linoleum
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Linoleum ( Germany : [ liˈnoːleʊm ]; Austria and Switzerland : [ linoˈleːʊm ]; English [ lɪˈnəʊliəm ]) is a fiber-reinforced plastic developed in 1860 by the English chemist Frederick Walton . The name is made up of the Latin terms linum 'linseed' and oleum 'oil' and refers to linseed oil , which is the most important raw material for linoleum alongside cork flour and jute fabric .
use
Linoleum is used to manufacture elastic floor coverings and as a pressure plate in the linocut process in the fine arts . Its use for wallpaper ( Lincrusta ) is largely historical . Occasionally it is also used as a covering for furniture (tables, cupboards, pin boards).
history
Linoleum became established as an elastic floor covering in the second half of the 19th century. For a long time, however, it was considered to be upscale equipment compared to traditional floor coverings - such as floorboards. Until well into the middle of the 20th century, it was predominant in the area of resilient floor coverings. With the introduction of PVC floor coverings in the 1960s, the market collapsed and did not recover until the mid-1980s. In 2008 there were only four factories worldwide (all in Europe) of three owners that produced linoleum.
Manufacturing
raw materials
Linoleum mainly consists of oxidatively polymerized linseed oil ( linoxin ), natural resins ( rosin , copal and alternatively dammar ), cork or wood flour , limestone powder , titanium (IV) oxide as a white pigment, dyes and a jute fabric as a carrier layer. As an alternative to linseed oil, soybean oil is also used today, and depending on the manufacturer and the time of manufacture, it may also contain proportions of rubber or plastics . The strength is achieved solely through the oxidized oil, the additives only serve to change the specific properties.
Linoleum is produced in a multi-stage, time-consuming and labor-intensive process. The linoxin and the resins are the binders and as linoleum cement make up about 40% of the total mass, 60% are organic (wood, cork flour) and inorganic (limestone powder, pigments ) fillers. The carrier material, usually jute fabric (formerly sailcloth ), makes up the smallest part of the total mass with only about one percent.
Varnish and linoxin production
The starting product for linoleum production is linseed oil from the seeds of the oil flax . It is obtained by hot pressing or extraction and converted into linseed oil varnish before further processing by boiling it down at higher temperatures with the addition of dry substances (previously often lead and cobalt , now only manganese compounds in quantities of around 20 ppm ). It loses around half of its weight and becomes tougher. Boiling down shortens the subsequent drying time. The linseed oil varnish is now oxidized to linoxin, a distinction can be made between three processes.
Historical proceedings
The oldest oxidation process is the cloth-linoxin process, which goes back to Frederick Walton (also Walton or Alt-Walton process), in which fine lengths of cotton or nettle cloth hung down in so-called oxidation scales heated to 30 to 40 ° C. They were regularly sprinkled with linseed oil varnish, which reacted with the oxygen in the air to form linoxin. Only after four to five months were the sheets, which had grown to a thickness of 1 to 1.5 centimeters, removed and the linoxin obtained further processed. The method was slow and laborious, but the linoxin was of high quality. The process was still in use until at least the 1950s.
The Taylor process, developed by William Parnacott in 1871 and named after the manufacturer Caleb Taylor , was an artificial oxidation process in which the linseed oil was provided with oxidation accelerators and heated to a good 300 ° C while stirring and blowing in oxygen. The entire oxidation process only took a day, which significantly reduced the cost of the final product. The linoxin obtained was considered to be of inferior quality and was very dark, which is why it was only suitable for special applications, for example for the production of cork linoleum, dark, one-colored goods or printed linoleum.
In 1894, Frederick Walton had the so-called rapid oxidation process (also Bedford or Neu-Walton process) patented for the production of linoxin . The process was divided into two parts, namely the preparation of the varnish in large oxidation towers, where the linseed oil 'rained down', and the final preparation of the linoxin in large, horizontal drums, so-called Bedford drums. The varnish was then thickened at 55 ° C. while stirring to give a tough, dough-like yellow-red mass.
Later the linoxin, which had been stored for the purpose of maturation, was melted down again and so-called linoleum cement was produced by adding various resins . This was then stored for two months until final processing.
