Chevrolet Malibu

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Chevrolet Malibu / Classic
Production period: 1978–1982
since 1997
Class : Middle class
Body versions : Sedan , hatchback , station wagon , coupe
Previous model: Chevrolet Chevelle (Series 1A)

The Chevrolet Malibu is a mid-range passenger car model that was built by Chevrolet in the USA from spring 1978 to the end of 1982 as the successor to the Chevelle . In spring 1997, a sedan with the same name was launched as the successor to the Chevrolet Corsica .

The name is derived from the Californian seaside resort of Malibu .

Model history

Malibu / Malibu Classic (Series 1A, 1978–1982)

1st generation
Chevrolet Malibu Coupé (1978-1980)

Chevrolet Malibu Coupé (1978-1980)

Production period: 1978-1982
Body versions : Sedan , station wagon , coupé
Engines:
Otto engines : 3.3–5.7 liters
(69–125 kW)
Diesel engines :
4.3–5.7 liters (62.5–77 kW)
Length: 4895-5022 mm
Width:
Height:
Wheelbase : 2746 mm
Empty weight : 1351-1536 kg

In the spring of 1978, the Malibu, the bestseller in the Chevrolet-Chevelle range , became an independent model range. It was Chevrolet's second scaled-down series after the 1977 Caprice .

The new chassis was more than 30 cm shorter and the vehicles - depending on the model - 250 to 500 kg lighter than the predecessor, but offered more foot and headroom in the interior and a larger trunk. There were two trim levels, Malibu and Malibu Classic. The Landau Coupés of the Malibu Classic series had a two-tone paintwork and a vinyl roof.

There were four body styles: a two-door coupe , a two-door Landau coupe, a four-door sedan and a five-door station wagon . The sedan originally had a conservative notchback shape with six windows in contrast to the hatchback bodies of Oldsmobile and Buick. In order to save costs, the windows in the rear doors could not be opened, but you could open small ventilation windows in sedans and station wagons.

In the late summer of 1980, the sedans were given a four-window shape with a vertical rear window.

The two-door coupe was produced until the end of 1981. From autumn 1981, the Malibu models presented themselves slightly revised with rectangular double headlights and elongated flashing lights underneath.

Production ended at the end of 1982.

The El Camino (based on the Malibu) is particularly interesting for collectors . The coupes were often converted into muscle cars , even if these were not as popular as those of the first and second generation.

Police equipment

The four-door Malibu was also used as a fleet vehicle, particularly by police and judicial authorities. After the Nova was discontinued in 1979, the 9C1 police equipment (not to be confused with the 9C1 of the Chevrolet Impala ) was transferred to the Malibu, so that it served as a medium-sized police vehicle.

M80 sports package

From the factory there was no Malibu model with SS equipment. A super sports package was only available for the El Camino. In the 1980 model year, dealers in North and South Carolina offered an extremely rare Malibu M80 package to revive the era of muscle cars. Mainly, however, it was intended for NASCAR fans who regularly drove to Darlington Raceway . Today it is no longer known how many packages were sold or how many vehicles equipped with them still exist (one reckons with 1900 vehicles).

All M80 versions were painted white with dark blue individual seats and a center console. The basis of the M80 was the two-door sports coupé with F41 sports suspension and a 5.0-liter V8 engine with 145 hp (107 kW). The M80 package consisted of two blue trim strips with M80 lettering for the doors, front and rear spoilers and rally steel wheels.

Production in Mexico

In Mexico , GM produced this generation of the Malibu in the model years 1979 to 1981 at the Ramos Arizpe plant . The Mexican version was available in three equipment lines - Chevelle, Malibu and Malibu Classic - and in two body styles - sedan and coupé - with a 4.1-liter R6 engine or a 5.7-liter V8 engine with 260 hp (191 kW). The latter machine was part of the standard equipment of the Malibu Classic, which was possible because the emissions regulations in Mexico were not as strict as in the USA.

Taxis for Iraq

In 1981 GM Canada produced 25,500 Malibu sedans for Saddam Hussein's Iraqi government at the Oshawa plant . The deal is said to have had a volume of well over 100 million CAD . These Malibu models differed from the other versions and were equipped with the weakest 3.8-liter V6 engine with 110 hp (81 kW) in conjunction with a manual three-speed gearbox with center shift. All of these vehicles were painted white and had air conditioning, a high-performance cooling system, hard-wearing upholstery and 14 "steel rims with" Babymond "axle caps and hub rings.

