Dassault Rafale

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Dassault Rafale
Dassault Rafale C at the 2015 Paris Air Show
Type:	Multipurpose fighter
Design country:	France
Manufacturer:	Dassault Aviation
First flight:	4th July 1986
Commissioning:	December 4, 2000
Production time:	In series production since 1997
Number of pieces:	196 (as of September 2019)

Three-sided view of the two-seater version Dassault Rafale B

The Rafale ( French for gust or gust of wind ) is a twin-engine multi -role fighter aircraft produced by the French manufacturer Dassault Aviation . It was developed almost entirely single-handedly on a national level after France left the Eurofighter consortium.

Technically, the Rafale, together with the Eurofighter and the Saab JAS 39 Gripen, belong to a group of modern European warplanes in Delta - Canard design. Due to its design as a light, versatile, both land-based and carrier-based multi -role fighter, the Rafale differs considerably from these models in individual points.

The first flight of a demonstrator was completed on July 4, 1986 and on May 19, 1991 the first near-series prototype began test flight operations. Since the end of 2000 and the end of 2004, the series version has been delivered to the Aviation navale and the Armée de l'air , which are planning to purchase a total of 286 aircraft. 180 units were ordered, with the 100th machine being delivered in the 3rd quarter of 2011.

The French armed forces , which the Rafale used in several missions over Afghanistan as well as in the international intervention in Libya , are the first and by far the largest user. After long and intensive export efforts, export orders for 24 machines each were received by the air forces in Egypt and Qatar in 2015 .

Development history

A Mirage 4000; you can see the canards painted red on the front edge

The BAe EAP prototype

From the ACF to the Mirage 2000

As early as the early 1970s, people in France were working on a future fighter under the title Avion de Combat du Futur (ACF) . This was supposed to replace both the Mirage III , at that time the backbone of the French fighter pilot forces, and the Mirage F1 , which was just being introduced . With a naval version, the Vought F-8 Crusader , which were used as fighter aircraft on the carriers of the Navy nationale , should be replaced. What was required was a high-performance, twin - engine delta aircraft that was already equipped with fly-by-wire and that composite materials were to be used for construction. In 1975, however, the project was stopped because it was feared that the costs would be too high. Instead, Dassault offered a low-cost, single-jet Delta aircraft under the project name Delta 2000 , which could be developed on the basis of the Mirage III in a short time and relatively inexpensively. While the conventionally designed Mirage F1 proved to be superior to the delta aircraft Mirage III, especially in terms of maneuverability, the Mirage 2000  - the name given to the Delta 2000 project  - largely overcame the disadvantages of the delta wing and exploited its advantages. For this purpose, composite materials were used to a small extent for the first time and small, rigid strakes were installed at the front over the delta wing. By far the most important innovation, however, was the fly-by-wire system in combination with an aerodynamically unstable design (see also below ). For export in particular, the more powerful, twin-engine Mirage 4000 was derived from the Mirage 2000 , which, as an innovation , received rigid canards instead of the stub wings . However, no agreement could be reached with the two original interested parties, Saudi Arabia and Iran , and the Armée de l'air also stuck to the decision to only purchase the cheaper Mirage 2000, so that the project had to be discontinued.

Resumption and European cooperation

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No source for "France wanted a smaller, cheaper multi-role fighter with distinctive short take-off properties that was better suited for missions by the relatively small French carriers and should have better export opportunities, while Germany and Great Britain wanted a fighter that was as powerful and manoeuvrable as possible

In 1977, the Armée de l'air took up the idea of ​​a modern fighter aircraft that would be put into service after 1990 under the project title Avion de Combat Tactique (ACT) . The aim was to build on the ACF project and adopt the design as a twin-engine delta aircraft with fly-by-wire control. A year later, the Avion de Combat Marine (ACM) project was launched at Marine Nationale to finally replace the F-8. In 1979 it was discussed for the first time that the two French projects as well as the projects in Great Britain and Germany , which also wanted to procure a modern fighter aircraft under the project name Air Staff Target 403 , AST 403 for short, and Tactical Fighter Aircraft 1990 , TKF90 for short, would also become a European one Merge project. All three companies involved - Dassault, MBB and BAe  - each developed their own design for this European project . In 1983 the EAP prototype (Experimental Aircraft Program) was presented, which was developed under the leadership of BAe and combined the ACA design (Agile Combat Aircraft) from BAe with the TKF90 design from MBB. Dassault, on the other hand, presented its own, revised design in 1983 based on ACT and ACM under the name Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) . Although the inability to agree on a design already showed considerable differences, two cooperation agreements for the development of a European Fighter Aircraft (EFA) were signed between Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and Spain in late 1983 and late 1984 . Up to this point, a few basics had been agreed:

• Canard Delta design
• Two engines
• Fly-by-wire control
• First flight in 1987
• Construction of around 900 machines from 1991

Nevertheless, even afterwards it was not possible to agree on uniform specifications or on the division of labor. France wanted a smaller, cheaper multi-role fighter aircraft with distinctive short take-off properties, which was better suited for missions by the relatively small French carriers and should have better export opportunities, while Germany and Great Britain had a powerful and manoeuvrable fighter aircraft in mind. In addition, France claimed system leadership and 50% work share. In August 1985 the negotiations finally failed, whereupon the then French Defense Minister Charles Hernu announced that France would withdraw from the EFA program and develop the ACX on its own for series production. The remaining four nations developed the EFA into the Eurofighter.

Single-handed development

The Dassault Rafale-A prototype

After leaving the EFA program, Dassault developed the ACX into an airworthy demonstrator in a relatively short time, which was named Rafale A and was intended to demonstrate the feasibility of the project. After the public presentation on December 13, 1985, the first flight took place on July 4, 1986 at the air force base in Istres , still with F404-GE-400 engines from the US manufacturer General Electric . At Mach 1.3, supersonic speed was already reached.

In February 1987, then French President François Mitterrand announced the acquisition of a series aircraft based on the Rafale A demonstrator for both the Armée de l'air and the Aviation navale. In the navy in particular, there were concerns about the availability of an adequate fighter aircraft: the F-8 Crusaders had already been procured in the mid-1960s and could not be kept in service longer than 1993, while the Rafale would not be available until 1998 at the earliest . The Navy would have preferred the procurement of the quickly available American McDonnell Douglas F / A-18 . However, this raised fears that a corresponding reduction in the number of units at the Rafale would make this project too expensive. Instead, part of the F-8 Crusaders and the Dassault Super Étendard were subjected to a service life extension and modernization. The F-8 could thus be used until 1999, but this still led to a gap of around two years in which no or only a very small number of fighters were available.

The test program was continued, on March 4, 1987 Mach 2 could be achieved for the first time and in April of the same year carrier landings were simulated on the Clemenceau and in July 1988 on the Foch . In 1990 one of the two engines of the Rafale A was replaced by the M88-1 engine developed by Snecma (now part of Safran ) since 1986, which was flown for the first time on February 27, 1990. After 867 flights, the Rafale A was taken out of service on January 24, 1994.

Testing program

Rafale prototypes

plane	Aircraft registration	First flight	Flights 1	Flight hours 1	Decommissioning
A.	F-ZJRE	4th July 1986	867	k. A.	January 24, 1994
C 01	F-ZWVR	May 19, 1991	861	1081	-
M 01	F-ZWVM	December 12, 1991	723	438	-
B 01	F-ZWVS	April 30, 1993	700	741	-
M 02	-	November 8, 1993	348	297	-
C 02	Deleted in 1991
1 Until the end of the flight test program in October 1997

After the decision in 1987 to further develop the Rafale A into a series aircraft, the development contract was signed with an industrial consortium on April 21, 1988. In addition to Dassault, this consisted of Thomson-CSF (today Thales Group , responsible for the radar and EloKa systems) and Snecma (today Safran, responsible for the engine). For further testing, four near-series prototypes were built, which were equipped with extensive test instrumentation . The first to take off was the only single-seat Air Force aircraft, the Rafale C 01  - a second prototype of the Air Force single-seater was canceled - on May 19, 1991. The two naval single-seater prototypes Rafale M 01 and M 02 also flew for the first time on December 12, 1991 and November 8, 1993 . On April 30, 1993, the only Luftwaffe two-seater , the prototype Rafale B 01 , took off on its maiden flight.

The prototype Rafale C 01 at the 1993 Paris Air Show

As early as the summer of 1992, the M 01 was relocated to the US Naval Air Station Lakehurst in order to test catapult launches on the test catapult there - the French carriers use American catapult technology. In April of the following year, the first real porter operation finally took place on the Foch . In 1993 the first prototype of the RBE2 radar, developed since 1989, was delivered. In addition, the first weapon tests with the cannon and the Magic II were carried out in March of that year . Two years later a MICA was fired from a Rafale for the first time and in 1996 the first shot at a moving target followed with a Magic II. Also from 1996 the M88-1 engines were replaced by the standard M88-2 and the SPECTRA defense system integrated. Tests with particularly heavy loads (three 2000-liter additional tanks, four air-to-air missiles and two Apache ), realistic tests with SPECTRA, air-to-air missile shooting with multiple targets and the integration of the series configuration of the RBE2 followed in the course of 1997 .

Also in 1997, the flight test program was ended and series production began. On December 4, 1998, the first production aircraft took off for its maiden flight, the two-seater B 301 , in the presence of the then Defense Minister Alain Richard . A Scalp EG cruise missile was tested for the first time with a test shot on the Rafale in 1999 .

technology

aerodynamics

When designing the aerodynamics, particular importance was attached to distinctive short take-off properties and a construction that was not too complex. In addition, a high level of maneuverability was aimed for. However, this characteristic did not occupy such a central position as in the Eurofighter program from which France had withdrawn. The aerodynamics are therefore less comparable to that of the Eurofighter and more to that of the Saab 39  Gripen .

Wings

A Rafale M taking off on the USS Enterprise (CVN 65) . The slats are fully extended to increase lift.

In order to achieve these development goals, a tailless delta wing construction in a middle decker design with duck wings was chosen. Thanks to the combination of a strong leading edge sweep with a relatively large wing area, delta wings allow a relatively low wing loading and a good ratio between air resistance and dynamic lift . This enables high maneuverability, especially in the transonic range (approx. Mach 0.8 to 1.2), and high efficiency in supersonic flight up to approx. Mach 2. Compared to the Mirage 2000 with 58 ° and the Eurofighter with 53 ° leading edge sweep, the Rafale has a significantly lower sweep of 48 °, which shifts the optimal speed range down a little and allows more lift due to the larger wing area. At the transition between wing and fuselage, the wing is pulled forward with an arrow of 72 °, so-called leading edge root extensions . At high angles of attack, this construction creates a pronounced cone vortex, which prevents the leading edge vortex on the outer wing from migrating inwards and thus prevents a stall on the outer elevons. This means that the Rafale remains controllable even at high angles of attack.

There are eight flaps on the wings for control. At the trailing edge, two large elevons  - combined elevator and ailerons  - are mounted on both wings . At the leading edge of the wings there are also two slats , which are mainly needed to increase lift. This design is significantly simplified compared to the Rafale A, which still had three elevons and slats on each wing. This is to save weight and complexity and thus also maintenance effort and money. The folding mechanism in the wings, which is customary in carrier aircraft, so that the aircraft take up less space in the cramped conditions, was also dispensed with due to the already small dimensions. This also serves to reduce weight and complexity.

Duck wings

Comparison between the Rafale A and the Rafale C . The air brakes and the more complex flap system of the Rafale A can be seen .