Today's oxidation process
Today's processes are based on the rapid oxidation process, but the individual steps have largely been summarized. Drying substances are added to the linseed oil in the Bedford drums, and the varnish is prepared and oxidized at a temperature of around 80 ° C with constant stirring. As soon as the mass has reached a certain toughness ( viscosity ), the melted resins are added to the drums. Through computer-controlled process, these drums can be heated and cooled to achieve the right consistency and the optimal mixing ratio.
Up to this point the preparation takes no more than a day today. During the oxidation, linoleum flour is added to the mass, which is produced by shredding and grinding production residues. On the one hand, this serves to reduce the amount of waste, and on the other hand, the already oxidized material accelerates the maturing process of the new linoleum cement.
The finished linoleum cement is pressed into a strand by a screw press and shortened to defined lengths. It is cooled in iron boxes dusted with chalk or wood flour and then stored for subsequent ripening and cooling until it is used.
Mixture preparation, calendering and post-ripening
The linoleum cement produced in this way is mixed and kneaded with cork and wood flour, limestone powder as a binding agent, and white pigments ( titanium dioxide ) and dyes. Approximately 40% linoleum cement, 40% cork and wood flour and 20% limestone dust and pigments are mixed, the dry components being mixed in a premixer and only then kneaded with the thinly rolled linoleum cement. Thorough kneading results from a multi-stage mixing process in which the material is passed through several single and twin-screw mixers . This results in a homogeneous mixture of the material.
For calendering , metering systems pour the material as a fine-grained mass onto the carrier fabric in front of the calender rollers. The rotation speed of these large, counter-rotating pairs of rollers can be regulated and heated as required. The mixed mass is rolled onto the carrier material by the calender, whereby the two are firmly bonded together.
After calendering, the long, uncut linoleum sheets are brought to ripening chambers for further ripening. The linoleum receives the desired properties through a two to four week regulated heat treatment. The chambers accommodate up to 20,000 meters of linoleum and are usually 15 meters high. By hanging the panels in the middle, the individual panels can be up to 30 meters long.
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Linoleum is usually installed by qualified floor layers. Adhesives as well as filler and special tools for floor preparation are required as aids . When laying, it is important to pay attention to the indoor climate in terms of humidity, room temperature and, above all, the floor temperature. The linoleum, which has already been stored at the installation site at least 2 days before starting work, should be laid at room temperature, but not below 15 ° C, as it breaks when rolled out in unheated rooms and the adhesive used cannot establish a stable connection to the sub-floor. If the production-related "hanging bumps" cannot be cut out due to the dimensions of the room, the back of this area must also be coated with adhesive and a fully covering and weighted overlay must be laid on for at least 24 hours while the adhesive is curing.
The linoleum usually absorbs moisture from the adhesive and substrate, which temporarily soften it. Modern dispersion adhesives contain up to 30% water, which is released into the sub-floor or the linoleum. Due to the increased humidity, it can take up to 6 weeks for the linoleum to dry completely and to be fully stressable - during this time it is more susceptible to notched impact loads. B. can be struck by chair legs. If a layer of cork is laid under the linoleum for sound insulation, the drying process can be significantly extended again due to the double moisture.
In order to close off rooms completely and seamlessly on the walls, there are special wall connection systems that are also made of linoleum and enable a clean finish in various designs with support profiles or with simple base strips. The accessories also include linoleum hot-melt wire for sealing the seams, which consists of a hot-melt adhesive and is available in transparent or the same colors as the linoleum. A hand welder or an automatic welder is used to seal the seams after the adhesive has set .
Surface treatment
A disadvantage of linoleum compared to PVC floor coverings is that it requires a lot of care. Up until the 1950s, linoleum had to be regularly polished with wax-based care products in addition to normal cleaning in order to protect the surface from dirt and mechanical damage.
Nowadays, after ripening, a protective layer is applied to the surface of the linoleum and then dried. Acrylic resin was in use until the mid-1990s , today the major suppliers use either polyurethane (DLW Armstrong) or special in-house coatings such as TopShield ( Forbo Holding ) or xf - Extreme Finish (Tarkett). These seal the linoleum and make it insensitive to dirt at the factory. The additional benefit often cited by the manufacturers that previously necessary maintenance steps were omitted, is viewed with great skepticism by experts. These complete seals also retain water in the material, which favors pin seams .