Of the 25,500 Malibu limousines, only 13,000 were actually delivered to Iraq, most of which were used as taxis in Baghdad . For this purpose, the fenders were painted orange. In 1982, when around 12,500 copies were still waiting to be shipped either at the docks in Halifax or in Oshawa, Iraq suddenly canceled the order. The reasons for this were allegedly given various "quality problems". a. the problems of Arab drivers shifting the troublesome Saginaw manual gearbox. The problem was finally solved on site by readjusting the clutches by a Canadian team of technicians.

It was later suspected that the Iraqis had to withdraw from this business for financial reasons as the escalating conflict with Iran swallowed up more and more money. Initially, GM Canada director Donald Hackworth tried to sell the cars to other countries in the Middle East. Eventually the remaining “Iraqi Taxis” were sold to customers in Canada at a comparatively low unit price of CAD 6,800. Over the years, these vehicles have achieved a certain "cult status".

The GM-G platform

The Malibu was built on the same revised GM-G platform as the Pontiac Grand Prix , the Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme, and the Buick Regal . 1982 was the last year of production of the Malibu Classic.

There were four-door sedans and four-door station wagons with the same special equipment as the new front-wheel drive station wagon models based on the GM-A platform (from 1984) until the model was replaced in 1984 by the front-wheel drive Celebrity . The production of sedans and station wagons was discontinued, only the El Camino continued to be built until 1987.

Model cars

GM sold a 1:25 promotional model of the El Camino made of plastic from the manufacturer MPC, which was revised annually from 1978 to at least 1982. Kit versions of it were also produced, later there were corresponding advertising models of the Camino SS. The manufacturer Monogram also built a model of the 1978 El Camino in the then standard, slightly larger 1:24 scale and also a 1979 Malibu limousine with a police package as a simplified 1:32 -Quick assembly model. Both models were issued several times.

While the body of the second series Chevrolet Chevelle was often recreated in various scales as a die-cast model and as a toy car, there were only a few versions of the downsized Malibu generation. The manufacturer Maisto brought out a model of the El Camino with rectangular double headlights.

Malibu / Classic (Series 1N, 1997-2005)

2nd generation
Chevrolet Malibu (1997-2000)

Chevrolet Malibu (1997-2000)

Production period: 1997-2005
Body versions : limousine
Engines:
Petrol engines : 2.2-3.1 liters
(104-127 kW)
Length: 4836 mm
Width: 1763 mm
Height: 1427-1433 mm
Wheelbase : 2718 mm
Empty weight : 1382-1394 kg
Stars in the US NCAP - Crash Test (1997), frontal test 4 stars
Evaluation in the IIHS crash test (1997), moderate overlap front
A.

A new, front-wheel drive Malibu was introduced in early 1997 based on the extended GM-N platform (or initially the P90 platform), which was also used by the Buick Skylark , Oldsmobile Achieva , Oldsmobile Alero and Pontiac Grand Am . Formally, the vehicle was first shown to the public at the 1996 North American International Auto Show .

The 1N Series Malibu models were initially manufactured at the Oklahoma City assembly plant , which was converted in 2001 to build the SUV on the GMT360 platform . Until 1999, they were also built in the assembly plant in Wilmington , which was then converted for the production of the Saturn L-series . The production of the 1N was then relocated to Lansing (Michigan) .

The Oldsmobile Cutlass was the parallel model to the Malibu and replaced the Cutlass Ciera . The Malibu inherited the Chevrolet Corsica . The Malibu 1N was powered by a 2.4-liter inline four-cylinder engine with a maximum output of 150 hp (112 kW) or a 3.1-liter V6 engine with a maximum of 155 hp (116 kW). The maximum power of the 3.1 l V6 engine was increased to 170 hp (127 kW) in 2000, the engine code changed from L82 to LG8; the four-cylinder engine was omitted. Motor Trend magazine named the Malibu Motor Trend's 1997 Car of the Year .

The Malibu had a radiator grille with a silver Malibu logo in the middle from spring 1997 to summer 2000, while the Malibu models and the Classic versions from autumn 2000 to late 2003 had the blue Chevrolet emblem on the radiator grille. The LS models sometimes had special golden emblems (the name Malibu and the logo) on the rear of the vehicles.