As with the Mirage 4000, there are two close-coupled canards , that is, they are in an elevated position close to the wing. These influence the flow behavior of the wings by generating a strong downward flow, which increases the lift of the wings. The closer the canards are mounted to the wing, the greater the lift. While the vertical arrangement of the canards has only a minor influence at low angles of attack, the increased arrangement compared to the wings improves the effect at high angles of attack. In contrast to the Mirage 4000 , the canards are fully movable. This means that they can be rotated so that the air flow is optimally against the wings. Especially at very high angles of attack, slightly inclined canards improve the flow behavior.

The buoyancy generated in this way gives the Rafale the excellent short take-off properties desired for carrier missions - it requires a take-off distance of just under 400 m without a catapult and a lower landing speed of around 115 kn than the Super Etendard and F-8 Crusader to be replaced . The increased lift also reduces the effective load on the wing, which leads to greater maneuverability in turns. The full mobility of the canards also enables them to be used as additional control surfaces, which further increases the maneuverability compared to older delta aircraft with rigid or without canards. Due to the optimization of the lift with canards attached accordingly close to the wing, the lever arm is short, which is why its control effect does not come close to that of the Eurofighter . Since the two relatively small air brakes that were still present in the Rafale A demonstrator , which were installed on the side of the rudder, were omitted in the series aircraft to reduce complexity and weight, the canards are also used together with the elevons to brake the machine. In addition to the advantages in terms of buoyancy, the canards located far back also improve the downward field of vision of the crew member sitting behind, which is particularly advantageous for ground attack missions.

Flight control

A Rafale M on a touch-and-go aboard USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) . The delta shape of the wings and the use of elevons and canards as air brakes can be seen.

Like the Mirage 2000 and most other modern combat aircraft, the Rafale is designed to be aerodynamically unstable in subsonic flight around the transverse axis . This means that the center of gravity of the machine is so far back that the machine always tries to pull the nose upwards. As a result, a lower rudder deflection is required for many maneuvers, which increases maneuverability. It is not publicly known how high the instability is as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord ( MAC ). The disadvantage is that an unstable machine can only be kept in a stable flight position if fast and precise control commands are constantly being made. This cannot be achieved with manual and direct control by a pilot, but has to be taken over by a fly-by-wire system, or FBW for short, with a powerful flight attitude computer. The Rafale has three such redundant, fully digital, single-channel systems that control each other. These are supplemented by a fourth, analog system. If the latter is used, the canards cannot be used and various parameters such as speed, roll rate and angle of attack are severely restricted for safety reasons. Accordingly, it is only used to be able to get to the next runway safely. With an FBW system, the pilot can only enter the desired attitude, whereupon the attitude computer calculates the necessary control commands and forwards them to the electric motors of the control surfaces. The flight attitude computers on the Rafale are also capable of so-called carefree handling . Control inputs that endanger the aircraft are not carried out. Changes that occur during the flight, for example through the dropping of weapons or additional tanks, are automatically taken into account by the flight attitude computer and the flight control is adapted accordingly. Overall, the FBW thus leads to a gain in safety, a significant relief for the pilot and, in combination with the unstable design, to increased maneuverability.

Air inlets

The two air inlets are arranged on the side under the strakes . The lateral arrangement is inferior to abdominal inlets at high angles of attack, such as in the Lockheed Martin F-16  Fighting Falcon or the Eurofighter , since the free flow reduces the air flow and thus losses of thrust occur. For Dassault, however, it was crucial that a lateral arrangement offers more space and more structural stability for the attachment of a massive nose gear suitable for carrier take-offs and landings. In addition, it was possible to achieve complete independence of the two engines, which means increased safety. The risk of foreign objects being sucked into the engine could also be reduced by the slightly higher arrangement. The air inlets of the Rafale are not adjustable. This simplifies the construction, which reduces weight and maintenance costs, but is at the expense of an optimal air supply for the engines. Particularly at high angles of attack, losses of thrust must be accepted with rigid air inlets.

Materials used

Illustration of the different materials used in the Rafale

The Rafale consists of around 30 percent by mass of composite materials , the outer surface even around 75%. In comparison, only seven percent by mass of the Mirage 2000 were made of composite materials. Extrapolating all unconventional materials together, its percentage content in mass production machines 50 percent compared to 35 percent by mass in the Rafale A . Titanium is used for the particularly stressed parts such as slats and canards . For the canards, superplastic deformation and diffusion welding were used to process the titanium . The wings, elevons, the vertical stabilizer and around 50% of the fuselage are made of carbon fiber composite materials, while large parts of the fuselage are conventionally made of an aluminum-lithium alloy . Thermoplastics are also used for individual parts, especially in the front fuselage . Finally, Kevlar is used for the radar nose and some other parts . The direct weight advantage through the use of composite materials is 300 kg, with indirect effects 1000 kg.

Stealth properties

A conception as a distinct stealth aircraft was never intended. Accordingly, with the delta canard design, a configuration that was not optimal in terms of the radar signature was selected and the weapon load is only carried externally. Nevertheless, some measures were taken to reduce the signature . The extensive use of composite materials contributes to this. In addition, the engine inlets were designed in such a way that a direct view of the engine blades - one of the largest sources of radar reflection - is not possible. The terrain following mode of the RBE2 radar also enables flying under enemy radar systems at low altitude. According to the manufacturer, further measures to reduce the signature were taken and radar-absorbing material was also installed. However, details remain secret. In this context, only the gold coating of the cockpit canopy is known (see below ). According to the engine manufacturer, unspecified measures were also taken to reduce the engine's infrared signature.

Landing gear and catch hook

The Rafale stands on a three-point landing gear from Messier-Dowty (since 2016: Safran Landing Systems ), with the nose landing gear having double tires and the two main landing gear single tires. The manufacturer of the radial tires is Michelin . All three landing gear legs are retracted straight forwards, which in an emergency enables them to be extended using only gravity and airflow. The chassis is drawn in and steered hydraulically . For deceleration, all three landing gear legs are equipped with carbon brakes from Safran Landing Systems, which are operated via the fly-by-wire. The landing gear absorbs the vertical loads that occur during landing up to a speed of 3 m / s. The reinforced landing gear of the marine version absorbs the usually heavier loads of carrier landings up to a vertical speed of 6.5 m / s. In addition, all Rafale , with the exception of the Rafale M , have a tension-operated catch hook for emergencies , which is arranged at the stern between the two engines. On the Rafale M , the catch hook is operated hydraulically and has a much more robust design so that it can be used on a regular basis when carrying a carrier.

cockpit

The cockpit, which is traditionally relatively small in Dassault aircraft, is based on that of the F-16 and is designed for good ergonomics, a large field of vision and the least possible workload for the pilot. The pilot takes a 29 ° leaned back position, which is 3 ° less than in the Rafale-A demonstrator and 1 ° more than in the F-16. This position is intended to increase the pilot's tolerance to high g -forces, improve the field of vision and give even short pilots an optimal view of the instruments. The reduction in the effective g -forces on the pilot is estimated at 2 g . The seat itself is a Mark F16F ejector seat from Martin Baker with a GQ Type 5000 parachute and zero-zero capability, manufactured under license by SEM-MB in France . The latter means that the ejection seat can also be used when the vehicle is stationary at a height of zero meters above the ground. SEM-MB is a joint venture between Martin Baker and the Safran Group. The teardrop-shaped glass hood from Saint-Gobain Sully guarantees, at least in the single-seater Rafale C hunting version, almost 360 ° all-round visibility. The hood is not made from one piece, so it is divided by aluminum struts. This slightly restricts the view, but increases stability. Current one-piece hoods, for example, are unable to withstand bird strike in all conditions . In order to reduce radar reflection, the hood is coated with a thin layer of gold that reflects radar rays. This prevents the rays from penetrating into the cockpit, which is angled and thus generates a far larger radar echo. Compared to the Rafale A , the nose of the series models was pulled a little further down to improve the downward view. The canards, which are arranged further back compared to the Eurofighter, further improve the view downwards, especially for the rear pilot in a two-seater. The cockpit is also equipped with an oxygen generator from Air Liquide , which is designed as a molecular sieve . Since molecular sieves can be regenerated almost any number of times, the logistics are simplified compared to the use of conventional oxygen bottles.

The instrumentation is designed as a glass cockpit . The information is therefore mainly presented on a head-up display of the type CTH 3022 with a field of view of 30 × 22 ° and a head level display (HLD) arranged directly below . The latter is a very high, colored 25.4 25.4 cm liquid crystal screen with a resolution of 1000 × 1000 pixels and a focus at infinity so that you can switch between HUD and HLD without having to refocus your eyes can. In addition, to the left and right of the main display there are two smaller, conventionally mounted, colored 12.7 × 12.7 cm multi-purpose liquid crystal screens with a resolution of 500 × 500 pixels. With both, the pilot can largely freely determine which content should be displayed. Usually, however, one is used for navigation and the other for armament.

A flight recorder with a semiconductor drive of the type ESPAS from Thales is also installed. In addition to the usual flight data, this also records maintenance data and everything that is displayed on the HUD and HLD.

The controls work according to the HOTAS or 3M principle ( Hands On Throttle And Stick or Mains sur Manche et Manettes ); the pilot should be able to fly the machine without having to let go of the control stick . Accordingly, the machine is primarily controlled via a sidestick on the right and a joystick-like lever on the left. There are 13 switches on the sidestick, while 24 switches are on the thrust lever. The two small touchscreens below the left multi-purpose display, which are used to select various functions such as the radio, are rather unusual . Furthermore, the two multi-purpose displays are also designed as touchscreens. In order to be able to operate these, the pilots wear special silk-lined leather gloves with no seams on the fingertips. There are also cloths for cleaning the displays. Below the right multi-purpose display there are two further small displays that show elementary parameters for navigation. It was also a voice control (Direct Voice Input, DVI) developed understands the approximately 300 different commands and the first try has a detection probability of 95%. However, this is not scaffolded on the machines of the French armed forces for cost reasons. A helmet visor of the type Gerfaut von Safran, which can considerably increase the effectiveness in cornering, has been available since the F3 standard. All previously delivered machines are to be retrofitted with it. The originally intended topsight helmet visor from Sextant Avionique (now part of Thales) could not meet expectations and was therefore not installed. This has led to delays in the introduction of a helmet visor.

Avionics

The Rafale has sensor fusion and, from F2 standard, also integrated modular avionics . The heart of the network, to which all electronic components are connected, is the so-called Modular Data Processing Unit , or MDPU for short . It consists of a backplane with a scalable coherent interface , 12 power connections and 18 processor card slots. In contrast to the IMA of the Raptor , which has identical computing modules that are connected to a global mass storage device, the computing modules of the Rafale are not standardized. There are five different plug-in cards: Data Processing (DP), Graphic Processing (GP), Bus Coupling (BC), Mass Memory (MM) and Map Generator (MG). The IMA is supplied with 2 × 115 volts AC and 28 volts DC and is cooled with air. If necessary, a second MDPU can be installed. Four to six-fold redundant digital connections using MIL-STD-1553 B and at least one optical connection using STANAG 3910 are available to all other components of avionics . There is a connection to the external loads carried via double MIL-STD-1760 data buses. The MIL-STD-1760 data buses can transmit data in both directions, so that, for example, the IR sensors of externally carried MICA-IR guided missiles can be used as additional reconnaissance sensors.