Sports linoleum for gyms is delivered unsealed , as it can only be treated with special non-slip care products after it has been laid, in order to enable the individual sports floor lines and markings to be applied on site. The trade describes linoleum as an "eco-product", which is sold untreated and only sealed with natural wax after it has been laid. Linoleum for linocut is not treated either, as the surface must remain workable with cutting tools.
Cleaning and care
Coated and uncoated linoleum can be cleaned by damp wiping with pH-neutral cleaning agents . Then can be to seal and increase gloss emulsions of waxes Apply and wipe.
properties
Linoleum has many properties that make it stand out as a floor covering. Its basic composition and technical properties are nationally and internationally standardized . The most important standard for Europe is EN 548 (resilient floor coverings - specification for linoleum with and without a pattern) in the last version of September 20, 2004, which is linked to numerous other standards on the quality of special shapes, installation techniques and others. According to this standard, linoleum is defined according to the type of binder: It must consist of linseed oil or other drying vegetable oils and resins, and the minimum proportion of fillers (cork, wood flour) must be 30%.
Technical characteristics
The main advantage of linoleum is its resistance to mechanical and chemical stress. Deformations (pressure points) caused by high loads recede almost completely after a while. Corresponding test procedures and limit values are contained as quality specifications in national regulations or are specified by the manufacturer. In Germany, under standardized conditions (23 ° C, 50% relative humidity), after 150 minutes of exposure and a further 150 minutes of relief, an indentation depth of 0.15 millimeters or 0.2 mm for materials over 3.2 mm may not be exceeded.
Linoleum can be classified as flame-retardant (formerly B1) or normally flammable (formerly B2). This corresponds to the European fire protection classes C fl -s1 and E fl . The properties required by EN 1399 for resistance to burning cigarettes, which are particularly important for floor coverings in the public area, stipulate that the material must not show any color changes when it is pressed out and only slight changes when a cigarette is burned.
Furthermore, linoleum is resistant to a whole range of acids and solvents as well as other chemicals. These include, for example, gasoline , ethanol , oils, and most washing-active substances. However, the material is very sensitive to alkalis with a pH value above 9 such as soap or ammonia .
Hygienic properties
Linoleum is antistatic, mildly fungicidal and bacteriostatic (i.e. it inhibits the growth of bacteria). The cause is the permanent emission of small amounts of different aldehydes ( hexanal , acrolein , acetaldehyde , etc.), which come from the practically never-ending autoxidation of linseed oil in the air or are residues of the oxidation reaction in the manufacturing process ('ripening process'). This effect has led to the fact that linoleum was and is still used as a floor covering in buildings with increased hygiene requirements.
Veil of maturity
Due to the natural oils it contains, linoleum develops a typical “frost veil” due to its dark yellowing , a color shift that can occur with material stored in the dark. The veil of ripeness and the color shift depend on the linoleum color, so the veil of ripeness disappears more quickly with lighter colors than with dark colors. In addition, blue and gray tend to shift towards green and beige towards yellow.
This veil of ripeness is broken down by light. One hour of outdoor lighting with bright midday sun is already sufficient to completely dismantle it; darker lighting conditions delay the process; in comparatively dark apartments it can be slowed down for weeks. If the light conditions are uneven, there may be differences in color and brightness in the installed linoleum, so-called exposure protrusions. A full customization can take weeks.
Linoleum with special properties
Linoleum is also produced for various special applications. For areas in which electro-sensitive components are used, a floor covering is required that does not allow for electrostatic charging. It must be correspondingly conductive and often also have location insulation due to a high surface resistance. Such coverings are mainly used in areas in which electronic components are built or telecommunications systems or data centers are operated. Even rooms with a high risk of explosion, such as those used for fireworks production, require electrically conductive floors in order not to provoke ignition by electrostatic charges. The linoleum is laid here on a conduction system with copper tapes.
Another special requirement is increased noise and footfall noise reduction. This is achieved through additives in the floor covering (soft, springy floor covering) or a special sub-surface (floating screed ).
