History of the Germans in the Łódź area

The old church in Nowosolna

The history of the Germans in the Łódź area begins at the end of the 18th century. By this time, the descendants of earlier waves of immigration in the Middle Ages and early modern times were already assimilated. At the end of the 18th century, the local aristocracy began to recruit German farmers, so-called Dutchmen , whose ancestors had lived as settlers in the Polish-speaking area for several generations and gradually founded new villages from west to east. The oldest settlement document from the area around Łódź dates back to 1782. By 1800, more than 50 villages were founded by German farmers. At the beginning of the 19th century, the farmers were followed by urban craftsmen who played a key role in the industrialization of the region. They mostly immigrated to existing cities, but some new cities were also founded. The immigration of both groups of settlers continued until around 1840, but even after that the German minority continued to grow due to their excess of births . The January uprising of 1863–64 and the liberation of the peasants in 1864 made conditions worse for the German settlers in the region, and there was a strong emigration to Volhynia in the second half of the 19th century . It was not until the occupation of the First World War that closer contact with the country of origin came about again. The Germans from Lodz experienced the period between the two world wars as a particularly difficult time: on the one hand, the newly formed Polish state showed them great mistrust, on the other hand, they were exposed to increasing influence and instrumentalization by the propaganda of the German Reich . In addition, the economic situation was bad during this period. A new chapter began with the attack on Poland in September 1939, but after initial relief after the German occupation of the region, many of the native Germans were shaken and disturbed by the persecution and oppression of Jews and Poles . The end of the Second World War meant the loss of their homeland for the majority of the Łódź Germans and assimilation for those who stayed .

In the 1930s , around 180,000 Germans lived in the Łódź area , between the rivers Warthe , Bzura and Pilica , 60,000 to 70,000 of them in Łódź itself. In the 19th century, they were at times the largest population group in the city.

Middle Ages and early modern times

Scene from the Sachsenspiegel shows the German settlement around 1300

As part of the German settlement in the east , German immigrants came to this region as early as the Middle Ages. In the following centuries these Germans merged with their Polish environment.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, due to the Counter-Reformation, a large number of Protestant, German cloth-makers immigrated to Poland , mainly from Silesia , although most of them settled in regions to the west, but some also reached the Łódź area. As part of this wave of immigration, German draperies were also settled in Brzeziny , Rzgów and Pabianice in their own districts, and probably also in Lutomiersk .

In the 18th century, when there was another immigration of German farmers to this region, the descendants of the early immigrants were already assimilated.

1782 to 1793: beginning of the rural settlement

Other Breyer Map (1938)

In the eighties of the 18th century, the modern settlement movement of German farmers, which since the 16th century had been advancing further and further east from the west, reached the area of ​​the later industrial area of ​​Łódź. The German farmers used new techniques to utilize soils that had previously been considered unsuitable for agriculture. Settlers of Pomeranian origin came from the north-west and settlers of Silesian origin from the south-west . Most of the time, however, the parents or grandparents had already left these regions of origin to settle in Poland, so that most of the settlers already had experience of clearing work .

The reason for the immigration of German farmers was provided by the local nobles, who wanted to increase their income through the rent to be paid by the settlers. As a rule, the landowner commissioned a recruiter who traveled to the more western German settlement areas and recruited the settlers there and led them into the settlement area. In return, he usually received the hereditary Schulzenamt in the newly founded village, which also included interest-free land. The settlers paid a so-called basic allowance when they were assigned. During the difficult period of reclamation, they were given a few years of leave during which they did not have to pay any interest and, in return, undertook to clear the land and build residential and farm buildings on it. They also received land from the landlord for a school and a cemetery. As a rule, the settlers lived separately from the Polish indigenous population in their own villages or districts.

The settlers in the Silesian dialect, called “Hockerlinger” in the regional dialect, usually founded scattered settlements , preferring moist, cold-ground soils. Typical for their villages were also plank barns or stand barns built from short planks. The settlers came mainly from the German villages of the Kalischer Land , from the area around Stawiszyn , Grodziec and Zagórów , others from the area of Grätz , Santomischel , Koschmin , Rakwitz , Lomnitz and Pleschen .

The settlers in Pomeranian dialect, who were also called “Kashubes”, founded street villages in which the barn barn was characteristic. Most of them came from Kujawien , from the area around Dombie , Babiak , Chodecz , Mogilno , Witkowo , Strelno , as well as from Rogasen , Bromberg , Wongrowitz and Schokken .

When describing the origin of the settlers, however, it should be borne in mind that the families had mostly lived in the Polish-speaking area for several generations and that a certain degree of mixing and assimilation had therefore already taken place . Although this process was slowed down by the fact that the Poles were almost without exception Catholic and serfs and therefore there was hardly any mixed marriages, the peasant liberation soon progressed particularly in the western regions from which the settlers of central Poland came and thus favored the mix . In some cases, as a rule, under pressure from the respective landlord, the German villages were catholized, which in turn promoted the Polonization of their inhabitants.

The oldest places founded by Germans in this region were Ruda, Bugaj (for both see Ruda-Bugaj ) and Wierzbno (today a district of Aleksandrów Łódzki ), which were founded in 1782 by settlers of Silesian origin and initially jointly named Groß-Bruschitz (Polish Brużyca Wielka ) wore. In 1784, a few kilometers north, Słowik and Pustkowa Góra were founded by settlers of Pomeranian descent. Since the Germans were mostly Protestant while the Poles were Catholic, the Protestant pastor from Iłów toured the area twice a year from 1786 to ensure church supplies. In the times when he was not present, baptisms and the like were recorded in the nearest Catholic Church.

The following places were founded by 1793: 1782: Ruda-Bugaj, Wierzbno; 1784: Słowik, Pustkowa Góra; 1785: Chechło ; 1788: Chojny , Dąbrowa , Gałkówek ; 1789: Swędów ; 1790: Janów (north of Nowosolna), Janów (south of Nowosolna), Górki ; 1791: Rydzyny , Brużyczka ; 1792: Żabieniec , Kały , Mileszki .

1793 to 1807: Continuation of the settlement under Prussian rule

The castle of the Krakow bishops in Pabianice, seat of the Prussian administration between 1793 and 1807, town hall since 1833

In 1793, the region around Łódź came to Prussia as part of South Prussia as part of the second Polish partition . Despite the political upheaval, the German settlement in the region progressed very quickly, so that in 1800 there were already more than 50 German villages that were created on the initiative of the Polish nobility (→ list of places formerly populated by German in the Łódź area ).

The German school system developed parallel to the expansion of the settlements: in 1798 there were already nine German elementary schools in the area of ​​Łódź, namely in Słowik, Groß Brużyca (Brużyca Wielka) , Klein Brużyca (Bużyczka Mała) , Kały, Dąbrowa-Holendry, Swendow (Swędów) , Glombie (Głąbie) , Mileszki and Domrasin-Holendry , two of which, however , were vacant . Five more schools were added by 1805.

In 1801, with the support of the landlord Raphael von Bratuszewski, the region's first Protestant parish was founded in Ruda-Bugaj, whose first pastor was Friedrich Georg Tuve .

Private colonization was slowed down under the rule of Prussia, because since most of these settlers came from other Prussian provinces, no profit could be made in terms of the Peuplierungspolitik . Instead, state colonization began, for which settlers from non-Prussian countries were recruited. The first state colonies were established in the region from 1798 onwards, but it was not until 1800 that large-scale colonization began. In the following year advertising agencies were set up in southern Germany and the systematic recruitment of settlers began. In the years 1801–03 the number of settlers increased rapidly, but in 1804 the advertising had to be stopped. Since a large part of the immigrants came from Swabia, “Szwaby” became the name for the German.