The picture of the situation is considerably improved by the sensor fusion on board and between the Rafales of a group. The SPECTRA can transfer the target data (azimuth and elevation) obtained to the radar so that it scans the volume for a short time within the angular inaccuracy of the ESM system and determines the distance, angle and speed of the targets without searching the entire sky have to. In SEAD operations, the radar and ESM also need to work together to compensate for the relatively low precision of the ESM system: first, the position of the radar display is roughly determined using sequential triangulation by ESM, then a SAR map of the target area is created using radar . An algorithm then recognizes the radar position in the image. Since the own position and speed are known, as well as the angle to the detected radar, the geodetic coordinates of the target can be calculated automatically in order to attack it with a GPS / INS-guided weapon. The purely passive 3D positioning of air targets is also possible, provided that there are several Rafales of a swarm with AESA radar (RBE2-AA) in the network. If an X-band combat aircraft radar is detected by the ESM system, the AESAs use digital beamforming to create high-precision reception lobes that are directed at the emitter. The receiver sensitivity in the X-band increases compared to the radar warning receiver, so that the emitter's side lobes can also be located. The incoming radar signals are now provided with a uniform time stamp (GPS time) and sent together with the angle data via the data link. Since the target is located at the intersection of the signal lobes, a track is formed, which in turn serves to readjust the reception lobes. If several RBE2 radars are sent in active mode, the raw data are also exchanged in order to achieve a more precise position determination of targets. Since the radar has a relatively high angular inaccuracy but enables precise distance determination, a fusion of the radar data can reduce the pulse volume if the target is observed by several Rafales from different directions.

Unfortunately, nothing specific is known about the integration of Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), DDM-NG and MICA IR into the sensor fusion. Presumably these are used for more precise angle determination and instruction of the radar.

RBE2

Probably the most important sensor is the RBE2 radar. RBE2 stands for Radar à balayage électronique 2 plans , which in German roughly means radar with electronic beam pivoting on two levels. It has been jointly developed by Dassault Electronique and Thomson-CSF (today both part of the Thales Group) since 1989.

The OSF can be seen between the radome of the RBE2 and the cockpit canopy

Technically, it is a radar with passive electronic beam swiveling (Passive Electronically Scanned Array, PESA). Compared to conventional radar, this technology enables a greater number of targets to be tracked and controlled. However, it does not come close to the performance of systems with active electronic beam swiveling. In particular, the range cannot be increased, which is why the range of the RBE2, at around 100 km, only roughly corresponds to that of the Mirage 2000 . However, with up to 40 targets that can be pursued simultaneously and up to eight targets that can be fought at the same time, the RBE2 is significantly more flexible. The radar has a terrain following mode for low-level flights and a synthetic aperture mode for reconnaissance and ground attack missions. The RBE2 devices built into the Rafale M in the F1 standard did not yet contain these modes and could only be used for aerial combat. An IFF of type SB25A is also integrated. If no identification can be made with IFF, a function called Non-Cooperative Target Recognition is available with which aircraft types stored in a database can be recognized on the basis of their radar signature. For the installation of the RBE2 in the series machine, the nose had to be enlarged compared to the Rafale A demonstrator.

The RBE2 consists of six easily exchangeable components (Line Replaceable Units, LRU). These are the frequency generator / receiver, the amplifier , the signal processor , the antenna, the structure and the radome . The antenna, measuring around 60 cm in diameter, is based on the RADANT design from Thales. Two cylindrical "lenses" arranged one behind the other, each containing around 25,000 diodes , and a polarizing filter between the two lenses are used. This enables the tracking of a large number of targets and the simultaneous fulfillment of several tasks such as tracking ground and air targets. The system is cooled by cryotechnology . With a weight of 270 kg, the RBE2 is around 30% lighter and only requires around half the volume of the Mirage 2000-5's radar .

Work is currently underway on the introduction of the RBE2-AA (Antenna Actife), which has an antenna with active electronic beam scanning ( Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA)). This can increase the range, improve resolution in SAR mode and increase reliability. The RBE2-AA is from around 1000 combined transmitter and receiver modules based on gallium arsenide - semiconductors are made. 400,000 lines of software code were written for the RBE2-AA, compared to 2,000,000 lines for all the rest of the avionics. An official development order was placed in 2004. Two years later, the test operation with a prototype began and in 2010 the testing of the series standard began. The reduction of the planned number of Rafale by a further eight machines in 2008 was made with the intention of equipping at least the machines still to be procured with the RBE2-AA. The 60 machines of the fourth installment ordered in 2009 and to be delivered from 2013 in the F3 standard will be equipped with the RBE2-AA. In addition, several of the potential export customers have expressed an interest in an AESA radar. A temporarily planned scaffolding of the RBE2-AA in the Gripen was subsequently refused in order not to reduce the export chances of the Rafale .

OSF

The Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF) , in German about optronics for the front sector, is a passive, movable optical reconnaissance system that has been available since the F2 standard. It consists of an infrared sensor ( infrared target system ) from Sagem (now part of Safran ) on the right side and a so-called Combat Identification Unit (CIU) from Thales on the left. The IR sensor, which works in two different wavelengths (3–5 and 8–12 µm), is used to locate and track targets without using the relatively easy-to-locate radar. In addition to the difficult location, the electro-optical location also has the advantage of a significantly higher resistance to interference. The CIU consists of a television camera coupled with a laser rangefinder and is primarily used for reliable visual identification, which is of considerable importance with today's mostly strict rules of engagement for avoiding self-fire . Alternatively, however, it can also be used for target tracking. In contrast to the IR and TV sensor, the laser rangefinder, as it is an active system, can be located. The range of the IR sensor is specified at around 100 km, that of the CIU at around 40 km. With the CIU, however, the actual range is heavily dependent on the size of the target and the weather conditions, while in the case of the IR sensor, the heat radiation of the target determines the range. In the fourth Rafale tranche to be delivered in the F3 standard from 2013 , an improved version of the OSF is to be used, which in particular is intended to significantly reduce the susceptibility to failure.

navigation

The two rotatable multi-purpose probes of the Pitot-Static-System on the right are clearly visible. One of the two left probes is partially visible on the far right of the picture.

The most important navigation instruments are two redundant laser-based inertial navigation systems (INS) of the type RL-90 from Sagem with an integrated GPS receiver of the type NSS-100. The Thales TLS 2020 system, which combines ILS , MLS and VOR , is available for landings . The military VOR counterpart, TACAN , can also be used for navigation with the NC-12E receiver . The AHV 17 radar altimeter is also from Thales .

There is also a set of flight data sensors. The most important component is a pitot static system with four multifunctional probes. These measure both the dynamic pressure (alternatively the ram pressure) and the static pressure, from which, in particular, flight altitude and speed can be calculated. The probes are rotatably mounted under the front fuselage - this is where the interference is lowest. The rotatable mounting allows a reliable measurement even at high angles of incidence or sliding . Air temperature and ice sensors are also available. All flight data sensors are - as for most modern western combat aircraft - supplied by the US American Goodrich Corporation , making the flight data sensors one of the few components that do not come from a French company.

communication

VHF and UHF radios are available for communication. The EAS TRA 2020 radio device is used for unencrypted civil radio communications, while the TRA 6032 radio device enables encrypted military communication in the same frequency range. In addition, since the introduction of the F2 standard for Network-Centric Warfare, a 29 kg Multifunctional Information Distribution System Low Volume Terminal (MIDS-LVT) has been available for communication via Link 16 , which means that larger amounts of data are also available can be transmitted at a speed of up to 100 kbit / s. This makes it possible, for example, for a Rafale to receive an image of the situation from a Boeing E-3 when the sensors are switched off  - regardless of the NATO country due to the compatibility of the Link 16 - and then fight the target without locating itself using its radar would.

SPECTRA

The elements of SPECTRA

SPECTRA, which either stands for Système de Protection et d'Évitement des Conduites de Tir du RAfale in French or Self-Protection Equipment Countering Threats to Rafale Aircraft in English, is the Rafale's self-defense system . It is a system for electronic warfare (EW) and is used in particular to take electronic countermeasures (ECM) . The 250 kg system was developed by Thomson-CSF, Dassault Electronique (today both part of Thales) and MBDA . There are three radar warning receivers (RWR) and laser warning devices (LWR) with a coverage of 120 ° each, as well as two infrared sensors for detecting approaching missiles. Two of the radar warning receivers, which operate in a frequency range from 2 to 40 GHz, are located near the engine inlets, the third is mounted at the stern in a container on top of the vertical stabilizer. Their range is up to 200 km depending on the type and strength of the source. Two of the laser warning devices are located at the height of the cockpit root, the third is housed in the container on the vertical stabilizer. This also contains the two infrared warning sensors of type DDM. The 60 machines of the fourth tranche to be delivered in the F3 standard from 2013 will have the improved DDM-NG. If a threat is recognized, it can be localized with the sensors using interferometry with an accuracy of 1 °. It is also compared with the system's database and prioritized based on the threat. Finally, countermeasures are suggested to the pilot. For this purpose, two jammers are attached between the canards and the hull. There are four launchers for decoys in the wing root at the stern . SPECTRA is controlled by a computer that has three processors and is located in the container between the engines.

Engines

→ Main article : Snecma M88

identification number	M88-2
length	3,538 m
Max. diameter	0.9 m
Fan diameter	0.69 m
Weight	897 kg
Thrust (dry / wet)	50/75 kN
Specific consumption	0.8 / 1.7 kg / daN.h
Air flow	65 kg / s
Bypass ratio	0.3: 1
Thrust-to-weight ratio	5.7 / 8.5
Compression ratio	24.5
operating temperatur	1,850 K

The Rafale A demonstrator was powered by two General Electric F404-GE-400 engines, as the planned French in-house development was not yet available. Compared to the later series engine, with around 4 m, this unit is almost half a meter longer and around 15% heavier, making the Rafale A significantly larger than later series models. Since the demonstrator was still missing a large part of the military equipment, the F404 , which performed 48.9  kN without and 78.7 kN with afterburner, already had a good thrust-to-weight ratio of 1.04 despite the larger and heavier airframe and engines.

A Snecma M88-2 engine

Since 1986, Snecma has been working on the M88 engine, the M88-1 version was tested on the Rafale A from 1990 onwards and has also been available in the M88-2 series version since 1996. With a drying capacity of 50 kN and an afterburner capacity of 75 kN, it corresponds to the performance class of the F404, but is smaller and lighter in order to enable the required small dimensions of the Rafale. It is a twin-shaft turbofan engine with three low-pressure compressor stages, six high-pressure compressor stages, an annular combustion chamber , one cooled single-stage high-pressure and low-pressure turbine each and an afterburner . The blades are made of monocrystalline , which allows higher operating temperatures. The M88 is Snecma's first twin-shaft engine for combat aircraft. This design increases the efficiency of the engine, but also its complexity and weight. The thrust-to-weight ratio of the engine is 5.7 without and 8.5 with afterburning, the bypass ratio is 0.3: 1. The total compression is 24.5: 1, the air throughput is 65 kg / s. The M88 is equipped with a redundantly designed, fully digital, electronic control system (so-called FADEC ), which increases the efficiency of the engine. To facilitate maintenance and the replacement of individual components, the engine is made up of 21 modules. A whole engine can be changed within an hour. Furthermore, all Rafale are equipped with an APU from Microturbo , a subsidiary of Snecma, which is used to supply energy on the ground and to start the engines.

The two M88-2s give the Rafale a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1.04 at normal takeoff weight. Dassault also states that the Rafale with a supersonic -optimized 1250-liter additional tank and four air-to-air missiles is supercruise-capable , i.e. can reach supersonic speed without an afterburner. Since this has not yet been proven and the dry thrust does not reach the values ​​of the Eurofighter , this remains doubtful, at least with the external loads specified by Dassault.