When a new model based on the GM Epsilon platform was introduced at the beginning of 2004, the previous generation was renamed the Chevrolet Classic and it was kept in the range for rental and fleet vehicles until the end of 2005. In addition, a new 2.2-liter R4 engine from the Ecotec series was introduced for the Chevrolet Classic.

Malibu cruiser

The Chevrolet Malibu Cruiser concept vehicle was first shown at the 2001 SEMA show . The car is in the BASF painted -colour "sublime Lime" and has a tuned turbocharged V6 engine with the label "3500 SFI 60 ° V6", a maximum power of 230 hp (169 kW) at 5000 min -1 ; a maximum torque of 380 Nm at 2900 min −1 , a four-speed automatic transmission of the type 4T65-E with overdrive , 8 ″ × 19 ″ wheels from Evo and Toyo Proxes TI-S high-performance tires.

The exterior modifications include gas discharge (HID) headlights (with dipped and high beam) and clear glass rear lights ( Altezza lights), as well as a custom body package. There are also various conversions inside, u. a. a center console over the entire length of the interior, four black Sparco leather sports seats and a Kenwood music system (with radio, 10-disc CD and DVD changer, various amplifiers and speakers and a television).

Chevrolet never wanted to build this cruiser in series, but wanted to show young buyers that the car could be designed according to their own taste.

Technical specifications

Source:

Motor type Engine type Displacement Max. power Max. Torque drive transmission
2.4 Gasoline engine R4 2392 cc 112 kW (150 hp) at 5600 min -1 210 Nm at 4400 min -1 Front wheel drive 4-speed automatic transmission
3.1 V6 3135 cc 116 kW (155 hp) at 5200 min -1 251 Nm at 4000 min -1
112 kW (150 hp) at 4800 min -1 244 Nm at 3200 min -1
127 kW (170 hp) at 4800 min -1 264 Nm at 4400 min -1
2.2 (1) R4 2198 cc 104 kW (140 hp) at 5600 min -1 203 Nm at 4000 min -1
(1) as Chevrolet Classic

Malibu (Series 1N, 2003-2008)

3rd generation
Chevrolet Malibu (2003-2006)

Chevrolet Malibu (2003-2006)

Production period: 2003-2008
Body versions : Limousine , station wagon
Engines:
Petrol engines : 2.2–3.9 liters
(108–179 kW)
Length: 4770-4783 mm
Width: 1773-1775 mm
Height: 1461-1476 mm
Wheelbase : 2700-2852 mm
Empty weight : 1440-1642 kg
Stars in the US NCAP - Crash Test (2004), frontal test 4 stars
Evaluation in the IIHS crash test (2004), moderate overlap front
G

At the end of 2003 the third generation (internal designation: GMX380) was brought onto the market. It was based on the new Epsilon platform, which the Opel Vectra C introduced in 2002 also used. The predecessor was still produced for car rental companies under the name Chevrolet Classic until the end of 2005 .

The new Malibu was available in two body styles:

as a four-door notchback sedan (formal presentation: North American International Auto Show 2003) and as a five-door hatchback version , which was called the Malibu Maxx (formal presentation: New York International Auto Show 2003) and was based on the Opel Signum .

This generation of Malibu has a large radiator grille that is horizontally divided by a chrome bar. This design element has been introduced to the appearance of the Malibu models in the front view of the pick-up match that of Chevrolet.

Two engines were initially available for the Malibu: a 2.2-liter R4 engine with a maximum output of 145 hp (108 kW) and a 3.5-liter V6 engine with a maximum output of 200 hp (149 kW).

In the summer of 2006, the series received a facelift, whereby the chrome bar in the radiator grille was omitted. In the 2006 model year, the model range was expanded to include a Malibu SS with a 3.9-liter V6 engine and a maximum output of 240 hp (179 kW).

The Malibu 1N was built in Kansas City , Kansas.

Production of the notchback sedan was discontinued at the end of 2007, but the model remained available for fleet sales under the name Malibu Classic . Production of the Maxx hatchback ended in mid-2008.