The state colonization was carried out with considerable effort: the establishment of a settler post in South Prussia alone cost 1000 thalers . The settlers and their sons were exempted from military service, they were given 3–6 years tax exemption (sometimes more), depending on the nature of the soil, clearing allowances of 600 Polish guilders for a Magdeburg hoof, travel support of 15 groschen per mile per family member, as well as economic equipment, Cattle and z. Sometimes even interest-free loans. In addition, the house, stable and barn were built at the expense of the state. This support was probably also necessary because the southern Germans, who were inexperienced in clearing work, had to rely on the support of the local Germans when clearing their land, who they could pay for this work thanks to the grubbing money granted.

Although the recruitment of settlers was still in progress, there was already an increase in emigration and further migration to Russia in 1803 and 1804. The Prussian state tried by all means to prevent the colonists from withdrawing, the border guards tried to intercept the fugitive settlers, and those who were caught were threatened with running the dows six times as a punishment . Nevertheless, many managed to escape across the border into Russia. The destination of this hike was apparently mostly the region of Odessa , between the Dnieper and the Dniester .

Prussian colonies in the Łódź region were: Masovian Voivodeship: Amt Laznow: Grömbach (Łaznowska Wola) 1800, Grünberg (Zielona Góra) 1803, Wilhelmswalde (Borowa) 1800, Friedrichshagen (Augustów) 1803, Neusulzfeld (Nowosolna ) ń1 , Neuwionczyn (Nowyączyyn (Wi ) around 1800, Oberwionczyn (Wiączyń Górny) 1803, Unterwionczyn (Wiączyń Dolny) 1803; Amt Tkaczew: Friedrichsruhe (Aleksandria) , Kleingórne (Małogórne) 1798, Neuwuerttemberg (Tkaczewska Góra) around 1800; Amt Zdiechow: Schöneich (Stare Krasnodęby) 1802 and Engelhardt (Aniołów) ; Kalisch Voivodeship, Pabianice Office: Königsbach (Bukowiec) 1803, Effingshausen (Starowa Góra) 1800 and Hochweiler (Markówka) around 1800.

1807 to 1815: continued migration to Bessarabia

Napoleon's soldiers returning from Russia

After Prussia's defeat by Napoléon , the region came under the peace of Tilsit in 1807 to the newly formed Duchy of Warsaw , which was a satellite state of France.

Very restless times followed, first the Fifth Coalition War in 1809 and then Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812, initially with troop moves and requisitions , then with the returning troops and the subsequent Russian occupation. The first Cossacks appeared in the Łódź area in March 1813.

All of these events brought the people of the region into great hardship. The southern German immigrants were particularly hard hit, for whom the benefits granted had been reduced further and further since 1807 and who, when their free years had expired, had often not yet had the opportunity to get their economy going. In many cases, additional free years were requested.

When the Russians came to the country in 1813, many German settlers found themselves in a desperate situation, so that the advertising campaign of the Russian state for emigration to Bessarabia fell on fertile ground. Especially in the years 1814 and 1815, many families moved away, so that some villages lost a large part of their inhabitants. The department of Łaznów and the state colony of Grömbach (Łaznowska Wola) located in it were particularly hard hit , presumably because Bernhard Boneth and Martin Voßler, the leaders of an emigration train of 138 families in 1814, came from there. Most of the colonists sold their settler positions, but many moved away simply because they were in debt or because nobody wanted to take the positions.

The whole thing was obviously a profitable business for the advertisers, which led some to resort to criminal methods: there is a written record from Brużyczka that the inhabitants were to be forced to emigrate by force of arms. Sixteen of the twenty-four families escaped, however, and later tried to claim ownership of the settlements they had allegedly sold. There are similar traditions from Krzywiec and from Zamłynie , Annefeld (Annopole) and Zborowskie near Zduńska Wola . However, it is also conceivable (even if not in the above-mentioned cases) that some colonists pretended to be violence because the landlords often reserved the right to force back settlers who had migrated without permission.

The migration from central Poland to Bessarabia continued until 1840.

The following villages were almost completely depopulated by the emigration to Bessarabia: Alt-Schöneich (Stare Krasnodęby) , Dąbrówka Górna , Friedrichsruhe (Aleksandria) , Engelhardt (Aniołów) , Grömbach (Łaznowska Wola) , Effingshausen (Starowa Góra) and Kiełbasa . Most of the sites passed into the possession of settlers of Pomeranian origin from the Dombie (Dąbie) area .

1815 to 1863: Continued immigration and establishment of cities

Pabianice - the oldest surviving weaver house of the German weavers

From 1815 on, the Łódź region belonged to the so-called Congress Poland , which was formed at the Congress of Vienna and was under the control of the Russian Tsar . As a result of the new demarcation, the area suddenly changed from a neglected hinterland of Prussia to a western outpost of Russia . Cloth makers and weavers willing to immigrate, on the one hand, offered Congress Poland the advantage of being protected by a customs border against the economies of the western countries , which were already in the process of industrialization . On the other hand, the huge market of the Russian Empire opened up. Added to this were the perks that noble landowners and the state offered immigrants. While the rural colonization continued unchecked, the immigration of urban craftsmen was added and in quick succession - with varying success - new cities or new districts for the German immigrants were founded.

The following cities were founded in the Łódź area during this period as part of the immigration of German drapers and weavers: Ozorków (1813, municipal law 1816), Aleksandrów Łódzki (1817, municipal law 1822), Zduńska Wola (1817/18, municipal law 1825), Konstantynów Łódzki ( 1821), Tomaszów Mazowiecki . The following already existing cities were also settlements of German immigrants: Pabianice (since 1796), Brzeziny (since the beginning of the 19th century, foundation of the drapery suburb of Lasocin in 1816), Zgierz (since 1818) and Łódź (since 1821).

The Evangelical Augsburg St. Peter and Paul Church in Pabianice

The establishment of the cities was followed by the development of the Protestant church system . The following parishes were founded, mostly with the support of the landlords: 1826: Łódź St. Trinitatis, Konstantynów Łódzki, Ozorków; 1827: Pabianice; 1829: Brzeziny, Zduńska Wola; 1830: Tomaszów Mazowiecki; 1838: Nowosolna; 1839: Huta Bardzyńska branch, Poddębice branch .

In the years after 1815, newly settled families from South Prussia also emigrated to Prussia, as some of the families who immigrated directly from the German Empire could not imagine living under foreign rule. The Łódź area has not been put on record in this context, although it is possible that there were returnees, especially if they did not expect to be re-allocated by the state in Prussia.

In the November uprising of 1830/31, the vast majority of Germans remained passive because they had reservations about the Polish nobility and the Polish clergy, who were intolerant of Protestants. Pastors Herrmann from Brzeziny and Metzner from Łódź shared this attitude, in contrast to the majority of Protestant pastors who supported the uprising. The attitude was divided among the craftsmen in the cities. The cloth makers from the cities of Zduńska Wola, Konstantynów Łódzki and Zgierz later received a reward from the Russian government for their work against the rebellious Poles. The drapers in Łódź and Aleksandrów Łódzki, on the other hand, formed units with the aim of supporting the rebels. Since they were foreigners, at least the unit from Aleksandrów Łódzki was sent back to the city to instead protect the population there from attacks. Also in Ozorków, Konstantynów Łódzki, Łódź, Pabianice and Zduńska Wola were vigilantes formed which took over the protection of cities and the surrounding German villages.