Between 2004 and 2007, the M88-ECO program explored the potential for future improvements. On the one hand, attempts were made to reduce operating costs, for which purpose the maintenance intervals should be extended, the service life extended and fuel consumption reduced. To achieve this, the low-pressure turbine was equipped with new blisks , the high-pressure turbine was improved, with the blades in particular being cooled, and the afterburner made largely of lighter ceramic composite materials. On the other hand, the increase in performance to around 60 kN dry and 90 kN wet was tested by increasing the air throughput to 72 kg / s. Despite the around 20% increase in output, the specific fuel consumption would remain unchanged. A separate prototype was built and tested for both goals. Those changes that help to reduce operating costs are to be largely adopted as the M88-2-4E in series production from 2011. The increase in engine performance will not be implemented for the time being. The United Arab Emirates are said to be interested in this variant, known as the M88-3, due to the particularly high air temperatures of the operating environment there and the correspondingly lower buoyancy.

Armament

The GIAT-30-M791 automatic cannon with the OPIT ammunition

The Rafale is equipped with the single-barrel seven - chamber revolver cannon GIAT 30 M791 from Nexter (formerly GIAT) in 30 × 150 mm caliber. The cadence of the electrically ignited weapon is 2500 rounds per minute, the muzzle velocity is 1025 m / s. The cannon is mounted in the right wing root behind a cover that is destroyed when fired, and designed as a conventional gas pressure loader . Revolver cannons have a very high rate of fire with short bursts and also outperform Gatling weapons , which is why they are able to bring a large number of projectiles into the air with the smallest possible time delay. This, in combination with the high muzzle velocity, makes them particularly suitable for short-range cornering. Use against ground targets is also possible. The 30 M791 can fire 21 rounds in a standard 0.5-second burst. The effective range is 2500 m. 125 rounds of armor-piercing tracer ammunition can be carried, which ignite in the target (obus perforant incendiaire traçant, OPIT). Although all versions of the Rafale - with the exception of the BM / N version that was never built - can be equipped with the 30 M791, none was built into the first machines due to budgetary delays.

In addition, a wide range of external loads can be carried at 14, or 13 on the Rafale M , suspension points. Two of the stations are attached to the wing tips, two more are arranged one behind the other under the fuselage, three are under each wing, two are on the side under the engines and two are under the air intakes. The M-version does not have the front lower trunk station. The two stations at the wingtips and the two at the side under the engines are reserved exclusively for short and medium range air-to-air missiles. The two stations under the air inlets are usually only used for target lighting containers. Heavy loads can only be carried at the rear lower fuselage station and the two inner lower wing stations, i.e. at a total of five stations. In total, external loads up to a weight of 9,500 kg can be carried; the usual payload does not usually exceed 6,000 kg.

A Rafale with a MICA IR at the end of the wing as well as three AASM and a 2000 l subsonic additional tank under the wing. In addition, there is a scalp EG and a Damoclès target lighting container on the floor. The cannon cover can also be seen at the root of the wing.

Additional tanks can also be installed at the five stations, which are designed for heavy loads. There are two types available. On the one hand large 2000 l tanks that are not designed for supersonic speeds and on the other hand 1250 l tanks with full supersonic capability. The former type can only be used on the aft sub-trunk station and the two innermost sub-wing stations. In addition, two conformal fuel tanks with a capacity of 1150 l each can be attached. These affect the aerodynamics of the aircraft less than conventional additional tanks and can be assembled or disassembled within 2 hours. So far, however, they have not been procured by the French armed forces. The 2000 l additional tanks are manufactured by the Swiss state-owned company RUAG , which in 2010 - also in connection with Dassault's efforts to sell the Rafale to Switzerland (see below ) - also became the only manufacturer of the 1250 l additional tanks. In order to refuel other aircraft , an air refueling container with a transmission capacity of 750 liters per minute can also be carried, which is especially important for the Navy. The Rafale can be refueled via a removable air refueling nozzle, which, as with the Mirage 2000 , cannot be retracted or folded down on the bow during flight.

Rafale with special paintwork "30,000 flight hours" at MAKS 2011

The Magic II and the MICA are available as air-to-air armaments. The former is a short-range infrared guided missile, the latter a medium-range missile that is available in both an infrared and a radar-guided version. It will later replace the Magic II. A common air-to-air configuration of the Rafale consists of a 1250-liter additional tank and six MICA or four MICA and two Magic IIs. However, up to eight air-to-air missiles can be attached if required. With the F3R standard, the MBDA Meteor will also be equipped as a long-range weapon to complement the MICA from 2018 . France has ordered 200 of these guided missiles, which are to be delivered from 2018.

Air-to-ground armament has been available since the F2 standard. Only guided bombs from the French AASM series and the laser, GPS and INS-guided 250 kg glide bomb Raytheon GBU-49 / B "Enhanced Paveway II" (also EGBU-12) could be used. Both weapon systems fit without modifications to the same triple carrier of the type Rafaut AT-730. With the introduction of the F3 standard, the range was expanded to include other weapons such as the Apache and Scalp EG cruise missiles and the nuclear-armed ASMP-A . In 2013, the F3 standard is also to be expanded to include the anti-ship missile type AM39 Exocet Block 2 Mod 2 . In the role of nuclear deterrent, an ASMP-A, two to four MICAs for self-defense and two additional tanks are usually carried. For long-range attacks, a configuration with two Apache or Scalp EG, three additional tanks and two MICA for self-defense is provided. Precision-guided bombs are usually carried four, but six can be carried if necessary.

The Damoclès laser target illumination container was also introduced with the F3 standard . This enabled the Rafale to independently illuminate targets for the use of laser-guided weapons. In addition to the laser target illuminator, an infrared camera is also equipped, which guarantees full day and night functionality. However, this only offers a resolution of 320 × 240 pixels, which is significantly worse than the current standard of 640 × 480 pixels used by other NATO forces. With the F3R standard, this is to be replaced by the PDL-NG container, which will offer a significantly better resolution with 1280 × 1040 pixels. The original order comprises 20 PDL-NGs, 45 are to be purchased in the long term.

The Areos Reco NG reconnaissance pod from Thales was also introduced with the F3 standard in order to be able to replace the aircraft currently used in the reconnaissance role - the Super Etendard in the Aviation Navale and the Mirage F1 in the Armée de l'air . The 4.6 m long and 1100 kg heavy system can record digital image material from a great height as well as from a fast low flight. For this purpose, a digital optical camera and an infrared sensor for medium and high altitudes are located in the rotating nose, while a rigid infrared sensor for low-level flights is available in the rear part of the container. The image material obtained is saved on a hard drive and can also be sent directly to a ground station, whereby 15 minutes of transmission time are required for the image material of a two-hour mission. The Armée de l'air has ordered twelve pods, the Aviation Navale eight.

Versions

Rafale M on the Charles de Gaulle (R 91) with the ladder extended.

The reinforced nose landing gear of the Rafale M with a device for catapult launches.

Rafale A

The Rafale A was a single demonstrator aircraft equipped with American F404 engines and correspondingly larger. Military equipment was largely non-existent.

Rafale C

The Rafale C  - C for chasseur , hunter - is the single-seat hunting version of the Armée de l'air.

Rafale B

The Rafale B  - B for biplace , two-seater - is the two-seater for the Armée de l'air. It was originally designed exclusively as a training aircraft, but is now also intended for all squadrons with nuclear weapons and for conventional ground attack missions. It has the same external dimensions as the C version, but is a little heavier and has 500 l less tank volume. The instrumentation of the front and rear cockpits is identical.

Rafale M

The Rafale M  - M for Navy  - is the single-seat version for Aviation Navale. Structurally, it is more than 80% identical to the C version and has more than 95% of the same systems. The changes that are necessary for the carrier use include in particular:

• Reinforced structure to absorb the higher loads during carrier take-offs and landings.
• Reinforced chassis for the same reason (see above ).
• Extended nose landing gear with bracket for catapult launches.
• Reinforced, hydraulically operated catch hook for regular use with carrier operations.
• Due to the lengthened and reinforced nose landing gear, the front central lower trunk station is omitted for reasons of space.
• A retractable telescopic ladder.
• Additional navigation equipment for navigation over the sea and landings on aircraft carriers.

All of these changes make the Rafale M heavier and more expensive than the C version. As of the F2 standard, it is also fully compatible with American aircraft carriers. In the F1 standard, however, landings on American carriers were not yet possible because the existing navigation equipment was not compatible with the American systems.

Rafale BM / Rafale N

The Rafale N , originally called Rafale BM  - BM for Biplace Marine  - should have been the two-seater marine version. It was deleted for reasons of cost.

Rafale D

The designation Rafale D  - D for discreet , inconspicuous - was used by Dassault from time to time to refer to the signature-reducing measures that were introduced in the series version. The name was later dropped.

Standards

The Rafale family

The introduction of the Rafale took place in various stages, the so-called standards. A major advantage of this approach was that the first series machines were introduced into the French armed forces earlier.

LF1

The LF1 standard, sometimes also called Sub-F1, was the first standard. It was only equipped with rudimentary air-to-air capabilities and was delivered without an on-board cannon. Only a handful of M-Version machines were built to enable the Aviation Navale to quickly replace the antiquated F-8 Crusader . All machines have been upgraded to the F1 standard.

F1

For the same reasons as the LF1, the standard F1 was also only supplied in the M version. The air-to-air capabilities were expanded and the cannons installed. Including the converted LF1 machines, ten units were delivered, nine of which are in storage. All are currently being upgraded to the F3 standard (see below ).

F2

Multi-role capability was achieved with the F2 standard. In particular, the functionality of the radar was expanded, Link 16 was scaffolded and the machines could carry steering bombs. Machines of this standard were delivered to the French armed forces in all versions from 2004. Between September 2008 and September 2010 all machines of this standard were converted from F2 to F3.

F3

With the current F3 standard, introduced in mid-2008, all capabilities originally planned and not subsequently deleted for cost reasons have been implemented. In this standard, all operating modes of the radar, a helmet visor and the full range of weapons including the nuclear-equipped ASMP distance weapon, a target lighting pod and a reconnaissance pod are available. The use of 30 mm cannons against ground targets has also been made easier by software adjustments. The Rafale M are qualified with this standard for catapult launches with a launch mass of 23.5 tons, which allows the use of two 2,000-liter auxiliary tanks. The F3 standard is prepared for the inclusion of an AESA radar, but it is not part of the F3 standard. Future weapons like the Meteor can also be integrated into the F3 standard. The standard F3 is available in all three versions of the Rafale .

F3-04T

As of 2013, the French armed forces' squadrons will receive F3-04T standard aircraft . These aircraft will receive the new AESA radar (see above ) as well as an improved missile warning system and less interference-prone optronics (see here and here ). On October 2, 2012, the first machine equipped in this way was delivered to the Armée de l'Air for test purposes.

F3.4

As an intermediate step up to the introduction of the F3R standard, the F3.4 brings minor improvements, especially on the software side, among other things to increase NATO compatibility and security. Machines in the F3.4 standard will be delivered from the beginning of 2015.

F3R

France placed the development order for the F3R standard on January 10, 2014, which is a further development of the current F3-04T standard and which had its maiden flight at the end of 2018. The order, worth 810 million euros, includes in particular the integration of the air-to-air missile MBDA Meteor , an expanded integration of the precision-controlled bombs of the Sagem AASM Hammer type, a further improvement of the SPECTRA system and a new laser target lighting container. The latter is of the Thales PDL-NG type and, at a cost of 120 million euros, is one of the most essential parts of the program.

future

The development of an F4 standard is scheduled to begin in 2018. Various other improvements were proposed, including the approximately 20% more powerful M88-3 engine. Overall, France is planning with the copies of the F4 standard, the series production of which is to be ordered in 2023 for delivery by 2030. That would give France 225 Rafale, including 40 naval aviators.

As of 2015, a terrain following mode for the autopilot, which should enable automatic low-level flights for single-seaters, is also being tested. So far, no decision has been made about an introduction.