Technical specifications

Source:

Motor type Engine type Displacement Max. power Max. Torque drive transmission limousine Station wagon
2.2 Gasoline engine R4 2198 cc 108 kW (145 hp) at 5600 min -1 210 Nm at 4000 min -1 Front wheel drive 4-speed automatic transmission x -
3.5 V6 3498 cc 149 kW (200 hp) at 5400 min -1 298 Nm at 3200 min -1 x x
2.2 R4 2198 cc 107 kW (143 hp) at 5600 min -1 210 Nm at 4000 min -1 x -
3.5 V6 3498 cc 150 kW (201 hp) at 5400 min -1 300 Nm at 3200 min -1 x x
3.9 (SS) 3880 cc 179 kW (240 hp) at 5800 min -1 325 Nm at 2800 min -1 x x
2.2 R4 2198 cc 108 kW (145 hp) at 5600 min -1 206 Nm at 4200 min -1 x -
3.5 V6 3510 cc 162 kW (217 hp) at 5800 min -1 294 Nm at 4000 min -1 x x
3.9 (SS) 3880 cc 179 kW (240 hp) at 6000 min -1 326 Nm at 4600 min -1 x x

Malibu (Series 1N, 2007-2012)

4th generation
Chevrolet Malibu LT (2007-2012)

Chevrolet Malibu LT (2007-2012)

Production period: 2007–2012
Body versions : limousine
Engines:
Petrol engines : 2.4–3.6 liters
(126–188 kW)
Otto hybrid :
2.4 liters (132 kW)
Length: 4872 mm
Width: 1786 mm
Height: 1450 mm
Wheelbase : 2852 mm
Empty weight : 1549-1655 kg

At the beginning of 2007, Chevrolet presented a completely newly developed model (internal designation: GMX386) that will be available in the course of the same year and that has grown in size at the NAIAS. This is based on the same platform (Epsilon platform) as the Saturn Aura and Opel Vectra C, which are no longer in production . The Chevrolet was produced in Kansas City (Missouri) and Lake Orion ( Michigan ) in the USA. The Pontiac G6, which has since been discontinued, was also temporarily produced here.

The Malibu is powered by a 2.4-l in-line four-cylinder engine with a maximum output of 126 kW or a 3.6-l V6 engine with a maximum of 188 kW. The power is transmitted exclusively through automatic transmissions with four stages (in conjunction with four-cylinder engines) or six stages.

From spring 2008 a mild hybrid version was also available , the first presentation of which took place in July 2007 in San Francisco in the fan zone of the MLB All-Star Game 2007 and which should go on sale in autumn of the same year. However, it was discontinued after only one year. With a saving of only about 10%, the sales figures were too low.

Production of this series was discontinued at the beginning of 2012.

Rear view
Stars in the US NCAP - Crash Test (2008), frontal test 5 Stars
Evaluation in the IIHS crash test (2008), moderate overlap front
G

Technical specifications

Source:

Motor type Engine type Displacement Max. power Max. Torque drive transmission
2.4 Gasoline engine R4 2384 cc 126 kW (169 hp) at 6400 min -1 217 Nm at 4500 min -1 Front wheel drive 4-speed automatic transmission
2.4 hybrid 122 kW (164 hp) at 6000 min -1 220 Nm at 4400 min -1
3.6 V6 3564 cc 188 kW (252 hp) at 6300 min -1 340 Nm at 3200 min -1 6-speed automatic transmission
2.4 R4 2384 cc 126 kW (169 hp) at 6200 min -1 214 Nm at 5200 min -1 4-speed automatic transmission
2.4 Flexfuel (1) 130 kW (175 hp) at 6300 min -1 230 Nm at 4700 min -1
(1) for ethanol operation with E85

Malibu (2011-2015)

5th generation
Chevrolet Malibu (2011-2015)

Chevrolet Malibu (2011-2015)

Production period: 2011-2015
Body versions : limousine
Engines:
Otto engines : 2.0–3.6 liters
(108–193 kW)
Diesel engine :
2.0 liters (118 kW)
Length: 4865 mm
Width: 1855 mm
Height: 1465 mm
Wheelbase : 2737 mm
Empty weight : 1595-1710 kg
Stars in the Euro NCAP - Crash Test (2011) 5 Stars
Stars in the US NCAP crash test (2012) 4 stars
Assessment in the IIHS crash test (2012), moderate overlap front
G
Evaluation in the KNCAP crash test (<2013) Grade 1

The fifth generation of the Malibu (internal designation: GMX351 or V300) was formally presented at the Shanghai Motor Show in April 2011. It was offered in South Korea from October 2011 and was launched worldwide in July 2012.