During the uprising, hunger and epidemics decimated the population and, even if there were only isolated attacks on the German population, numerous families migrated to Volhynia and Podolia . The economic standstill also forced numerous cloth makers to leave the region. Most of them emigrated to Belarus and Volhynia, where they may be. a. settled in Białystok , but many also went to Bohemia or returned to Germany. Despite all of this, immigration exceeded the losses and the number of Germans in the region continued to rise.

Geyer's White Factory in Łódź

In the newly founded cities in the vicinity of Łódź, the Germans set the tone in many cases, especially since German craftsmen played a key role in the industrialization of the region. This special situation led to an increasing concentration of Polish Germans in the ever faster growing city of Łódź and the surrounding cities. Since the Polish farmers were not yet liberal, the growing demand for labor in industry was mainly met by the children of German farmers who were not entitled to inheritance and who moved from the surrounding area.

In the years 1834 to 1838 there was again recruitment from settlers directly from Germany, whereby now, unlike usual, old Polish villages with good clay soil were released for settlement. Families from Baden were set up in Srebrna and Mikołajewice , whereas a total of around 500 families from various Hessian rulers were settled in the following places : Bechcice , Łobudzice , Babice , Wola Czarnyska and Przyrownica ; In addition there were around 170 families of urban settlers, mainly in Konstantynów Łódzki and Łódź. Other villages populated by Hesse were Kurów and Kurówek in the south of Łask .

In 1845 a four-class, bilingual “German-Russian Realschule” was founded in Łódź.

Immigration from Hesse ended in 1839, and immigration from the Poznan area and other western Polish areas also came to a standstill in the 1840s, as America became an increasingly popular destination for emigration. Since from this time on Poles were placed in the colonies more often than in previous decades, there were increasingly mixed settlements.

In the absence of new settlers from the western regions, the Polish Germans were cut off from new ideas and developments, lived increasingly isolated and fell into retrogression. In Germany, the Polish Germans fell into oblivion in the second half of the 19th century.

1863 to 1914: emigration to Volhynia and industrialization

Polish fighters of the January uprising armed with scythes

The January uprising of 1863/64, which was ultimately crushed by the Russians because the still unfree Polish peasants remained passive, was the turning point in the history of the Polish Germans. In the previous history of this ethnic group, it was in the foreground that their settlement contributed to the development of the country and enabled its industrialization, it now became clear that the advantages granted to the Germans had generated disfavor, hatred and envy on the part of the Polish middle class. However, the vast majority of the German population was opposed to the uprising because they saw themselves as members of the Russian state. The consistory of the Evangelical Augsburg Church and the vast majority of its pastors also supported the tsar.

However, there were also Germans on the side of the Poles. Pastors Karl Gustav Manitius (Łódź, St. Trinity Congregation, he had to leave the city in 1865) and Eduard Boerner (Zduńska Wola) supported the rebels in the Łódź area . Pastor Biederman in Pabianice is also said to have sympathized with the Polish side. A division of 60 Germans was formed in Tomaszów to support the uprising in battle. When it came to the so-called "Battle of Dobra " northeast of Łódź around Mardi Gras in 1864 , according to oral tradition there were also some Germans among the rebels. However, after the fight for the Poles was lost, the German farmers from Neusulzfeld (Nowosolna) delivered a fleeing rebel leader to the Russian authorities (according to another tradition it was the local Jewish innkeeper).

In this situation, the Germans got caught between the fronts and there were frequent attacks. In the Protestant parish of Brzeziny alone, which had 4,246 members in 1866, 14 members lost their lives as a result of the uprising. There are also reports of fatalities from the parish of Aleksandrów, and in Świniokierz the farmer Gottfried Scheffler was hanged by the rebels under Majewski .

The hostilities that the Polish Germans experienced in the uprising of 1863/64 led to a strong wave of emigration from all of central Poland to the Lublin Land, Cholmer Land, Volhynia and the interior of Russia. Immediately after the uprising, well over 1,000 Germans left the Łódź area. More than 100 families moved away from the Konstantynów parish alone. Especially on the outskirts of the Łódź language island, particularly near Ozorków and Brzeziny, numerous colonies were abandoned by their German inhabitants. Above all in the years 1865 and 1866 the emigration to Volhynia was very strong, after which it decreased again somewhat. However, it continued until around 1892 and only ended after the purchase of land by foreign colonists was prohibited in 1887. Emigration to America also gained in importance during this period, especially in the years 1869 to 1891 and 1910 to 1913, although it only played a minor role in the Łódź area. The emigration of families from Birkenfeld (Brzozów) , Jankow (today Jankowice ) and Erdmannsweiler (Kochanów) to America has become known around the turn of the 20th century .

The following villages lost their German inhabitants in whole or in part due to emigration to Wolhynia, the cities or overseas: Woźniki , Małczew-Holland or Adamów , Stypin (not identified), Aniołów , Modlica -Holl., Karkoszki , Sarnie Budy (not identified, possibly Sanie ), Przyłęk , Karasica , Felicjanów , Erazmów , Głąbie, Laski , Plichtów , Gozdów , Boginia , Janinów , Neu-Skoszewy , Marianów , Janów (north of Nowosolna) and the surrounding area.

After the uprising was put down in 1864, the peasant liberation was carried out in Congress Poland . Thus, on the one hand, more and more Polish farmers appeared as free settlers, so that the land soon became scarce and expensive. On the other hand, landless Poles poured into the cities where mechanization was just so advanced that fewer and fewer skilled workers and at the same time more and more unskilled workers were needed. Germans were now mostly employed as skilled workers in the supervision of production, while the great majority of the workers consisted of Poles. But there were also many landless Germans who came to the city to make a living there. The enormous growth of the city of Łódź was accelerated by the construction of the railway , which opened up the huge Russian market.

Gutenberg House in Łódź, 2006 - from 1897 the location of the printing and editorial office of the Łódź newspaper

In 1863 the Lodzer Zeitung (initially under the title Lodzer Anzeiger ) was founded as the city's first newspaper. It was initially published in German and Polish (from 1881 only in German).

The expansion of the school system progressed in the following years, but at the same time the Russification of the schools began. While the teachers in the Cantor's Schools had previously generally been without any special training and had mostly practiced a craft as a sideline, regulated teacher training was now possible for the first time: In 1866, the pedagogical courses with a three-year training for Protestant elementary school teachers were established in central Poland in Warsaw . In 1871, however, the language of instruction there became Russian, only religion and German continued to be taught in German. In 1873 the pedagogical courses in the Warsaw Evangelical Teachers' College went on.

Also in 1866 a German secondary school was founded in Łódź, but in 1871 the language of instruction became Russian. In 1880 the school was converted into a trade school with Russian as the language of instruction; German was only a minor subject.

The "German-Russian Realschule", which had existed in Łódź since 1845, was closed in 1869 at the instigation of the authorities. There were also the German private schools von Ringer (closed in 1890) and the Rothertsche girls high school founded in 1878.

The teachers of the Cantor's schools had to take a Russian language test from 1871, and compulsory Russian lessons were introduced the following year. The pastors were asked to check the children's knowledge of Russian when they went to school. From 1870 onwards, numerous church cantor schools were converted into state elementary schools. This measure was generally welcomed by the teachers, as they were now paid significantly better by the state. At the same time, however, in many cases the land belonging to the schools was withdrawn from the churches and placed under state school administration, so that later many schools lost their Protestant, German character.

The essentially well-developed church system was supplemented in 1873 by the establishment of the Kamocin branch church and in 1884 by the parish of St. Johannis in Łódź.

With the growing prosperity in the city of Łódź, a summer resort developed , which took wealthy townspeople to the surrounding villages. When it was decided in 1912 in Andrzejów to build a church instead of the too small house of prayer , the growing number of summer guests also played a role. There were also summer guests in Königsbach (Bukowiec) before the First World War.