The Rafale in the French armed forces

Orders and deliveries

Originally 336 machines were to be procured, consisting of 225 single-seaters and 25 double-seaters for the Armée de l'air and 86 machines for the Aviation Navale . At the end of the Cold War there was a first cut in 1992, after which 234 machines were left for the Armée de l'air and 60 machines for the Aviation Navale. However, experience from the Gulf War meant that the number of two-seater machines for the Armée de l'air rose to 139, while the single-seaters were reduced to 95. The aim is to counter the high workload of pilots during reconnaissance and ground attack missions. At the end of 2004, in a further attempt to reduce costs, the two-seater version for the Navy was canceled. In a third round of savings, a further eight aircraft were finally canceled in 2008, leaving 228 aircraft for the Armée de l'air and 58 for the Aviation Navale. In return, the reduction by eight machines should enable the development and procurement of new systems, in particular an AESA radar . Of these 286 machines, the last two major orders - 59 in 2004 and 60 in 2009 - placed a total of 180 machines, of which 133 were for the Armée de l'air and 47 single-seater navies. According to the Defense White Paper 2013, the number of combat aircraft is to fall to 225 aircraft by 2025 (for naval aviators and air forces combined), which would mean a further significant reduction in the procurement target.

In terms of both orders and deliveries, Aviation Navale was preferred to Armée de l'air, as the aircraft to be replaced - F-8 Crusader and Super Etendard  - are significantly older. As of November 2010, 31 machines of the single-seat marine version Rafale M have been delivered. All 58 aircraft should have been delivered by 2012, making the Rafale M the only fighter aircraft operated by Aviation Navale. However, due to the low production rates, this point in time is likely to be postponed by around three years. As of November 2010, the Armée de l'air had 62 machines according to the Projet de loi finances pour 2011 , which consist of 38 two-seaters and 16 single-seaters, which obviously does not work out mathematically. The delivery of all 228 machines was originally supposed to be completed in 2010, was then postponed to 2020 and should now drag on until 2025. Then, also due to the early retirement of the other aircraft types, the Rafale will presumably have replaced all other fighter aircraft of the Armée de l'air - SEPECAT Jaguar , Dassault Mirage F1 and Dassault Mirage 2000  . The deliveries made by 2025 will lead to a corresponding reduction in the production rate, which is now only eleven machines per year. According to Dassault, a total of 98 machines had been delivered to the French armed forces as of mid-2011. By mid-January 2014 this number increased to 126 aircraft, made up of 39 single-seaters for the Navy, 45 single-seaters for the Air Force and 42 two-seaters for the Air Force.

By mid-2015, the delivery status could be increased to 140 machines. At the same time, however, the delivery time schedule for the Armée de l'air was pushed back again: three two-seaters were diverted for export to Egypt and three more machines are to follow this route. With the current delivery rate of only 11 machines per year, this means a significant delay, which is not inconvenient given France's current budget problems. Dassault plans to increase the production rate by 2018.

costs

The unit costs of the Rafale have increased significantly in the course of the procurement and the program costs also increased, although the number of units was reduced. According to the Cour des comptes  - the French Court of Auditors - 39.073 billion euros were originally to be spent on 320 machines. As of January 2009, the program costs, including the improvements that were subsequently ordered, were already 40.69 billion euros, although the number of units has since been reduced to just 286 machines. This results in an increase in the costs per machine including development costs from 122.1 million euros to 142.3 million euros. The pure fly-away costs per machine without development costs were given by the Ministry of Defense in 2009 as 64 to 70 million euros, depending on the version. The Cour des Comptes, on the other hand, names production costs of originally 96.6 million euros and 101.1 million euros as of January 2009, which corresponds to an increase of only 4.7%. Most of the increase in program costs would therefore be due to development costs.

The cost of one flight hour was given by the Cour des Comptes in 2004 as a high 35,000 euros. The Ministry of Defense wants to reduce this to 10,000 euros per flight hour for the Rafale C and 7,000 euros per flight hour for the Rafale M by 2012 . According to information provided by Dassault to Armasuisse, an hour's flight costs 21,000 euros in 2012.

Associations

• 

  Rafale M, Flotilla 12F

• 

  Rafale B, season 5/330 Côte d'argent

• 

  Rafale B, season 1/7 Provence

• 

  Rafale C, Season 1/7 Provence

• 

  Rafale B, Season 1/91 Gascony

Currently, the Rafale is flown by six different associations, which are made up of a naval aviation squadron, three air force squadrons, a test squadron and a joint training squadron.

Aéronavale

Flotilla 11F

The 11F Flotilla, stationed on the BAN Landivisiau , was deployed in 2011 as the second squadron of the Aviation Navale ; the Rafale M will be deployed until 2012.

Flotilla 12F

The Flotilla 12F, also stationed in Landivisiau, was reactivated on May 18, 2001 to operate the first Rafale M. Three years later, after 4,400 flight hours, 2,000 landings and 30 missile air-to-air missiles, the Flotilla 12F was able to achieve full operational readiness on June 25, 2004 with its ten Rafale Ms in the F1 standard. Another four years later, on May 21, 2008, the machines of the F2 standard were fully operational. All ten machines of the standard F1 - with the exception of the M 01, which was still used for various tests - were stored. At the end of 2010, the incumbent Defense Minister Hervé Morin announced that all ten machines of the F1 standard will be upgraded to the F3 standard by 2017 for a price of 300 million euros, of which the first converted machine could be handed over in autumn 2014. The flotilla 12F has already been deployed three times over Afghanistan. In 2008, the BAN Landivisiau was also the venue for the Tiger Meet (see below ).

Flotilla 17F

As the third naval association, the Flotilla 17F, also stationed in Landivisiau, has been training on the Rafale since 2016 and should be ready for use in 2018.

other

The cross-armed retraining unit (see section "Armée de l'air") has a nominal three Rafale M and the Escadrille CEPA 10S test center in Hyères has another Rafale M.

Armée de l'air

Escadron de chasse et d'expérimentation 1/30 Côte d'argent (until 2016 5/330)

The 5/330 Côte d'argent test squadron , which is part of the Center d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) , was the first association of the Armée de l'air to receive two Rafale B and C each from December 2004 .

Escadron de chasse 1/7 Provence

The hunting squadron EC 1/7 Provence , stationed in Saint-Dizier for a long time , was the first unit of the Armée de l'air to receive a total of 20 Rafale B and C from 2006 . Squadron 1/7 Provence was the first Rafale unit of the Armée de l'air to be operationally deployed over Afghanistan in 2007 (see below ). In June 2016, the EC 1/7 replaced the EC 3/33 in Al-Dhafra in the United Arab Emirates .

Escadron de chasse 1/4 Gascogne (until 2016 1/91)

The then EC 1/91 Gascogne , also stationed in Saint-Dizier , was reactivated on March 31, 2009 after it was decommissioned in 2005 and equipped with the Rafale B in the F3 standard. It is to receive a total of 20 machines. Although the association is known as the Escadron de chasse, i.e. the hunting squadron, its main task is nuclear deterrence. On July 1, 2010, full operational readiness was achieved.

Escadron de chasse 2/4 La Fayette

With a view to the decommissioning of their Mirage 2000N operated by Istres in 2018, half of the EC 2/4 La Fayette was repositioned in May 2017 in Saint-Dizier with the temporary number EC 5/4 and started with the help of the EC 1/4 her retraining on the Rafale, at the end of August 2018 she was put into service as EC 2/4.

Escadron de transformation Rafale 3/4 Aquitaine (until 2016 2/92)

The then ETR 2/92 and today's ETR 3/4 Aquitaine is a joint training squadron of the navy and air forces, which was officially set up on October 6, 2010 in the presence of Defense Minister Hervé Morin. The station is also located in Saint-Dizier. The ETR 3/4 currently has four simulators, but apart from a nominal three (marine) Rafale Ms, it has no aircraft of its own. These are borrowed from the other squadrons stationed in Saint-Dizier. The 20 pilots who are to be trained annually go through either a three or a nine month training program, depending on their flying experience.

Escadron de chasse 2/30 Normandie-Niemen (initially Régiment de chasse)

The second main Rafale base for the Air Force in France is Mont-de-Marsan . The first machine arrived in August 2011, and the squadron was officially commissioned on June 25, 2012.

Escadron de chasse 3/30 Lorraine

In early 2011, the Lorraine Hunting Squadron was reactivated as EC 3/30 after being decommissioned as EC 3/33 in 2005. The association was equipped with three Rafale Cs from 2011 and stationed at the Al-Dhafra air force base in the United Arab Emirates , where France has had a permanent base since 2008. The squadron moved to the 30th Fighter Squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in the summer of 2016 .

Calls

Exercises and early assignments

As early as 2002 - two years before full operational readiness was officially declared - fighter planes of the type Rafale M were stationed on the Charles de Gaulle and used in cooperation with the United States Navy in armed border patrols between India and Pakistan . In December 2005, the flotilla 12F also set up a temporary alarm fleet for the north-east of France - actually not the task of the naval aviation - for which two Rafale Ms were relocated from Landivisiau to the naval aviation base Lann-Bihoué . In the years 2008 and 2010 the Flotilla 12F once again raised the alarm at times.

A variety of exercises were also performed. For example, in June 2008 on the BAN Landivisiau, where the Flotilla 12F with its Rafale M is stationed, the Tiger Meet 2008 under the theme Ocean Tiger was held. It also took Rafale the Armée de l'air part. Rafale M practice repeatedly with US aircraft carriers. In July 2008, when the Charles de Gaulle was not available from summer 2007 to early 2009, several Rafale Ms were transferred to the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) as part of Operation Brimstone in order to be able to practice carrier operations. The engine change on a Rafale aboard the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) in June 2010 was the first engine change on a foreign aircraft aboard a US carrier.

A Rafale B in special paint for the Tiger Meet 2008

Missions over Afghanistan

The Rafale M was used for the first time in May 2006 as part of the Héraclès Air India operation over Afghanistan, when some standard F1 machines - still without air-to-ground capabilities - were patrolling Afghanistan from the Charles de Gaulle .

Another operational mission took place in 2007, when three Rafale M and three Rafale B were equipped with GBU-12 guided bombs for use in Afghanistan within a very short time . The three M-Version machines were used by Charles de Gaulle , while the three Rafale B of Jagdgeschwader 1/7 Provence were relocated to Dushanbe in Tajikistan in mid-March . Since the Damoclès target light container was not yet integrated, the machines were dependent on being accompanied by a Super Etendard or a Mirage 2000 with the appropriate skills. Nevertheless, this concept offered operational advantages, since the usual armament of a Mirage 2000 is only two GBU-12, while a Rafale can usually carry four and if necessary even six. On March 28th, the first Rafale to drop an M-Version machine, a GBU-12, was deployed to support Dutch troops. The first weapon use of a Rafale B took place on April 1st. During the missions, which were only flown in daylight, the missing on-board cannon on the Rafale B turned out to be a shortcoming, which was used by pilots in previous conflicts to deter enemy ground troops with warning shots.

In 2009, the Rafale was used for the third time over Afghanistan, when three machines from the 1/7 Provence Fighter Squadron were relocated to Kandahar in January .

As part of Opération Agapanthe 2010 from late 2010 to early 2011, Rafale M, stationed on the Charles de Gaulle , flew missions over Afghanistan again between November 25 and December 25, 2010. In this part of the Opération Agapanthe 2010 , which was called Opération Pamir , the Areos Reco NG reconnaissance pod was also used operationally for the first time. A Rafale fell during the operation (see below ).

Missions over Libya

From March 2011, the Rafale was deployed over Libya as part of Opération Harmattan , the French participation in the international intervention to enforce Resolution 1973 of the United Nations Security Council . The aim of the operation was - as approved by international law in Resolution 1973 of the Security Council - to set up a no-fly zone and to “take all measures that serve to protect the civilian population”. The de facto goal was also to end the Gaddafi regime.