As for previous new developments by Chevrolet, this model also replaced several previous vehicles at the same time: the previous Malibu in the USA and the Chevrolet Epica in Europe . The latter was sold as Daewoo Tosca in South Korea and as Holden Epica in Australia . While the Holden brand continued and the car was called Holden Malibu there , it was marketed as Chevrolet in South Korea.

According to GM, the car should be offered in "almost 100 countries on 6 continents". There were manufacturing facilities in Detroit and Kansas City in the USA as well as in South Korea and China.

The car is based on the II Epsilon - platform , on which also, for example, the Opel Insignia A is based. The design of the predecessor has been further developed in this generation. A noticeable feature are the taillights that cite the 5th generation Chevrolet Camaro before its facelift.

The Malibu was offered in the USA with four-cylinder gasoline engines and a mild hybrid drive: the basic engine was a 2.5-liter engine, and a 2.4-liter engine with a mild hybrid system (e-Assist ) offered in the Malibu Eco , the basis for this combination is the 2.4-liter engine offered in Europe, which in the USA was only available in conjunction with the e-Assist system.

The six-cylinder engine of the last generation was omitted, instead a 2.0-l turbo engine with 193 kW (259 hp) was used, which is also installed in the Cadillac ATS and the Buick Verano . In Europe, in addition to the four-cylinder engine, a 2.0-liter diesel engine was offered, which was also used in a similar form in the Chevrolet Cruze J300 .

From the 2014 model year, which was sold from autumn 2013, the model was produced with a facelift. The mild hybrid model was omitted; a new 2.5-liter gasoline engine with a maximum output of 196 hp (146 kW) was used. Among other things, the front bumper has been revised on the vehicle exterior.

Technical specifications

2.0 2.4 2.5 3.0 V6 2.0
market China United States Arab space
engine Gasoline engine Diesel engine
Engine type In-line engine V engine In-line engine
Number of cylinders 4th 6th 4th
Cubic capacity in cm³ 1998 2384 2499 2997 1956
Max. Power in kW (hp) at min -1 108 (147) at 6200 123 (167) at 5800 147 (197) at 6300 196 (263) at 6900 118 (160) at 4000
Max. Torque in Nm min -1 190 at 4600 225 at 4600 259 at 4400 290 at 5600 350 at 1750
Gearbox, as standard 6-speed automatic transmission 6-speed manual transmission 6-speed automatic transmission 6-speed manual transmission
Gearbox, optional - 6-speed automatic transmission - 6-speed automatic transmission
Maximum speed in km / h k. A. 204-206 k. A. 220 204
Acceleration, 0-100 km / h k. A. 9.5-10.2 s k. A. 7.9 s 9.7-9.9 s
CO 2 emissions in g / km k. A. 184-188 k. A. k. A. 134-147
Tank capacity in l 70 73 62 k. A. 73

Registration numbers

In the first sales year 2012, 422 Malibu were newly registered in the Federal Republic of Germany. In 2013 there were 480 and in 2014 28 vehicles.

Malibu (since 2015)

6th generation
Chevrolet Malibu (2015-2018)

Chevrolet Malibu (2015-2018)

Production period: since 2015
Body versions : limousine
Engines:
Otto engines : 1.3–2.5 liters
(121–186 kW) Otto
engine :
1.8 liters (91–94 kW)
+ 2 electric motors : 60–76 kW + 54–55 kW
Diesel engines :
1.6 liters
(100 kW )
Length: 4923-4935 mm
Width: 1854-1855 mm
Height: 1465-1477 mm
Wheelbase : 2829-2830 mm
Empty weight : 1400-1526 kg
Stars in the C-NCAP - Crash Test (2017) 5 Stars
Stars in the US NCAP crash test (2016) 5 Stars
Evaluation in the IIHS crash test (2016), moderate overlap front
G

On April 1, 2015, the sixth generation of the Malibu (internal designation: E2SC or V400) was presented to the public at the New York International Auto Show . It has been available since the end of 2015, the vehicle is not sold in Europe. In China , the previous model is still being sold in parallel to the new generation, which is being sold as the Malibu XL . In the 2019 model year, the vehicle received a facelift. The Malibu XL for China was presented in a facelift version at the Guangzhou Auto Show .