When the Russian Revolution attacked Łódź in 1905 and there was barricade fighting in the city in June of that year, Germans were involved in the conflict on all sides. Numerous Germans were among the fatalities. The unrest continued until 1907, on the one hand it was again a struggle for Polish independence, on the other hand it was also about demands of the working class for better living and working conditions. In Łódź, the various population groups in the respective camps showed solidarity with one another at the beginning. Later, however, the various groups fought each other - probably also supported by the Russian authorities. After the uprising was put down, the climate between the Germans, Jews and Poles in Łódź deteriorated significantly and permanently.

However, triggered by the unrest from 1905 to 1907, the government had to make numerous concessions. The forced Russification policy had to be discontinued, and from 1907 the German language was again permitted for teaching in German elementary schools. The latter, however, remained almost ineffective, as Russian authorities prevented the introduction of the German language because of a planned compulsory schooling. In addition, there was already a mixture of German and Polish students in the city schools, which also generated resistance to the introduction of the German language. In Łódź attempts were made to counteract these problems by founding new German-speaking cantor schools.

Building of the former Łódź German Gymnasium, today the University of Łódź , 2006

The year 1906 is considered to be the founding year of the Łódź German Gymnasium , which was initially headed by Braun . In 1908 it was taken over by the German Gymnasium and Realschulverein founded the previous year. In 1910 it moved to a specially built school building.

In 1911 the evangelical teacher training college was relocated from Warsaw to Łódź.

As early as the end of the 19th century, the Russian military suspected the German settlers as “German outposts and spies”. This view spread increasingly in Polish journalism before the First World War and soon included other sections of the population. The hostility towards the Germans that arose with the uprising of 1863/64 found its continuation in the 20th century.

1914 to 1918: Battle of Łódź and the German occupation

Łódź the day after the occupation by German troops, 1914

After Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, many Germans who had meanwhile assumed Russian citizenship were drafted into the Russian army. They mostly served on the Caucasus front . Those who had not given up their German citizenship were deported, for example the Volkstumsführer Ludwig Wolff the Elder. Ä. from Pabianice with his family who was brought to Russia. The family of the teacher and later school principal and settlement researcher Albert Breyer also had to leave the region and spent a few years in Saint Petersburg . Deportations of entire village communities (a total of around 150,000 Germans), as they were carried out in the regions of Poland further east from the summer of 1915, did not take place in the Łódź area, as the region was already under German occupation at that time.

The First World War brought radical changes for the Germans in Łódź. After just a few months, the region became a theater of war: from November 11 to December 5, 1914, the battle of Łódź claimed numerous lives, including among Germans in the region. In addition, there was considerable war damage in many places, especially in Aleksandrów, Konstantynów, Neusulzfeld (Nowosolna) , Andrzejów, Königsbach (Bukowiec) , Boginia, Skoszewy, Janinów, Głogowiec , Teolin , Gałkówek, Grünberg (Zielona Góra) , Grömbach ( Łona Góra) , Grömbach ( Łona Góra ) , Wilhelmswalde (Borowa) , Albertów , Przylęk Mały and Brzeziny.

The war was also the rediscovery of the Polish Germans who had been forgotten within the German Empire. Again and again the German soldiers came across civilians in the middle of Poland who spoke an outdated Platt or Swabian . So the cultural exchange with the country of origin got going again.

The region remained under German occupation until 1918, from 1916 officially as the reign of Poland . This meant a time of great hardship for the population, as the Łódź textile industry was cut off from its markets in Russia and the Far East . The city of Łódź, the Evangelical Church and other organizations had public kitchens and a children's home set up, children and sometimes entire families were placed in the better-supplied surrounding area. Some migrated to Germany as labor needed due to the war. In the period 1915–1918, around 70,000 Polish Germans, many of them from the Łódź area, moved to Germany, barely half of them returned later.

During the time of the German occupation, the German school system developed very positively. After the Russians left, some teachers reintroduced the German language of instruction on their own initiative. In September 1915, the German civil administration ordered German children to be taught in German. In Łódź, the number of German schools rose from 1913/14, when there were 23 German-Russian schools with 94 classes, to 44 schools with 186 classes. In the spring of 1917 four schools with 14 classes for German Catholic children were also founded. The Łódź German Realgymnasium and the teachers' seminar, which had been closed since the beginning of the war, were soon reopened. In 1916, the Luisenlyzeum and the higher boys 'school were founded by Karl Weigelt, to which a girls' school was added the following year. In addition, the German school system in Łódź experienced a considerable boom during the time of the German occupation. Secondary German-speaking schools were also founded in other cities, such as the grammar school in Pabianice in 1916 and the secondary school in Zgierz in 1917.

Since the Łódź region was cut off from its markets in Russia and the Far East, the number of Germans has steadily declined.

1918 to 1939: The German minority under pressure

In the interwar period , the German minority in Poland changed from a formerly preferred group of immigrants to a suspicious minority due to the establishment of the Second Polish Republic . In addition to the descendants of the German colonists, numerous Germans who did not share this story lived on Polish territory due to the loss of territory after the First World War . There was constant tension between the Weimar Republic and Poland over border issues. The propaganda on both sides discovered the Polish Germans for themselves and exaggerated their role into gigantic proportions. The situation between the two states only eased for a few years after the conclusion of the ten-year German-Polish non-aggression pact on January 26, 1934.

In the 1930s, the economic situation of the Germans in Łódź was bad due to the global economic crisis . In the villages, the descendants who were not entitled to inheritance could not, as before, migrate to the cities and earn their living there in trade and industry. As a result, the right to inheritance with minor councils, which had been common up until then, was often given up and a change was made to real estate sharing , which led to falling farm sizes and decreasing prosperity.

Nevertheless, the summer resort was an important source of income for numerous German villages in the 1930s, especially in the east and west of Łódź. B. Grünberg (Zielona Góra) , Königsbach (Bukowiec) , Justynów , Rossanow (Rosanów) , Żakowice , Galkówek, Kirschberg (Wiśniowa Góra) , Kraszew and Hulanka . It was mostly Germans from the city who took up quarters in the German villages, so that this also promoted cultural exchange.

The emigration of Protestants from Poland to Canada has been increasing since around 1925, examples from the Łódź area are Erdmannsweiler (Kochanów) and Wilhelmswalde (Borowa) . Families from Birkenfeld (Brzozów) also emigrated to the United States and Canada after the First World War.

In the cultural field, the dominant theme in the interwar period was the restrictive attitude of the Polish state towards the German school system, which in fact meant its destruction. A resolution of the Council of Ministers of March 3, 1919 stipulated that the German language of instruction should exist “as soon as this is required by the majority of parents or their representatives of the children attending the school in question”, but these and the subsequent ones became Regulations interpreted by the competent authorities in such a way that the retention of German was mostly not enforceable. In addition, with the help of intimidation and harassment, the parents were put under pressure so that they would not make an explanation in favor of the German language of instruction. In Königsbach, for example, parents were misled about the real purpose of voting: they were asked whether they wanted their children to learn Polish properly, and they were asked to vote. It was not made clear that this vote was about the introduction of Polish as the language of instruction for all subjects. Even in the school yard, the children had to speak Polish from now on. The number of German elementary schools fell from 564 to 294 schools with German, 26 with mixed and 53 with Polish as the language of instruction through the implementation of the Council of Ministers' resolution alone. As a result of various other measures, the number of German schools continued to decrease rapidly in the following years, so that in 1925 there were only about 225 elementary schools where German is taught for at least two to four hours ? has been. Of these, however, only 50 to 60 schools were those where German was actually the language of instruction. From 1932 onwards, the teachers in private German schools needed a certificate of loyalty from the respective Starostei , which could be refused for no particular reason. Many schools lost their teachers and had to close. In the school year 1935/36 there were only eleven schools with German as the language of instruction. In the school year 1938/39, over 20,000 German children in Poland received no lessons in their mother tongue and around 14,000 received only one to five hours per week. Some schools also had to close because of economic difficulties, such as B. 1928 the secondary school in Zgierz.