On March 19, the first day of the international intervention, eight Rafale stationed in Saint-Dizier were deployed together with Mirage 2000 , C-135 tankers and an AWACS aircraft from the Armée de l'air. Since March 22, 2011, the Flotilla 12F has also been operating over Libya, based on the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle , which had set sail for Libya two days earlier with eight Rafale Ms in the standard F3 of the squadron and other aircraft and helicopters on board. On April 6, the air group was Charles de Gaulle for another two to ten Rafale M added. On the part of the French air force, eight Rafale versions C and B were relocated to Solenzara, the southernmost French air force base near the small town of Porto-Vecchio in southern Corsica . The air force base was therefore nicknamed Rafaletown . Relocation even closer to Libya, in particular to the Sicilian military airfield Sigonella , was examined, but not implemented. By the end of May, the detachment in Solenzara had already over 2,200 flight hours and over 1,500 refueling in the air, with the flights to and from the area of ​​operation each taking around two hours, with a total operating time of six to eight hours.

The tasks of the Rafale of both the Armée de l'air and the Aviation Navale over Libya are reconnaissance missions with the Areos Recco NG reconnaissance pod and the enforcement of the no-fly zone. To this end, patrols armed with MICA air-to-air missiles are flown in order to be able to shoot down any Libyan aircraft that violate the flight ban. On the other hand, facilities of the Libyan air force and air defense are also attacked as a preventive measure. According to the French Ministry of Defense, a Soko Galeb was devastated during such an operation . In order to achieve the goal of protecting the population set out in the UN resolution, attacks were also carried out on Libyan ground troops. AASM precision bombs and, for the first time, Scalp-EG cruise missiles were used as air-to-ground armament . According to Dassault, AASM guided bombs destroyed targets up to 57 km away, which is a new record. Due to the large distances and depending on the respective missions, the Rafale carry two 2000 l or three 1250 l additional tanks with them, in the tanker reel even two tanks of both types.

Missions over Iraq

As part of the international mission of individual NATO countries against the Islamic State , the Rafale flew reconnaissance missions from September 15, 2014 and combat missions in Iraq from September 19, 2014 . The starting point for the missions was the permanent base in Al Dhafra in the United Arab Emirates . Additional material and personnel were relocated from Istres with an Airbus A400M and a C-135 tanker aircraft to provide support.

Missions over Syria

French Rafale have been deployed in Syria to combat terrorism since September 27, 2015.

Accidents

• On December 7, 2007, an unarmed two-seater Rafale B of the 1/7 Provence squadron stationed in Saint-Dizier crashed during a training flight in a wooded area near Neuvic in the Corrèze department . The only pilot on board died while the ejection seat had not been deployed. Spatial disorientation of the pilot was given as the cause of the accident.
• On May 22, 2008, a Rafale M of Flotilla 12F of Aviation Navale shot over the runway at the Lann-Bihoué naval air base . The pilot was able to catapult himself out of the plane with the ejector seat and was uninjured; the aircraft did not suffer much damage and could be repaired.
• On September 24, 2009, two Rafale Ms of Flotilla 12F of Aviation Navale collided about 30 km east of Perpignan over the Gulf of Lion . One of the two pilots was able to use the ejection seat and was then rescued.
• On November 28, 2010, a Rafale M operated by the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle of the Flotilla 12F of Aviation Navale crashed off the coast of Pakistan. The machine should have been used in Operation Agapanthe 2010 over Afghanistan. The pilot was able to use the ejection seat and was saved. A malfunction in the fuel system is assumed to be the cause of the accident.
• On July 2, 2012, a Rafale M, operating from the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle , crashed during air combat training with an American F-18 from the USS Eisenhower . The pilot was able to save himself with the ejection seat and was then rescued by a helicopter.
• On March 20, 2019, a passenger accidentally catapulted himself out of a Rafale two-seater belonging to the Armée de l'Air while taking off from the Saint-Dizier-Robinson air force base in eastern France.

Exports

Despite previous export successes of the Mirage series and a design that was also chosen with regard to good export opportunities, it was not until 2015 that Dassault was able to find foreign buyers for the Rafale . Dassault sees the export of the Rafale as a central challenge for the program in order to be able to distribute the high development costs - as with earlier Dassault fighter jets - over a larger number of machines. Since its introduction, the aircraft has therefore participated in numerous tenders, which, however, have failed more often than they were successful.

Egypt

On February 16, 2015, Egypt signed a contract for the purchase of 24 Rafale, 16 two-seater Rafale DM and eight single-seater Rafale EM for EUR 5.2 billion. The order also includes MICA air-to-air guided missiles, Storm Shadow cruise missiles and a FREMM frigate, as well as an option for 12 more Rafale. The first three machines from the delivery for the two-seater branched off from the AdA were already delivered to Istres on July 20, 2015. The production rate is also to be increased so that up to twice as many annual deliveries can take place by 2018. The first three copies arrived in the country the following day. They are operated by the 34th Squadron, which belongs to the 203rd Tactical Combat Squadron.

India

India has tendered the procurement of 126 multi-role combat aircraft under the project name MMRCA ( Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft ); the order volume in the area is around 10 billion US dollars. The Indian Air Force already flies the Mirage-2000H . Competitors were originally the Lockheed Martin F-16 E / F Fighting Falcon , the Saab JAS-39NG Gripen , the Boeing F / A-18 E / F Super Hornet , the Eurofighter Typhoon and the Mikojan-Gurewitsch MiG-35 . All applicants were flight tested in India. The Rafale should not originally be allowed to do this; however, the decision was subsequently revised. After only the Rafale and the Eurofighter Typhoon were in the final selection in April 2011 , it was announced on January 31, 2012 that the Indian government is entering into exclusive contract negotiations for the purchase of 126 Rafale jets. 18 aircraft were to be supplied by Dassault and 108 aircraft were to be manufactured under license in India. The negotiations should be finished by March 2014, but have been postponed several times. In April, the presidents of France and India announced that India would buy 36, twice as many, French-built aircraft as soon as possible. There is no longer any talk of license production. The planes are to meet the acute needs of the Indian Air Force, with deliveries to begin two years after the contract is signed. The contract is supposed to be concluded between the governments without Dassault, but negotiations are still pending, while the original project ended in August 2015. On September 23, 2016, the French and Indian Defense Ministers, Jean-Yves Le Drian and Manohar Parrikar, signed a purchase agreement for 36 Rafale multi- role fighter jets for € 7.89 billion.

Deliveries finally began in October 2019 and at the end of July 2020 the first jets of the 17th Squadron arrived at their home base in Ambala in the state of Haryana .

Qatar

Qatar signed a contract on May 4, 2015 to supply 24 Rafale for EUR 6.3 billion. The contract also includes related weapons and training for 36 pilots, as well as an option for twelve more machines that were towed in late 2017. Deliveries are planned from 2019 to 2022, with the first season being set up in Mont-de-Marsan , France .

Ongoing negotiations

 Malaysia :

Dassault has offered Malaysia the delivery of 16 to 18 machines, with the purchase of Eurofighters also being considered. Two AdA Rafale were relocated to Malaysia for show purposes.

 United Arab Emirates :

The United Arab Emirates are negotiating the purchase of around 60 copies to replace the Mirage 2000-9 / 9D that were delivered around ten years ago . However, no agreement has been reached so far, and the UAE's wishes for an AESA radar and a more powerful engine - both of which are still in development -, the price of these modifications and the UAE's wish that France should take back the Mirage 2000 are in dispute. Negotiations were temporarily interrupted and the UAE obtained information about the F / A-18 E / F Super Hornet from Boeing. The relocation of three Rafale at the end of 2010 to the French base in the UAE, which was opened in 2008, is seen in part in connection with the contract negotiations (see above ). The French side expects the negotiations to be concluded in 2015.

Failed negotiations

 Brazil :

Since the beginning of 2008, Brazil has been looking for 36 and long-term 120 new combat aircraft as part of the F-X2 program to replace the aging fleet consisting of Northrop F-5 , AMX International AMX and the Mirage 2000 purchased second-hand, with technology transfer and partial production in Brazil being required. The Rafale was in the final selection together with the American F / A-18E / F Super Hornet and the Swedish Saab JAS 39 Gripen since October 2008 after the Eurofighter , the F-16BR Fighting Falcon and Sukhoi Su-35BM were eliminated. On September 7, 2009, the Rafale was announced as the preferred bidder without being formally committed. Shortly afterwards, all three providers were asked to improve their offers again, which was all done by the beginning of October of the same year. In January 2010, Força Aérea Brasileira announced that the Gripen was the best offer due to the low acquisition and operating costs and better integration of the Brazilian industry. The then President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , a supporter of the Rafale for political reasons , finally decided to leave the decision to his successor Dilma Rousseff . After numerous postponements, the decision was finally made again in December 2013 in favor of the Saab Gripen NG.

 Kuwait :

Kuwait was interested in procuring 14 to 28 aircraft and had officially asked for an offer. However, in September 2015 it became known that Kuwait would be purchasing 28 units of the competitor Eurofighter Typhoon via Italy .

 Morocco :

The Rafale was in the selection process of the Moroccan Armed Forces for a new multi-role fighter aircraft. However, at the end of 2007 it was defeated by the less powerful but cheaper F-16C Fighting Falcon Block 52 from Lockheed Martin .

 Switzerland :

A Rafale B of the Armée de l'air with two MICA IR, two 2000 l subsonic additional tanks and the Areos Reco NG reconnaissance pod for testing in Emmen

In January 2008, the Swiss Air Force invited the four manufacturers Boeing , Dassault, EADS and Saab to submit their offers for the Tiger Part Replacement (TTE) project , which will at least partially replace the remaining 50 F-5 Tiger IIs . The Rafale was offered by Dassault in the F3-04T standard, which in particular also includes the new RBE2-AA radar. As Boeing did not accept the invitation, the three aircraft types on offer - Rafale , Eurofighter and Gripen  - were evaluated in Switzerland in 2008. In January 2009, all three manufacturers were given the opportunity to improve their offers again. In 2010 the TTE program was interrupted for the time being because the planned budget of 2.2 billion Swiss francs could not finance the procurement of the targeted 22 machines. A decision should not be made until 2015. On November 30, 2011 it was announced that the decision had been made in favor of JAS Gripen . At the end of January 2012, Dassault submitted an offer at a much lower price in order to get back into the race. In the referendum in May 2014 , however, the Swiss refused to finance the procurement of new combat aircraft.

 Singapore :

In Singapore, the Eurofighter , the Rafale and a variant of the Boeing F-15E Eagle , the F-15SG, were in the final selection, although the Eurofighter was eliminated prematurely due to its limited air-to-ground capabilities and slow further development. In 2005 the F-15SG was declared the winner.

 South Korea :

As early as 2002, the Rafale lost to another variant of the F-15E, the F-15K, in a tender from South Korea.