The Opel Insignia B and the sixth generation of the Buick Regal based as Malibu on the E2xx platform .

In South Korea, the Malibu was offered from September 2016 with the same engines that are also available in North America. Since the facelift of 2018 it has been equipped with a 1.3-l R3 petrol engine with turbocharging and a maximum output of 115 kW, a 2.0-l R4 petrol engine with turbocharging and a maximum output of 186 kW and a 1, 6 l R4 diesel engine and a maximum output of 100 kW available.

In the USA, the hybrid model with a system output of 136 kW was discontinued in 2019 due to a lack of demand.

Technical specifications

Malibu E-Turbo (1.3) Malibu 1.5 Malibu 2.0 Malibu 1.6 D Malibu 1.8 Hybrid Malibu XL 1.3T Malibu XL 1.5T Malibu XL 2.0T Malibu XL 2.5 Malibu XL 1.8 Hybrid
Construction period since 2018 since 2015 since 2018 2016-2019 since 2019 2015-2018 since 2018 2015-2018 2016-2018
Engine characteristics
Motor type Gasoline engine Diesel engine Otto engine +
2 electric motors
Gasoline engine Otto engine +
2 electric motors
Engine type R3 R4 R4 +
2 electric motors
R3 R4 R4 +
2 electric motors
Displacement 1341 cc 1490 cc 1998 cc 1598 cc 1796 cc 1341 cc 1490 cc 1998 cc 2457 cc 1796 cc
Max. Power,
internal combustion engine in min -1
115 kW / 5600 122 kW (166 PS) / 5600 186 kW (253 PS) / 5300 100 kW / 3500-4000 91 kW / 5000 121 kW (165 PS) / 5600 125 kW (170 PS) / 5600 177 kW (241 PS) / 5000 147 kW (200 PS) / 6200 94 kW (128 PS) / 5000
Max. Power,
electric motors at min −1
- 76 kW +
55 kW
- 60 kW (82 PS) / 4000 +
54 kW (73 PS) / 4000
Max. System performance - 136 kW - 134 kW (182 PS)
Max. Torque ,
combustion engine in min -1
236 Nm / 1500-4000 250 Nm / 2000-4000 350 Nm / 1700 353 Nm / 2000-5000 320 Nm / 2000-2250 175 Nm / 4750
(1)
240 Nm / 1500-4000 252 Nm / 2000-4000 350 Nm / 1500-4000 253 Nm / 4400 175 Nm / 4750
Max. Torque,
electric motors at min −1
- k. A. - 275 Nm / 0-4000 +
140 Nm / 0-4000
Power transmission
Drive, as standard Front wheel drive
Gearbox, as standard Stepless transmission 6- speed automatic transmission 8-speed automatic transmission 6-speed automatic transmission Stepless transmission 7-speed double clutch transmission 9-speed automatic transmission 6-speed automatic transmission Stepless transmission
Readings
Top speed 215 km / h 250 km / h 205 km / h 220 km / h 160 km / h
Acceleration, 0-100 km / h 8.6 s 6.7 s 9.5 s 7.2 s 9.1 s 8.8 s
Fuel consumption
over 100 km, combined
7.0–7.5 l super 7.6 l super 8.7 l super 9.3 l super 6.5–6.9 l diesel 5.1 l super 5.8-5.9 l super 6.0 l super 6.7 l super 7.3 l super 4.3 l super
Empty weight 1400-1415 kg 1400 kg 1487 kg 1470 kg 1470-1475 kg 1526 kg 1430-1470 kg 1415-1430 kg 1525 kg 1480 kg 1515 kg
Tank capacity 62 l 55 l 49 l 55 l 60 l 62 l 49 l
(1) System torque: 375 Nm

Awards

literature

  • James M. Flammang, Ron Kowalke: Standard Catalog of American Cars, 1976-1999. 3rd edition. Krause Publications, Iola WI 1999, ISBN 0-87341-755-0 .

Web links

Commons : Chevrolet Malibu  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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  22. ^ John Voelcker: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Saturn Vue Returns As Chevy Captiva. In: greencarreports.com. March 14, 2011, accessed May 8, 2020 .
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