To replace the discontinuation of the German schools, a secret German school committee was formed in Łódź, to which the pastors Gustav Schedler and Eduard Kneifel , the Sejm delegate August Utta and Ludwig Wolff the Elder. J., whose aim was to teach German children in the villages with the help of hiking teachers. Most of these traveling teachers were German teachers who had been dismissed by the government. They have been denounced many times and not a few have had to answer in court.

In the course of a school reform, all teacher seminars in Poland were closed, as the training of teachers should take place at pedagogical lyceums or at a pedagogy in the future . From 1932 onwards, the German teacher training college in Łódź was no longer allowed to accept teacher training candidates, and in 1936 it was finally closed. A new option for training teachers for German-speaking schools was not created.

During this time, however, there were also positive developments. For the first time, a larger educated class developed among the Germans. In the past, this could almost exclusively include the pastors, but now more and more the graduates of the higher schools, in particular the Łódź German Gymnasium and the Protestant teachers' seminar, were added. This group also includes employees from the press and theater as well as members of parliament.

In the area of ​​language, there were strong tendencies towards standardization, which had advanced particularly well in the settlements that were later founded east of Łódź. In the villages, the various German dialects were replaced by the so-called “ Lodzer German ”, which was a variant of Central German strongly influenced by Lower Silesian, but in some cases also directly by rural Standard German. This development was promoted by the increasing number of mixed marriages between the different dialect groups. The Swabian language lasted the longest in the villages of Königsbach (Bukowiec) , Grünberg (Zielona Góra) and Neusulzfeld (Nowosolna) . In Łódź itself, “Lodzer German” was increasingly being replaced by Standard German. An increasing polonization, especially in the cities, made itself felt. Polish was already the colloquial language in many families, a tendency that was further encouraged by the discontinuation of German schools. The number of mixed marriages with Poles also increased significantly in the 20th century.

In the Evangelical Augsburg Church, the spread of the Polish language led to tensions among the faithful. Julius Bursche , who was appointed general superintendent of the Evangelical Augsburg Church by the Russian authorities in 1904 , considered adherence to the German language and culture to be an anachronism and therefore massively promoted Polonization within his church during his tenure (1904–1939). He met the resistance of the German majority among the faithful and pastors. The conflict intensified from 1918 to 1939 to such an extent that the Evangelical Augsburg Church was last on the verge of collapse.

At a time when many Protestant parishes were celebrating their 100th anniversary, numerous new parishes were created by breaking away from the previous parishes: 1924: Filial Ruda Pabianicka , 1928: Grömbach (Łaznowska Wola) , 1929: Łódź St. Matthäi, 1932: Łódź-Radogoszcz , 1936: Andrzejów (branch since 1925), Bałuty - Żubardź , branch Königsbach (Bukowiec) , branch Grabieniec , Poddębice (branch since 1838).

Shortly after the seizure of power in 1933, the events in the German Reich had a significant impact on the coexistence of the various population groups in Łódź. Some of the Germans were influenced by Nazi propaganda , which was also expressed in the press. The Young German Party in Poland , founded in 1921 as the “German National Socialist Association for Poland” in Bielitz , was also active in Łódź from 1934 onwards. In 1935 local groups were founded in Zgierz, Pabianice and Konstantynów and in 1936 in Tomaszów Mazowiecki. The German People's Association in Poland , founded on June 1, 1924 , which at the beginning primarily endeavored to “fight for the preservation of the German character of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church”, increasingly adopted the line of Nazi ideology after Hitler came to power Christian orientation was nevertheless retained. In addition, there was also a local branch of the NSDAP's foreign organization in Łódź, but so far there has been no knowledge of its activities. However, only Reich Germans, i.e. holders of the citizenship of the German Reich, were allowed to belong to it.

The protest of the Łódź Jews against the way the National Socialists dealt with the Jews in the German Reich met with little understanding from the Łódź Germans. The boycott of goods from Nazi Germany, which Jewish associations had called for and which many Polish companies joined, was not directed against the native Germans, but it is likely to have had a negative effect on many Łódź German companies. The absence of the Jewish summer guests in Kirschberg (Wiśniowa Góra) from 1933 could be related to the boycott. A break in the relationship between the Łódź Jews and Germans, who until then had always represented their political interests together, occurred after April 9, 1933. One week after the boycott of the Jews in Germany, demonstrations against the National Socialist took place in Łódź Germany to riots against German institutions, which brought considerable damage to property. From this point on, the cooperation between German and Jewish organizations ended. In accordance with general policy, the situation should have calmed down somewhat from 1934 onwards.

In 1938 tensions between Poland and Germany increased again. In March 1939 Germany invaded what is known as the rest of the Czech Republic and the Memelland , and in April 1939 Germany revoked the German-Polish non-aggression pact. The resentment that arose in many places resulted in attacks on the German minority. In May 1939 there were serious riots against Germans in the Łódź area in Tomaszów and the surrounding villages (especially in Ludwików , Kumrów (presumably Komorów ) and Jakubów ), Konstantynów, Pabianice and Łódź, in which the police did not intervene. Two people were killed in Kumrów. A general feeling of insecurity spread among the Germans in the region. In addition, there were mass layoffs of Germans in factories and factories, with mostly no prospect of other employment. The result was that many Germans saw no other way out than to leave their homeland and go to Germany, where reception camps were set up for those who had fled Poland. Before the war began, 70,000 Germans from Poland lived in such camps; the number of those who found accommodation outside the camps is not known. Many who failed to escape were jailed. In this situation of rising tension, the government compiled lists of German leaders who were to be arrested in the event of war. Individuals, including those from the Łódź area, were arrested as early as mid-August 1939.

On August 23, 1939, the Hitler-Stalin Pact was signed. The general mobilization of Poland followed on August 29, 1939 . Many Polish Germans were drafted into the military because they mostly had Polish citizenship. In many barracks, however, the Germans were immediately singled out and deported to the east under military guard without weapons or uniforms.

1939 to 1945: In the "Mustergau Wartheland"

Entry of German troops into Łódź in 1939

Origin of ethnic Germans settled in the Wartheland (contemporary propaganda map)

Immigrant Central Office North-East in Litzmannstadt (Łódź) , 1939

The attack on Poland began on September 1, 1939, when German troops invaded Poland without prior declaration of war . It ended on October 6, 1939 with the surrender of the last field troops.

In the first days of the war, according to the lists prepared, many Germans were arrested and marched in the direction of Bereza Kartuska . Above all, personalities from popular organizations and associations, teachers, pastors, publishing directors and editors were affected by the arrests. But there were also many arrests in more rural areas, around 100 people are said to have been affected in Neusulzfeld (Nowosolna) and the surrounding areas alone .

The Polish army was unable to stop the German attack and was quickly pushed back further and further towards Warsaw. Behind them, there were sabotage acts by a small number of ethnic Germans recruited by the Nazi regime, which were to lead to the emergence of the myth of the ethnic Germans as Hitler's fifth column . Here, on September 2, 1939, Łódź train stations were also destroyed. From September 5th, Polish army units came through Łódź on their retreat. At the same time, many Polish civilians were on the run who were jammed on all streets and paths. For the Polish Germans serving in the Polish army, the situation was extremely threatening, as their comrades and officers often suspected them of espionage. Many of them who failed to pretend to be Poles were shot. In addition there were the regular casualties, including the school director Albert Breyer, who had made a name for himself in researching the German settlement in Poland.