Technical specifications

Three-sided tear of a single-seat Rafale

A Rafale M on a touch-and-go aboard USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74)

Side view of a Rafale B

Parameter	Data from the Dassault Rafale F3
Type:	Multipurpose fighter
Length:	15.27 m
Wingspan:	10.80 m
Wing area:	45.70 m²
Wing extension :	2.55
Wing loading:	minimum (empty weight): 224 kg / m² nominal (normal takeoff weight): 322 kg / m² maximum (maximum take-off weight): 536 kg / m²
Height:	5.34 m
Empty weight:	10,220 kg
Normal takeoff weight:	14,710 kg
Maximum take-off weight:	24,500 kg
Fuel capacity:	internal: 4680 kg external: 6720 kg
Fuel mass fraction:	0.318
g limits:	−3.2 to +9 g
Rolling ability:	270 ° / s
Top speed:	2125 km / h or Mach 1.97 (at 10,975 m at −50 ° C)
Maximum service speed:	1915 km / h or Mach 1.78 (at 10,975 m at −50 ° C) 1397 km / h or Mach 1.13 (at sea level at 20 ° C)
Minimum flight speed:	148 km / h
Service ceiling:	16,763 m
Maximum climbing power:	> 305 m / s
Use radius:	1093 km (as an interceptor)
Crew:	one pilot (Rafale C and M), 2 (Rafale B)
Maximum weapon load:	9500 kg at 14 external load stations (5 of them for heavy weapons or external tanks)
Engine:	two SNECMA-M88-2-E4 turbofan engines
Thrust:	with afterburner: 2 × 75 kN without afterburner: 2 × 50 kN
Thrust-to-weight ratio:	maximum (empty weight): 1.50 nominal (normal takeoff weight): 1.04 minimum (maximum take-off weight): 0.62

See also

• List of aircraft types

literature

• Claudio Müller: Airplanes of the World 2010. Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-613-03174-6 .
• Paul Jackson (Ed.): Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1999-2000. Jane's Information Group, 1999, ISBN 0-7106-1898-0 .
• Séan Wilson, Karl Schwarz: Dassault Rafale - multi-role version F3 flies over Libya and Afghanistan. In: Flight Revue . June 2011, pp. 38–41.