Highly durable linoleum can be found in gyms in particular. With a thickness of 4 mm, it is particularly thick and is mainly applied to flooring with elastic surfaces. It was developed and used on warships before the First World War, giving it the nickname battle ship linoleum .
history
Prehistory: Oilcloths and Kamptulikon
Floor coverings to protect floors were used centuries before linoleum. Above all, wax or oil cloths were a direct predecessor of the later resilient floor coverings. Oilcloth in the form of painted fabric was probably developed as early as the 15th or 16th century, but it was only documented as a floor covering from the early 18th century. At that time, it was particularly popular in England to protect wooden floors or valuable carpets under tables, stairs and passageways. Usually square pieces of about two square meters (two to three square yards ) made of linen , hemp or cotton were sewn to the desired size and then painted with a layer of paint to make them waterproof.
The English patent for oilcloth for flooring was filed in 1763 by Nathan Smith . It consisted of a fabric that was coated with a mixture of resin, tar, Spanish brown , beeswax and linseed oil. In the same year Smith opened a successful factory for floor oilcloth in London and by the end of the 18th century there were already 20 oilcloth factories in England. The product also established itself in the USA and a number of companies were founded. One of the most important factories in Great Britain was Michael Nairn's cloth factory in Kirkcaldy , which from 1848 also produced oil cloths.
In 1844 the Englishman Elijah Galloway patented an elastic floor covering called Kamptulikon . It was a rubber-like material that was also used in large buildings such as churches and was more heat and sound insulating than oil cloth. Kamptulicon was made from rubber, gutta-percha , waste from the cork industry , shellac and linseed oil . In the 1860s there were ten factories in England producing Kamptulikon. Due to the relatively high price, however, it could not prevail in less affluent households.
Discovery and development of linoleum
According to numerous sources, Frederick Walton discovered linoleum by accident: while working on the development of quick-drying paints, he saw a solid, rubbery layer of oxidized flaxseed oil on a can of linseed oil- based paint . In 1860 he patented a process for the production of linoxin , in which linseed oil was exposed to the air and condensed through oxidation. Walton tried to apply the newly developed linoxin to strips of fabric in order to get a replacement for rubber. In 1863 he produced his first piece of linoleum and patented the process the following year.
When it was first introduced, linoleum was thought to have a wide range of uses, but only petroleum-based plastics of the 20th century could really do justice to it in this form . Contemporary sources formulate high expectations of the material: it should be used as a protective coating for iron, wood and carriage wagons, as a waterproof adhesive and - after vulcanization and further hardening - as a substitute for wood, ivory and marble, in everyday life for picture frames , tablecloths or cutlery handles , in the technical area for embossing dies and gas pipes. In combination with corundum , even grinding wheels should be made from it. However, it did not come to the implementation of such applications, which Walton largely wanted to leave to licensees. On the other hand, he implemented his already market-ready process for the production of floor coverings himself by founding the Linoleum Manufacturing Company in Staines , which he financed through a partnership with William J. Turner and other investors.
After a slow introduction, the new material was quickly able to prevail over the oil cloths and the Kamptulikon due to its insulating effect, durability and elasticity. Linoleum was mainly used for public buildings such as hospitals or offices due to its ease of cleaning. In 1877 the linoleum's patent protection expired , other manufacturers also began production and came into direct competition with Walton. Walton had failed to protect the name linoleum and lost a lawsuit against Michael Nairn & Co., now headed by Michael Barker Nairn , on the grounds that the term linoleum was already an established term for the material and no longer just because of its popularity for the company product. In just 14 years, linoleum had become a household name in Great Britain.
In 1877 Frederick Walton developed and patented a process to make Linoxin usable as wall cladding, he called the new product Lincrusta . It consisted of a strong paper on which raised patterns were rolled with a plastic mass. This mass was a mixture of wood flour, chalk, paint and a resin-linoxin mixture. Production began in Sunbury-on-Thames in 1878 , and later also in Paris and Hanover .
In 1890 Walton succeeded in making an inlay technique ready for the market with the straight-line inlaid process. Although there had already been options for designing linoleum, these were either not very diverse (e.g. granitized or marbled linoleum) or technically not convincing (such as non-wear-resistant printing or an imprecise process according to C. F. Leake). Walton founded the Greenwich Inlaid Linoleum Company in Greenwich in 1894 , which specialized in this process.