Łódź was occupied on September 9, 1939. This was followed by the German occupation of Poland , which was to last over five years. The country was divided into the Reichsgau Wartheland , which was to become part of the German Empire, and the Generalgouvernement . Łódź was not originally part of the Reichsgau Wartheland, but was annexed to it on November 9, 1939. The border with the Generalgouvernement now ran in the southeast of the city, so some of the Germans in the Łódź area lived outside the Wartheland. The occupation policy of the Third Reich aimed at the oppression and disenfranchisement of the Poles and the extermination of the Jews . There was not much room for neutrality for the Polish Germans.

All so-called ethnic Germans in the incorporated areas were granted German citizenship on November 25, 1939. The ordinance on the four categories of the German people's list did not appear until March 4, 1941. The first class should include active Germans and members of national organizations, the second the passive Germans, the third the mixed race and the fourth the unreliable Germans. All holders of the people's list were obliged to prove their Aryan descent . The ethnic Germans were not free to apply, they were obliged to do so. People who did not comply should be imprisoned in concentration camps, which in most cases was done. However, the German people's list was not awarded to everyone who applied for it. The classification of ethnic Germans as Germans who first had to prove themselves, as well as the arrogance of many Reich Germans, led to the latter being often disparagingly titled as "Reichsgermanen".

After the expropriation of the Poles and Jews, it was easy for many Reichs and ethnic Germans to enrich themselves and thereby become accomplices of the regime. On the other hand, if you were prepared to support your Polish neighbors or acquaintances, you could expect severe penalties. The disenfranchisement of the Polish population led in many cases to attacks by native Germans on Poles, for example even killing a Pole in Justynów at that time had no consequences for the perpetrators.

Under the key words Heim ins Reich and Lebensraum in the East , over a million ethnic Germans from Volhynia, the so-called Narew region , the Cholmer and Lublin regions, from the Baltic States , Bessarabia , the Bukowina (beech region), Russia ( Black Sea Germans ) and settled in other areas on expropriated Polish farms in the Reichsgau Wartheland. Before that happened, however, many of the resettler families lived in camps for a long time. One of them was a reception camp in Kirschberg (Wiśniowa Góra) with more than 100 barrack-like wooden houses. The new beginning was not easy for the resettled families: It is said from Wilhelmswalde (Borowa) that the resettlers were met with rejection because they were resented that their Polish neighbors were expelled for their sake.

During the period of German occupation, Łódź Germans appeared on the side of the Nazi perpetrators as well as on the side of the victims. Among those who identified with the Nazi regime were the following ethnic Germans from the Łódź area, who, probably because of their role in preparing for war, were taken over by the SS to high SS ranks with effect from November 13, 1939 were: Ludwig Wolff d. J. as Obersturmbannführer , Eugen Nippe as Hauptsturmführer and Heinrich Boltz as Obersturmführer . Ludwig Wolff soon became the party's first district leader in Łódź, while Eugen Nippe became the leader of self-protection. In Tomaszów Georg Boettig became known as the greatest tormentor of the Jewish and Polish population from among the local population.

But if the native Germans did not want to fit into the National Socialist system, they could quickly take the side of the victims. Several examples of this have become known: The Völker couple from Wilhelmswalde (Borowo), who refused to accept the German people's list, were arrested and killed in prison. The lawyer Richard Vogel from Łódź, his wife and two daughters, who refused to accept the German people's list, were all interned in Auschwitz. The Felker couple from Königsbach, Bible Students , were sent to the concentration camp because they refused to do military service and were killed there.

After 1945: loss of home

The Matthäikirche in Łódź, built from 1909 to 1928, is still used today as a Protestant church

After the Red Army marched into Łódź with all its immediate effects, all German men between the ages of 17 and 50 were imprisoned from February 1945 onwards, with their subsequent transport to the interior of the Soviet Union for forced labor . This also affected many Polish men who were classified as “capable of Germanization” in class 3 of the people's list, since they were simply regarded as Germans.

In contrast to the Germans in regions that had previously belonged to the German Reich (especially East Prussia, Pomerania and Silesia), the Germans who had lived as a minority in Poland before 1939 were not expelled but interned and obliged to do forced labor. All public and civil rights were withdrawn from all persons who professed their German nationality during the occupation and their property was confiscated. Germans received neither zloty nor ration cards .

The Germans from the Łódź area were mostly interned in the labor camps in Tomaszów, in Sikawa near Łódź and in Warsaw. Conditions in the camps were harsh, with many dying from deprivation and abuse. On January 7, 1946 there was a transport from the camp in Sikawa with old and sick people, of whom 2,400 people arrived in Brandenburg an der Havel after a four-day journey , many of whom had died on the way.

It was not until 1950 that the sanctions against the Germans who remained in the country were lifted. In 1951 they were declared Polish citizens . However, a large number of Germans - with or without official approval - found their way to one of the two German states. In the Federal Republic of Germany , however, until the Federal Expellees Act came into force, many Polish Germans had difficulties in being recognized as German citizens because they had been Polish citizens before 1939. The Łódź Germans were scattered in all directions, and many emigrated overseas in the following years. Only a few families from Königsbach (Bukowiec) settled jointly in Großgörschen near Leipzig . How many Germans remained in the Łódź area is not known. But it must have been a significant number, because of the 17 parishes in 1939 with four branches of the Diocese of Łódź of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church, all but one of which had German as the church language, there are still eight today, namely Aleksandrów Lódzki , Łódź, Ozorków, Pabianice, Poddębice, Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Zduńska Wola and Zgierz.

In West Germany, various organizations took care of the interests of the Łódź Germans: the Vistula-Warthe Landsmannschaft (founded May 6, 1949), the Aid Committee of Evangelical-Lutheran Germans from Poland and the "Homeland Community of Germans from the Lodz Industrial Area" (existed from 1964 until 2005). After the political change in Poland in 1989/90, a German cultural association was founded in the city.

See also

• List of formerly German settlements in the Łódź area
• History of the city of Łódź
• Cholmerland Germans
• Germans in Pabianice
• German minority in Poland
• Evangelical Augsburg Church in Poland
• Bessarabian Germans
• Wolhynian Germans
• Vistula Germans

