrandt - seen through the eyes of their contemporaries . In: Exhibition catalog Rembrandt and Caravaggio . Rijksmuseum and Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, February 24 to June 18, 2006, p. 174.
  94. ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer: Caravaggio. See - be amazed - believe. The painter and his work. Beck, Munich 2009, pp. 170 and 176.
  95. ^ Taco Dibbits: Prologue: Caravaggio, the Utrecht Caravaggists and the young Rembrandt . In: Exhibition catalog: Rembrandt and Caravaggio. Rijksmuseum and Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, February 24 to June 18, 2006, p. 32.
  96. ^ Andrew Graham-Dixon: Caravaggio: A Life Sacred and Profane . Penguin 2011, London 2010, p. 439 f. Marat, sunk in the bathtub, appears to him as one of Caravaggio's “spotlight martyrs”.
  97. ^ A b Helen Langdon: Caravaggio: A Life . Chattoo & Windus, London 1998, p. 5.
  98. ↑ AFP / dpa : One hundred works by Caravaggio discovered . In: Spiegel Online , July 5, 2012.
  99. ^ Il Caravaggio mai visto, due studiosi trovano un centinaio di opere inedite. In: La Repubblica.it , July 5, 2012, last accessed on May 1, 2014.
  100. ↑ Experts discover works ascribed to Caravaggio. In: moz.de, July 6, 2012, accessed on November 6, 2019.
    Elisa Britzelmeier ( dpa ): Experts discover works attributed to Caravaggio. ( Memento of the original from May 26, 2016 in the Internet Archive )     Info: The     @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.art-magazin.de archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: art - Das Kunstmagazin , September 2012, p. 124f.
  101. ↑ Kristin Haug: Doubts about Caravaggio Fund: “The similarity is far too vague”. In: Spiegel online , July 6, 2012, interview with Sybille Ebert-Schifferer .
  102. ^ Alleged find in Milan: One hundred new Caravaggios? In: FAZ.net , June 5, 2012.
  103. ^ Afp : Possible Caravaggio painting discovered in France in the attic. In: stern.de , accessed on April 15, 2016.
  104. ↑ dpa : The picture found on memory is said to be from Caravaggio. In: Hamburger Abendblatt , April 13, 2016, p. 28.
  105. ^ Caravaggio (2007). Internet Movie Database , accessed May 26, 2016 .
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 11, 2014 in this version .
personal data
SURNAME Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi there
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Caravaggio; Merisi, Michelangelo
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Italian painter of the early baroque
DATE OF BIRTH September 29, 1571
PLACE OF BIRTH Milan
DATE OF DEATH July 18, 1610
Place of death Porto Ercole on Monte Argentario