Michael Nairn offered large seamless linoleum sheets from 1881 and from 1895, like Walton, produced linoleum with an inlay technique that made multi-colored designs possible. In 1922 Michael Nairn Ltd. the company of Walton and since then traded as Michael Nairn and Greenwich Ltd.
international Developement
With the success of linoleum, the first works outside of England were created at the end of the 19th century. Walton had previously sold individual licenses to manufacture linoleum to France and Germany, but the decisive impetus was the expiry of Walton's patent in 1877. Nairn opened his first linoleum factory in Kearny , New Jersey in 1888 and in Choisy in the 1890s -le-Roi near Paris and in Bietigheim near Stuttgart . In 1886, Tarkett was founded in Ronneby , Sweden, as one of the few linoleum manufacturers that still exist today.
From the 1870s a linoleum industry emerged in the USA, and from the 1880s also in Germany. Especially around the turn of the century and between 1920 and 1930, works were created in many countries in continental Europe, but also in Canada and Japan, and since 1927 also in Australia.
In 1928 the Continentale Linoleum Union outlined the conditions on the world market with the words: “England produces about as much linoleum as the European continent. America's production is about five times that of England. In addition, a very strong linoleum industry has emerged in Japan, which completely covers the Japanese and Chinese markets. "
Even before the First World War, there were agreements between manufacturers in different European countries that set both prices and sales conditions. This cartel became increasingly stronger, so in 1934 there were agreements between almost all English, German and Italian manufacturers that ensured that they would not export to the home markets of the other contractual partner. In 1939, numerous British manufacturers as well as "all major linoleum manufacturers on the continent were part of formal agreements on sales of linoleum and flooring in all markets except the United States". The Second World War inactivated these treaties. Although they could not be renewed after 1945 due to anti-cartel laws in various European countries, the agreements remained informal until at least the mid-1950s.
After the linoleum markets had gradually recovered in the 1950s, synthetic floor coverings, especially PVC , began to gain acceptance in the mid-1960s and the market for linoleum collapsed. Numerous plants had to close or switch to other products. In the wake of this crisis, which lasted until the mid-1970s, the market became increasingly concentrated.
The last remaining manufacturers of linoleum today are Forbo Holding , which emerged from the Continentalen Linoleum Union , Deutsche Linoleum-Werke (DLW) , which was taken over by Armstrong Industries in 1998, and the French company Tarkett . Around 38 million square meters of linoleum are sold worldwide every year, with Germany being the largest single market with almost 9 million square meters, followed by North America with 4.5 million square meters. Internationally, Forbo is the market leader with a market share of around 65%, followed by Armstrong DLW with 26% and Tarkett with 9%.
Great Britain
As early as 1906, the British linoleum industry began to organize itself in an initially relaxed and informal framework. Due to the depression in the early 1930s, seven of the nine linoleum manufacturers at the time founded the so-called Linoleum and Floorcloth Manufacturers' Association (LMA) in 1934 , which was primarily intended to standardize formats, qualities and prices and to promote the sale of linoleum. At the same time there was competition for linoleum from alternative floor coverings, in the lower price segment the printed linoleum with the new balatum , in the upper price segment with rubber floor coverings and carpets. While the annual production of the British linoleum industry was only 47 million m² (56 million square yards) in 1933, it rose to around 55 million m² (66 million square yards) by 1937.
With the outbreak of the Second World War, the supply of raw materials suddenly decreased while prices rose sharply at the same time. As early as September 1939, the government put the most important raw material, linseed oil, under control. Resins, jute, and dyes soon followed. From 1940 there were first sales restrictions and from 1942 linoleum could only be sold to government agencies, the civilian population could only purchase linoleum without jute backing and without cork content. In the war year 1944, only 18 million m² of linoleum were produced in this way. All of these restrictions remained in place until 1947, with only one price control remaining until 1953.
Immediately after the war, the British linoleum industry was faced with increased prices, a shortage of raw materials (linseed oil, jute) and incomplete machinery, difficulties that were not resolved until 1954. In that year the British linoleum industry produced around 50 million m² (59 million square yards) and thus matched the pre-war figures.
The collapse of the linoleum market in the mid-1960s caused many plants to close ( Barry, Ostlere and Shepherd Ltd. in Kirkcaldy 1967, The Linoleum Manufacturing Co. Ltd. 1973, James Williamson & Son Ltd. 1963.) Some companies merged ( Nairn and Williamson 1963) or adapted to market developments by switching from the production of linoleum to the now successful new floor coverings. However, British industry found no antidote to the crisis that continued until the mid-1970s, and in 1975 the last British manufacturer, Nairn and Williamson Ltd. , taken over by Unilever and again in 1985 by Forbo . Forbo now operates the last British linoleum plant in Kirkcaldy, Forbo Nairn .