Web links

• The Breyer map of the German settlements in central Poland

Footnotes

1. ^ Wiesław Puś: The occupational and social structure of the most important ethnic groups in Lodz and their development in the years 1820-1914. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poles, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 35.
2. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 32.
3. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 48.
4. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 61.
5. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 14f.
6. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 15.
7. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 151.
8. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Lodz. A historical-geographical analysis. Würzburg 1966, p. 54.
9. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 232.
10. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 13f.
11. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, pp. 90ff.
12. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz In: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935.
13. ^ Albert Breyer: German settlements in central Poland. In Viktor Kauder (Hrsg.): Das Deutschtum in Mittelpolen. Leipzig 1938.
14. ↑ ^{a b c} Albert Breyer: The German villages in the area around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 201.
15. ↑ ^{a b c} Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 58.
16. ↑ ^{a b} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 199.
17. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 254.
18. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 50.
19. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 266.
20. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 267.
21. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, pp. 138-144.
22. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 46.
23. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 155f.
24. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 247f.
25. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} Oskar Kossmann: Map development of the rural German settlement in north-western Congress Poland (1800, 1825, 1835, 1935). , in: Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978.
26. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 230.
27. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 93.
28. ↑ Although both refer to the same source - the records of Pastor Witthold from Iłow from 1798 - Breyer names only nine schools in contrast to Kneifel, after which the students from Radogosz attended the school in Kały. Kneifel locates the communal school of Głogowiec , Boginia and Głabie in Głogowiec, but this is probably not correct, since the teacher Kerrentopf specified by Breyer for this school lived in Głabie according to the relevant church book, Stare Skoszewy .
29. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 95.
30. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 71.
31. ↑ ^{a b c} Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 72.
32. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 74.
33. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 75.
34. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 76.
35. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 77.
36. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 78.
37. ↑ Aurelia Scheffel: Lodż - story (s), memories - episodes from my life. Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2004, p. 66.
38. ^ ^{A b} Harry Nick : Gemeinwesen DDR. Memories and reflections of a political economist. , Hamburg 2003, p. 14.
39. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 89.
40. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 21.
41. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 202.
42. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 73.
43. ↑ ^{a b} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 203.
44. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 151ff.
45. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 101.
46. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 100.
47. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 9.
48. ^ ^{A b c} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 156.
49. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 155.
50. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 310.
51. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 204.
52. ^ ^{A b c} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 157.
53. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 157ff.
54. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 59ff.
55. ^ ^{A b c} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 160.
56. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 59.
57. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 159.
58. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 234.
59. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 317f.
60. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 99.
61. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 100.
62. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 34.
63. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. , Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 35.
64. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 292.
65. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 293.
66. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 296.
67. ↑ Pockrandt: German migration back from Central Poland after 1815. In: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germans in Poland. Volume 3 (13), September / October 1936, Issue 3/4, pp. 105–146.
68. ↑ Pockrandt: German migration back from Central Poland after 1815. In: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germans in Poland. Volume 3 (13), September / October 1936, issue 3/4, p. 130.
69. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 115f.
70. ^ Albert Breyer: German cloth makers immigration to the East Central European area from 1550 to 1830. Leipzig 1941, p. 234.
71. ^ Albert Breyer: German cloth makers immigration to the East Central European area from 1550 to 1830. Leipzig 1941, p. 231f.
72. ↑ Albert Breyer: German cloth makers immigration to the East Central European area from 1550 to 1830. Leipzig 1941, p. 233.
73. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 115.
74. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 241.
75. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 331.
76. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 319.
77. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 116.
78. ↑ Albert Breyer: German clothier immigration to the East Central European area from 1550 to 1830. Leipzig 1941, p. 232.
79. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, pp. 271f.
80. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 108.
81. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 139.
82. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 115.
83. ^ ^{A b} Otto Heike: The German school system in central Poland. Dortmund 1963, p. 13.
84. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 138.
85. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 324f.
86. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 259.
87. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 328.
88. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 330.
89. ^ ^{A b c} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 22.
90. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 299.
91. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 145.
92. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 146.
93. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 194f.
94. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 195.
95. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 79.
96. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 51.
97. ↑ Emil Scheffler: t 'lejpe föß. Berlin (self-published) n.d., p. 7.
98. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 147.
99. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 258.
100. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 196ff.
101. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 166.
102. ^ Albert Breyer: German Gaue in Central Poland. digital re-publication 2006 (first publication in: Ostdeutsche Heimathefte, Heft 4, Plauen 1935), p. 53.
103. ↑ ^{a b} Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 141.
104. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 138.
105. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 25.
106. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 47.
107. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 49.
108. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 79.
109. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 106.
110. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 197.
111. ↑ Peter Emil Nasarski and Edmund Effenberger: Lodz "Promised Land". Berlin / Bonn 1988, pp. 100-104, ISBN 3922131638 .
112. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, pp. 275f.
113. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 127f.
114. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 127.
115. ^ ^{A b} Albert Breyer: German Gaue in Central Poland. digital re-publication 2006 (first publication in: Ostdeutsche Heimathefte, Heft 4, Plauen 1935), p. 65.
116. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 128f.
117. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 294.
118. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 147.
119. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 239.
120. ↑ Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poland, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820-1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 202f.
121. ↑ Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poland, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820-1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 199.
122. ↑ Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poland, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820-1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 203.
123. ^ ^{A b} Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poles, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 202.
124. ↑ Peter Nasarski: Lodz - the city of the meeting of nations in the course of history. Würzburg 1957, p. 34.
125. ↑ Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poland, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820-1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 201.
126. ^ ^{A b} Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poles, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, pp. 208ff.
127. ↑ Feliks Tych: Lodzer Poland, Jews and Germans in the Revolution of 1905. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poland, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820-1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 205.
128. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 181.
129. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 23.
130. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 183.
131. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 341.
132. ^ ^{A b} Max Treger: Lodz-Berlin, 1914–1984, A contemporary document. Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 14.
133. ^ ^{A b c} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 188.
134. ^ Herbert Doberstein and Christian Peter Hell: German high school students from Lodz in two world wars. In: Peter Nasarski (Ed.): The Lodzer German Gymnasium. In the field of tension between fate and inheritance. , Berlin 1981, p. 89.
135. ↑ Gerda Zorn: Our ride goes to Ostland. German policy of conquest and the consequences. The example of Lodz. Cologne 1988 (second, improved edition), p. 199.
136. ^ ^{A b} Breyer, Richard . In: Ostdeutsche Biographie (Kulturportal West-Ost), accessed on February 8, 2011.