Web links

Commons : Dassault Rafale  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

• The Rafale on the website of the manufacturer Dassault Aviation (English)
• The Rafale C / B on the website of the Direction générale de l'armement (French)
• The Rafale M on the website of the Marine Nationale (fr.)
• The Rafale in Jane's All the World's Aircraft on the websites of the University of Bucharest (English)
• The Rafale on avions-militaires.net (fr.)
• The Rafale on airforce-technology.com (English)
• The Rafale on vectorsite.net (English)
• Detailed flight test report by a former RAF pilots (English)
• Project description on flightglobal.com as of 1999 (English)
• Detailed presentation with a focus on the Rafale M (fr.)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b} Michel Cabirol: Exportation du Rafale: les inquiétudes de l'armée de l'air. La Tribune , June 9, 2015, accessed July 24, 2015 . 
2. ↑ Translation Rafale Leo online translator
3. ↑ Dirk Ruschmann: David against the Goliaths. In: Bilanz Nr. 1/2010, p. 46 (online in the Swiss media database : full text as PDF (subject to charge)  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ).  
4. ↑ Gesche Wüpper: The curse of the "Rafale" is broken. Die Welt , February 14, 2015, accessed on May 4, 2015 . 
5. ↑ ^{a b} Qatar buys French fighter jets. In: Spiegel Online . May 4, 2015, accessed May 4, 2015 . 
6. ↑ Commémoration des anniversaires des premiers vols du premier avion à réaction français . ( Memento from January 6, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) In: stratisc.org . Institut d'histoire des Conflits Contemporains. Retrieved July 19, 2011.
7. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} French Fleet Air arm Dassault Aviation Rafale M . Retrieved July 20, 2011.
8. ^ Hélène Masson: Le JSF / F-35 en Europe: le prix du pragmatisme . ( Memento of September 20, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved July 19, 2011 (PDF; 317 kB).
9. ↑ ^{a b} Rafale: Le program Rafale. In: Avions-militaires.net. Archived from the original on July 22, 2012 ; Retrieved May 11, 2011 (French). 
10. ^ Rafale: Les versions développées. In: Avions-militaires.net. Archived from the original on July 18, 2012 ; Retrieved May 11, 2011 (French). 
11. ↑ Hervé Coutau-Bégarie, The problem of porte-avions . Retrieved July 20, 2011.
12. ^ French Fleet Air Arm, McDonnell Douglas F-18 FN Hornet . Retrieved July 20, 2011.
13. ↑ Picture of the Rafale A with the two different engines. ( Memento of March 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved July 19, 2011.
14. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Faculty of Aviation, Bucharest Polytechnic University , Dassault Aviation: Dassault Rafale. In: Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1999-2000.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 11, 2011.  
15. ↑ Air & Space Europe, Production Rafale Aircraft: The Take-Off! 1999, doi : 10.1016 / S1290-0958 (00) 88423-3 .
16. ^ EL Tu: Numerical Study of the Close-Coupled Canard-wing-Body Aerodynamic Interaction .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: metapress.com . Ames Research Center . Retrieved February 26, 2011.  
17. ^ Canard Aircraft . ( Memento of March 2, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) In: School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Adelaide . Retrieved February 25, 2011 (PDF; 2.6 MB).
18. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Flightglobal , Wings of change . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
19. ^ Show News Paris 2007, Pilot Report: We fly the Dassault Rafale , pp. 108-109. ( Memento of the original from June 18, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Aviation Week. Retrieved January 27, 2011. 
20. ↑ Union des industries et métiers de la métallurgie, Du métal au composite: Zoom sur Dassault Biarritz ( Memento from January 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 446 kB) accessed on February 26, 2011.
21. ↑ Michel Robert: Les composites aéronautiques . ( Memento of September 27, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) In: andrea.nfrance.com . Retrieved February 26, 2011 (PDF; 7.4 MB).
22. ↑ Dassault Aviation, Rafale: A fully optimized airframe . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
23. ↑ ^{a b} Snecma, M88 Fact Sheet . ( Memento from May 30, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) In: snecma.com . Retrieved on February 27, 2011 (PDF; 40 kB).
24. ^ ^{A b} Airforceworld.com, France: Rafale Fighter . Retrieved March 1, 2011.
25. ^ Messier-Dowty, Military: Rafale . ( Memento of October 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved October 12, 2014.
26. ↑ ^{a b c d} Avions-militaires.net Rafale: Au coeur du cockpit .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved February 28, 2011.  
27. ↑ Martin-Baker Aircraft Company, Mk.F16F Rafale . ( Memento of February 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 27, 2011.
28. ↑ SEM-MB, SEM-MB presentation . ( Memento of December 12, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 27, 2011.
29. ↑ ^{a b} Airframer, Dassault Rafale . Retrieved March 11, 2011.
30. ^ ^{A b c d} Greg Goebel, The Dassault Rafale: Rafale Described . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
31. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Avionics Magazine, Serious Squall . ( Memento of July 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ). Retrieved February 28, 2011.
32. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} France’s Rafale Fighter . ( Memento from January 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: Defense Industry Daily. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
33. ^ Dassault Aviation: Dassault Aviation feedbacks on its military and civil IMA applications . Retrieved May 15, 2014.
34. ↑ ^{a b c} defense-aerospace.com, Rafale in Combat: "War for Dummies". Retrieved July 17, 2011.
35. ↑ Stéphane KEMKEMIAN, Myriam NOUVEL-FIANI: On Co-operative Localization Strategies using ESM & Radar on board Airborne Platforms. IEEE CIE International Conference on Radar, 24.-27. Oct. 2011, ISBN 978-1-4244-8444-7 , pp. 4-7.
36. ↑ Avions-Militaires.net Rafale: Le RBE2 you Rafale radar .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved February 28, 2011.  
37. ^ Flight International, RBE2 radar gets ahead . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
38. ^ Fox Three, N ° 8: The RBE2 AESA. (PDF; 3.3 MB) In: dassault-aviation.com. Dassault Aviation, p. 12 , archived from the original on November 22, 2007 ; accessed on February 28, 2011 . 
39. ↑ Defense News, Thales To Deliver AESA Radars Soon . ( Memento of July 24, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Retrieved on February 28, 2011.
40. ↑ ^{a b c} SkyNews.ch, Rafale has proven itself in Afghanistan  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 686 kB) accessed on March 11, 2011.  
41. ↑ Avions-Militaires.net, L'OSF, l'autre du radar Rafale . ( Memento from July 21, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Retrieved on March 18, 2011.
42. ↑ Optronique et Défense, Optronique Secteur Frontal du Rafale. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
43. ^ French Fleet Air Arm, Caractéristiques du Dassault Rafale. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
44. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Flug Revue June 2011, Dassault Rafale - Multi-role version F3 flies over Libya and Afghanistan , pp. 38–41.
45. ↑ ^{a b} airforce-technology.com, Rafale Multirole Combat Fighter, France . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
46. ^ Goodrich Corporation, Defense & Space Capabilities . ( January 12, 2011 memento in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved March 11, 2011.
47. ↑ MBDA, The new DDM-NG offers more protection for Rafale .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 11, 2011.  
48. ↑ Snecma, Military Aircraft Engines: M88-2 (PDF; 224 kB) accessed on February 27, 2011.
49. ↑ Jean-Noël Passieux, Snecma M88 . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
50. ^ Flightglobal, Snecma M88 . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
51. ^ Dassault Aviation, Rafale: Budget . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
52. ^ Fox Three, N ° 8: Air Defense Mission for Flottille 12F. (PDF; 3.3 MB) In: dassault-aviation.com. Dassault Aviation, p. 8 , archived from the original on November 22, 2007 ; accessed on February 28, 2011 . 
53. ^ ^{A b} Defense Industry Daily, India's M-MRCA Competition . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
54. ↑ Snecma, M88: A compact, high-tech powerhouse . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
55. ↑ Dassault Aviation, Fox Three N ° 2: Power On! M88 Omnirole Thrust (p. 4 f.) (PDF; 264 kB) accessed on March 1, 2011.
56. ^ Nexter, Canon 30 M 791 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 11, 2011.  
57. ↑ Jane's, 30 M 791 30 mm aircraft cannon (France), Guns - Integral and mounted . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
58. ↑ Dassault Aviation, Fox Three N ° 2: Astounding Fire Power (p. 6) (PDF; 264 kB) Accessed March 1, 2011.
59. ↑ Jane's, Nexter Systems 30 × 150 B ammunition (France), Cannon - 20 to 30 mm cannon . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
60. ^ ^{A b c} Dassault Aviation, Rafale over Afghanistan . ( Memento of May 26, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved March 1, 2011.
61. ↑ ^{a b} FliegerRevue November 2009, pp. 26–30, Rafale is gaining combat strength.
62. ↑ Fighter Planes, Rafale, Dassault-Breguet . Retrieved March 1, 2011.
63. ↑ Dassault Aviation, Fox Three N ° 2: Conformal Fuel Tanks (p. 1) (PDF; 264 kB) accessed on March 1, 2011.
64. ↑ Dassault / Ruag, RUAG and DASSAULT AVIATION are strengthening their strategic partnership by signing a supply contract for all Rafale fuel tanks ( memento of the original from November 17, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 28 kB) accessed on March 11, 2011. 
65. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Commande de 200 missiles Météor . Retrieved February 28, 2011.
66. ↑ Mer et Marine, Rafale Marine: Les F1 seront livrés au standard F3 entre 2014 et 2017 . Retrieved March 18, 2011.
67. ^ Thales, Thales technologies onboard the Rafale . ( Memento of September 17, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Retrieved on February 28, 2011.
68. ↑ ^{a b c} Development order for Rafale F3R standard placed. FlugRevue, January 10, 2014, accessed on January 21, 2014 . 
69. ^ Thales, Rafale F3 and AREOS Reco NG: the 21st century reconnaissance team . ( Memento of April 11, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 28, 2011.
70. ↑ MILAVIA, Dassault Rafale . Retrieved March 1, 2011.
71. ↑ ^{a b c} Flightglobal, France's Rafale fighter proves its 'omnirole' skills . Retrieved July 17, 2011.
72. ↑ FlugRevue, Dassault Rafale delivered with AESA radar . Retrieved October 10, 2012.
73. ↑ defense-aerospace.com, Rafale F3.4 Tested In Istres , accessed July 24, 2015.
74. ↑ Defense World, Improved Safety Features in New Version Of Rafale Fighter , accessed July 24, 2015.
75. ^ Premier vol pour le Rafale F3-R, Air Force homepage, December 20, 2018
76. ^ Dominic Perry: France approves the latest Rafale upgrade plan. In: Flightglobal.com. January 10, 2014, accessed on January 12, 2014 (English): “France has given the go-ahead to Dassault Aviation for a further iterative development of the Rafale combat aircraft, which will enable the integration of a number of new weapons and equipment . " 
77. ↑ France to buy more Rafales, A330 tankers under new spending plan, Janes, February 9, 2018
78. ^ Space Daily, Terrain-following autopilot capability eyed for Rafale fighters , accessed July 24, 2015.
79. ↑ airforce-technology.com, French Air Force tests terrain-following capability on single-seat Rafale , accessed on July 24, 2015.
80. ^ French Senate , Projet de loi de finances pour 2006: Défense - Equipement des forces (“Proposed law for the 2006 budget: Defense - Equipment of the armed forces”) - accessed on February 24, 2011.
81. ^ ^{A b c} French Senate, Projet de loi de finances pour 2009: Défense - Equipement des forces (“Proposed law for the budget 2009: Defense - equipment of the armed forces”) - accessed on February 24, 2011.
82. ^ Ministère de la Défense, Le Live blanc sur la défense et la sécurité nationale 2013 , pp. 96, 139, accessed on January 21, 2014.
83. ^ ^{A b} French Senate, Projet de loi de finances pour 2011: Défense - Equipement des forces (“Proposed law for the 2011 budget: Defense - Equipment of the armed forces”) - accessed on February 24, 2011.
84. ↑ ^{a b c} Cour des comptes, Rapport public annuel 2010 . ( Memento of March 4, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 25, 2011.
85. ↑ ^{a b} Dassault Aviation, transcript of a speech by CEO Charles Edelstenne (PDF; 172 kB) accessed on July 17, 2011.
86. ↑ ^{a b} Reuters, Dassault CEO says to raise Rafale production on export wins , accessed July 24, 2015.
87. ^ Cour des comptes, Le maintien en condition opérationnelle des matériels des armées . Retrieved March 30, 2011.
88. ^ Mer et Marine, Dassault Aviation livre le Rafale M31 . Retrieved February 26, 2011.
89. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Flotilla 12F . Retrieved February 25, 2011.
90. ↑ Net Marine, La 12F, opérationnelle sur Rafale F2 . Retrieved February 25, 2011.
91. ^ Mer et Marine, Aéronautique navale: Les Rafale F1 portés au standard F3 à partir de 2010 . Retrieved February 25, 2010.
92. ↑ First Rafale M modernized. FlugRevue, October 7, 2014, accessed October 12, 2014 . 
93. ^ French Navy retires Super Etendard, Janes, July 18, 2016
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95. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Escadron de chasse 1/7 "Provence" . Retrieved February 25, 2011.
96. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Dissuader . Retrieved February 25, 2011.
97. ↑ BourseReflex, Un nouveau missile nucléaire sous les ailes du Rafale. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
98. ↑ TTU online, May 12, 2017
99. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Rafale: inauguration de l'escadron de transformation à Saint-Dizier . Retrieved February 25, 2011.
100. ↑ Latin Aero, French Air Force Rafale squadron commissions fourth . ( Memento of December 19, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 25, 2011.
101. ^ The Hindu , French jets patrolled Indo-Pak. coastline . ( Memento of November 11, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved March 2, 2011.
102. ↑ Ouest-France.fr, Les Tigres volants ont rendez-vous à Landivisiau . Retrieved March 2, 2011.
103. ↑ Navy Times, JTFEX helps allied aviators tighten ties . ( Memento of September 4, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Retrieved on March 2.
104. ↑ Defense Talk, French Rafale Performs Jet Engine Swap Out on Board Truman . Retrieved October 12, 2014.
105. ^ Greg Goebel, The Dassault Rafale: Rafale into Service . Retrieved March 3, 2011.
106. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Afghanistan: 3 Rafale à Kandahar . Retrieved July 21, 2011.
107. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Agapanthe: bilan de la participation du groupe aéronaval à l'opération Pamir . Retrieved March 2, 2011.
108. ↑ Der Spiegel, French fighter jets fly over Benghazi . Accessed March 19.
109. ↑ ^{a b} Ministère de la Defense L'operation Harmattan . Retrieved April 7, 2011.
110. ↑ Tages-Anzeiger, «Ghadhafi could resign tomorrow» . Retrieved July 28.
111. ^ Ministère de la Défense, Libye: début des opérations aériennes françaises , accessed on March 23, 2011.
112. ^ Ministère de la Défense, Libye: appareillage du porte-avions Charles de Gaulle ( memento of August 26, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on March 23, 2011.
113. ^ L'Express , Toute la puissance de feu du Charles-de-Gaulle déployée au large de la Libye . Retrieved March 23, 2011.
114. ↑ Der Spiegel, Western Libya Mission: The Bomb Business . Retrieved March 30, 2011.
115. ↑ Mer et Marine, Libye: Les Rafale tirent des missiles de croisière Scalp . Retrieved March 30, 2011.
116. ↑ Ministère de la Defense, Libye: première mission aérienne pour la TF 473 . Accessed March 23.
117. ↑ Defense News, France Deploys About 20 Aircraft to Enforce Libya No-Fly Zone .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 23, 2011.  
118. ↑ Ministère de la Défense, Iraq: premier vol de reconnaissance aérienne , accessed on September 19, 2014 (French).
119. ↑ abc news, France Strikes Islamic State Group's Depot in Iraq , accessed September 19, 2014.
120. ↑ Francúzi bombardują cele w Syrii - Altair Agencja Lotnicza. In: altair.com.pl. Retrieved September 28, 2015 (Polish). 
121. ↑ Le Figaro , Le crash du Rafale dû à unproblemème humain . Retrieved February 24, 2011.
122. ↑ Un Rafale sort de piste dans le Morbihan. May 22, 2008, archived from the original on August 4, 2012 ; accessed on October 24, 2019 . 
123. ↑ Le Monde , Deux Rafale se sont abîmés en Méditerranée . Retrieved February 24, 2011.
124. ↑ Europe 1 , Comment un Rafale s'est abîmé en mer . Retrieved February 24, 2011.
125. ↑ marianne2.fr: Un Rafale de la Marine s'abîme en mer. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on July 4, 2012 ; Retrieved July 3, 2012 . 
126. ↑ https://www.flugrevue.de/militaer/unfallbericht-veroeffentlicht-zivilist-schoss-sich-versehnahm-aus-fliegender-rafale/
127. ↑ Page no longer available , search in web archives: DefenseNews, Dassault: India Set 'Difficult' Conditions on MMRCA
128. ↑ Jane's Information Group : Egypt orders Rafale fighter aircraft ( Memento from February 15, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) (English), accessed on February 14, 2015
129. ↑ Le Figaro , Au Caire, la France et l'Égypte signent le contrat du Rafale (French), accessed on February 16, 2015
130. ↑ Flightglobal, Rafale exports take off with Egyptian delivery , accessed July 24, 2015.
131. ↑ Der Spiegel , world's largest arms deal: fighter jet companies vying for India's favor . Retrieved October 23, 2009.
132. ↑ Jan Hoehn: India is planning to overhaul its air force. In: VDI nachrichten from August 14, 2009, p. 4.
133. ^ Flight International, US confirms India fighter rejection , accessed May 1, 2011.
134. ↑ Der Spiegel, EADS loses billions in contracts. India chooses low-cost airlines , accessed February 1, 2012.
135. ^ India and France joint statement. (No longer available online.) In: elysee.fr. Présidence de la République, April 11, 2015, archived from the original on May 18, 2015 ; accessed on May 11, 2015 . 
136. ↑ The Indian Express, For PM Narendra Modi, 36 ready-to-fly Rafale jets wrapped in Paris red carpet , accessed July 24, 2015.
137. ^ The Economic Times, India to wait another two years for French Rafale jets: Manohar Parrikar ( Memento of April 28, 2015 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on July 24, 2015.
138. ^ NDTV, Rafale Fighter Jet Negotiations to Start This Month: Defense Minister Manohar Parrikar . Retrieved July 24, 2015.
139. ^ Defense News, India Cancels $ 12B Combat Jet Program , accessed August 5, 2015.
140. ↑ India is buying 36 French combat aircraft for around eight billion euros. (No longer available online.) Donaukurier , September 23, 2016, archived from the original on September 23, 2016 ; accessed on September 23, 2016 . 
141. ↑ Dassault delivers Rafale first to India. Flightglobal, October 8, 2019
142. ↑ India's first five Rafales arrive at Ambala base. Flightglobal, July 30, 2020
143. ↑ Qatar signs for 12 more Rafale fighters, Janes, December 7, 2017 ( Memento of December 8, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
144. ↑ First Qatari Rafales to arrive in 2019, Janes, July 10, 2018
145. ↑ Europe 1, Rafale: un 3e contrat à venir pour la France? , accessed July 24, 2015.
146. ↑ Defense World, Dassault Increases Rafale Pitch For Malaysia At LIMA 2015 , accessed July 24, 2015.
147. ↑ Le Point, Pour vendre le Rafale aux Émirats, Paris contraint de financer une nouvelle version . ( March 26, 2010 memento from the Internet Archive ) Retrieved February 27, 2011.
148. ↑ Le Point, Aux Émirats, le contrat du Rafale sur une pente fatale . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
149. ↑ rfi english, France's defense minister seals Rafale sale with India , accessed on July 24, 2015.
150. ↑ FliegerWeb, France's Jet Rafale is about to be exported . Retrieved September 8, 2009.
151. ↑ FliegerWeb, Brazil extends F-X2 offer period . Retrieved September 23, 2009.
152. ↑ FliegerWeb, In Brazil all three have bid again . Retrieved October 6, 2009.
153. ↑ Saab wins Brazil's F-X2 fighter contest with Gripen NG. Flightglobal, December 19, 2013, accessed December 19, 2013 . 
154. ↑ Le Monde, Le Koweït serait “fier” d'avoir des Rafale (“Kuwait would be 'proud' to have the Rafale”) of October 21, 2009 - accessed on October 23, 2009.
155. ↑ Kuwait prefers Eurofighter to Boeing's F-18. Welt, September 11, 2015, accessed September 11, 2015 . 
156. ↑ Flightglobal, Lockheed receives F-16 contract for Morocco , accessed December 23, 2009.
157. ^ Defense Industry Daily, Switzerland Replacing its F-5s? . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
158. ↑ Swiss Confederation, Federal Council postpones TTE procurement . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
159. ↑ Bundesrat, Bundesrat decides to procure 22 Gripen . Retrieved October 12, 2012.
160. ^ Neue Zürcher Zeitung , offer to renegotiate from Dassault . Retrieved October 10, 2012.
161. ^ Defense Industry Daily, Singapore's RSAF Decides to Fly Like An Eagle , accessed February 27, 2011.
162. ^ The New York Times , Seoul is 'biased' to Boeing, Dassault says: French sue over fighter . Retrieved February 27, 2011.
163. ^ Defense Industry Daily, South Korea to Buy Another 20 F-15K Fighters? , accessed February 27, 2011.
164. ↑ Rafale - Caractéristiques. In: dassault-aviation.com. Dassault Aviation , archived from the original on June 8, 2011 ; Retrieved October 23, 2009 (French). 
165. ↑ Website “Rafale for Switzerland”, technical-operational information ( memento of the original from December 18, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 11.2 MB) accessed on October 23, 2009. 

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on August 10, 2011 in this version .