137. ^ ^{A b} Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 342.
138. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 141.
139. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 145.
140. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 172.
141. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 64 (the page has the number 63 and is sorted incorrectly, but 64 would be correct).
142. ^ ^{A b c} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 190.
143. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 189.
144. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 200.
145. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 201.
146. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 201f.
147. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 202.
148. ^ Otto Heike: The German school system in Central Poland. Dortmund 1963, p. 100f.
149. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 343.
150. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 344.
151. ^ Oskar Kossmann: The Germans in Poland since the Reformation. Marburg 1978, p. 245.
152. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 56.
153. ^ Albert Breyer: German Gaue in Central Poland. digital re-publication 2006 (first publication in: Ostdeutsche Heimathefte, Heft 4, Plauen 1935), p. 56.
154. ↑ ^{a b} Albert Breyer: The German villages around Lodz. with map of German settlements in the area around Lodz. in: German monthly books in Poland, magazine for the past and present of Germanness in Poland, volume 2 (12), issue 5/6, November / December 1935, p. 207.
155. ↑ ^{a b} Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 131.
156. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 242.
157. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 224.
158. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 30.
159. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, pp. 259f.
160. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 227f.
161. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 228.
162. ^ ^{A b} Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 231.
163. ^ Otto Heike: The German school system in Central Poland. Dortmund 1963, p. 102.
164. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 229.
165. ^ Peter E. Nasarski: German youth movement and youth work in Poland 1919-1939. Cologne-Rodenkirchen 1978, p. 37.
166. ^ Otto Heike: The German school system in Central Poland. Dortmund 1963, p. 76.
167. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 230.
168. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 211f.
169. ^ Oskar Kossmann: Germans in the middle of Poland. Our ancestors at the loom of history. Berlin / Bonn 1985, p. 42.
170. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 30f.
171. ↑ ^{a b} Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 93.
172. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 107.
173. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 148.
174. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 30.
175. ^ Oskar Kossmann: A Lodzer Heimatbuch. Hanover 1967, p. 210.
176. ↑ Alexander Hohenstein (pseudonym): Wartheländisches Tagebuch 1941/42. Munich 1963, p. 58f.
177. ↑ Armin Richard Hornberger: Grew up in Lodz, childhood memories. Berlin 2006, p. 32.
178. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, p. 170.
179. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 173f.
180. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, p. 175.
181. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, pp. 255-258.
182. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, pp. 206-213.
183. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, pp. 263-265.
184. ^ Eduard Kneifel: History of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Niedermarschacht 1964, pp. 284–287.
185. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Lodzer Jews and Germans in 1933. The reception of the National Socialist takeover in Germany and its effect on the relationship between the Jewish and German minorities. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poles, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, pp. 239-241.
186. ↑ ^{a b} Beate Kosmala: Jews and Germans in the Polish house. Tomaszów Mazowiecki 1914–1939. Berlin 2001, p. 325.
187. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Jews and Germans in the Polish house. Tomaszów Mazowiecki 1914–1939. Berlin 2001, p. 328.
188. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Jews and Germans in the Polish house. Tomaszów Mazowiecki 1914–1939. Berlin 2001, p. 332ff.
189. ^ Volker Koop: Hitler's Fifth Column. The foreign organization of the NSDAP. Berlin-Brandenburg 2009, p. 271.
190. ^ Volker Koop: Hitler's Fifth Column. The foreign organization of the NSDAP. Berlin-Brandenburg 2009, p. 16.
191. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Lodzer Jews and Germans in 1933. The reception of the National Socialist takeover in Germany and its effect on the relationship between the Jewish and German minorities. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poles, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 238f.
192. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Lodzer Jews and Germans in 1933. The reception of the National Socialist takeover in Germany and its effect on the relationship between the Jewish and German minorities. In: Jürgen Hensel: Poles, Germans and Jews in Lodz 1820–1939. A difficult neighborhood. Osnabrück 1999, p. 241f.
193. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 64f (the page has the number 63 and is sorted incorrectly, but 64 would be correct).
194. ^ Max Treger: Lodz-Berlin, 1914–1984, A contemporary document. Frankfurt am Main 1985, pp. 70f.
195. ↑ Aurelia Scheffel: Lodż - story (s), memories - episodes from my life. Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2004, p. 76f.
196. ↑ Armin Richard Hornberger: Grew up in Lodz, childhood memories. Berlin 2006, p. 41f.
197. ^ ^{A b c d} Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829-1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 65.
198. ↑ Aurelia Scheffel: Lodż - story (s), memories - episodes from my life. Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2004, p. 77.
199. ^ Heinz Nawratil: Black Book of Expulsion 1945 to 1948. The last chapter of the unresolved past. 6th edition, Munich 1999, p. 43.
200. ^ ^{A b c} Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829-1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 66.
201. ↑ ^{a b c d} Herbert Doberstein and Christian Peter Hell: Lodzer German high school students in two world wars. In: Peter Nasarski (Ed.): The Lodzer German Gymnasium. In the field of tension between fate and inheritance. , Berlin 1981, p. 91.
202. ^ Herbert Doberstein and Christian Peter Hell: German high school students from Lodz in two world wars. In: Peter Nasarski (Ed.): The Lodzer German Gymnasium. In the field of tension between fate and inheritance. , Berlin 1981, p. 92.
203. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 1.
204. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 83.
205. ↑ Tomasz Chincinski: Hitler's outpost; The activities of the German secret service in 1939. ( Memento from July 18, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) accessed on February 14, 2011.
206. ^ Max Treger: Lodz-Berlin, 1914–1984, A contemporary document. Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 72.
207. ^ Herbert Doberstein and Christian Peter Hell: German high school students from Lodz in two world wars. In: Peter Nasarski (Ed.): The Lodzer German Gymnasium. In the field of tension between fate and inheritance. , Berlin 1981, p. 92ff.
208. ^ Herbert Doberstein and Christian Peter Hell: German high school students from Lodz in two world wars. In: Peter Nasarski (Ed.): The Lodzer German Gymnasium. In the field of tension between fate and inheritance. , Berlin 1981, p. 93.
209. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 23f.
210. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 26.
211. ^ Max Treger: Lodz-Berlin, 1914–1984, A contemporary document. Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 74.
212. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 25.
213. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 8.
214. ↑ Alexander Hohenstein (pseudonym): Wartheländisches Tagebuch 1941/42. Munich 1963, p. 32f.
215. ↑ Alexander Hohenstein (pseudonym): Wartheländisches Tagebuch 1941/42. Munich 1963, p. 44.
216. ↑ Alexander Hohenstein (pseudonym): Wartheländisches Tagebuch 1941/42. Munich 1963, p. 97f.
217. ^ ^{A b} Harry Nick: Gemeinwesen DDR. Memories and reflections of a political economist. , Hamburg 2003, p. 16.
218. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 10.
219. ^ Harry Nick: Community DDR. Memories and reflections of a political economist. , Hamburg 2003, p. 15.
220. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 23.
221. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 243.
222. ↑ Herbert Höft: Does Santa Claus exist? Website of the Chemnitz Authors' Association eV, subpage of Prof. Dr. Herbert Höft ( memento from October 20, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) accessed on March 28, 2011.
223. ↑ Gerda Zorn: Our ride goes to Ostland. German policy of conquest and the consequences. The example of Lodz. Cologne 1988 (second, improved edition), p. 61.
224. ↑ Beate Kosmala: Jews and Germans in the Polish house. Tomaszów Mazowiecki 1914–1939. Berlin 2001, pp. 329-332.
225. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 24.
226. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 245.
227. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 35.
228. ↑ Helga Hirsch: The Vengeance of the Victims. Germans in Polish camps 1944–1950. Berlin 1998, p. 193f.
229. ↑ Helga Hirsch: The Vengeance of the Victims. Germans in Polish camps 1944–1950. Berlin 1998, p. 182f.
230. ↑ Helga Hirsch: The Vengeance of the Victims. Germans in Polish camps 1944–1950. Berlin 1998, p. 185.
231. ^ Thomas Urban : Germans in Poland, Past and Present of a Minority. Munich 1993, p. 72.
232. ^ Eduard Kneifel / Harry Richter: The Evangelical Lutheran Congregation Brzeziny near Lodz / Poland 1829–1945. Vierkirchen / Schwabach 1983, p. 98.
233. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Church in Wartheland East (Lodz) - its structure and its confrontation with National Socialism 1939-1945. Vierkirchen 1976, p. 264f.
234. ^ Thomas Urban: Germans in Poland, Past and Present of a Minority. Munich 1993, p. 80.
235. ↑ Wolfgang Kessler: Lodz to Lodz. Observations on the memory and memory of the Germans from Lodz after 1945. In: Stefan Dyroff, Krystyna Radziszewska and Isabel Röskau-Rydel (eds.): Lodz beyond factories, wild west and provinces. Cultural studies studies on Germans in and from the Polish areas. Munich 2009, p. 151f.
236. ^ Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 37.
237. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 247.
238. ^ Leopold Schenzel: Königsbach. The fate of an East German Swabian settlement. In: Otto Heike: 150 Years of Swabian Settlements in Poland 1795–1945. Leverkusen 1979, p. 287.
239. ^ Eduard Kneifel: The Evangelical Augsburg congregations in Poland 1555-1939. Vierkirchen 1971, pp. 141-184. The information on the church language can be found under "Statistics".
240. ^ Official website of the Diocese of Warsaw of the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland, accessed on July 13, 2011.
241. ↑ Wolfgang Kessler: Lodz to Lodz. Observations on the memory and memory of the Germans from Lodz after 1945. In: Stefan Dyroff, Krystyna Radziszewska and Isabel Röskau-Rydel (eds.): Lodz beyond factories, wild west and provinces. Cultural studies studies on Germans in and from the Polish areas. Munich 2009, p. 163.
242. ↑ German minority , www.polen-diplo.de , Foreign Office website.