North America
In 1872 Frederick Walton was invited to New York to work with Joseph Wild to set up the American Linoleum Manufacturing Company in Staten Island . The popularity of linoleum there could already be reported in 1879, and the American oil cloth manufacturers faced noticeable competition from Wild's factory.
In addition to Michael Nairn & Co and Joseph Wild's American Linoleum Manufacturing Company , a total of six linoleum companies were established in the USA around the turn of the century. While the companies of George Blabon and Thomas Potter, both in Philadelphia , and Cook in New Jersey were only significant for a short time, the Armstrong Cork and Tile Company in Lancaster , Pennsylvania soon dominated the American linoleum market. Armstrong was founded in 1860 by Charles D. Armstrong and from the 1880s onwards mainly supplied Joseph Wild with cork flour for linoleum production. In 1907 the management decided to set up their own linoleum production, which was realized in 1908. Unlike other companies, Armstrong sold its linoleum directly to the private consumer and launched several campaigns to attract end users to the Linoleum program for every room in the house . Armstrong's innovations included the permanent laying technique: while linoleum was previously laid out like carpet and could be easily damaged, Armstrong linoleum was glued to the floor. Armstrong developed very quickly and was the market leader in America in the 1920s.
The market leader, which has meanwhile been renamed Armstrong World Industries , was able to maintain its important position in the field of resilient floor coverings up to the present during the crisis of the 1960s, but it has not produced linoleum for a long time. It was not until the takeover of Deutsche Linoleum-Werke AG in 1998 that Armstrong became active again in the linoleum market.
The first Canadian linoleum producer was Dominion Oil Cloth Co., founded by a group of eleven investors in 1872 , later Dominion Oilcloth & Linoleum Co. The company, which initially only produced oil cloth, began to produce linoleum around the turn of the century and was known in the 1920s for the quality of its goods. In 1934 Dominion took over Barry & Staines Canada Ltd. the Canadian branch of the British company, which like Michael Nairn Ltd. held a stake in the company. In 1940 Dominion also took over Congoleum Canada Ltd. In 1967 the companies merged and renamed Domco Industries Ltd. After further takeovers in the USA in 1991 and 1994, the company reorganized into Domco Inc. in 1996 , Domco acquired the companies Tarkett and Harris Tarkett and briefly traded as Domco Tarkett , before the group appeared globally as Tarkett after further mergers in 2003 .
Continental Europe
There were companies producing linoleum in numerous countries in continental Europe (Scandinavia, Italy, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, Austria), but this was mostly limited to individual plants, and there were only seldom real industries with several manufacturers as in Germany.
Germany
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Initially, linoleum found it difficult to establish itself in Germany. The imported new flooring was expensive and differed significantly from the familiar plank floor, and consumer acceptance was correspondingly low. This did not change until the late 1870s and early 1880s, and so the first linoleum factories were founded in 1882 with the Delmenhorster linoleum factory (“Hansa” brand) and the German linoleum and oilcloth company in Rixdorf near Berlin . In 1883, the First German Patent Linoleum Factory followed in Cöpenick near Berlin , from 1907 part of the Bremer Linoleum-Werke AG Delmenhorst (“key” brand). Many other plants followed until 1899, the last of which was the Continental Linoleum Company, which was founded in 1911.
In Delmenhorst, the Delmenhorster Linoleum-Fabrik AG (“Anker” brand) also settled in 1892 , so the city became the focus of German linoleum production. The decisive locational advantages of Delmenhorst were the cork and jute industry already located there , the proximity to England, which simplified the transfer of personnel, technology and knowledge, especially in the founding phase, and the proximity of Bremen as a seaport, which meant short distances for raw material deliveries and the export of production .
Other focal points of the linoleum industry were the Berlin region and south-west Germany. In the Berlin region, in addition to Rixdorf and Köpenick, there were plants in Velten ( Continental Linoleum Company , from 1911) and Eberswalde ( Eberswalder Linoleumwerke Frentzel & Sons ). The Maximiliansau linoleum factory ("Adler" brand) was founded in Maximiliansau near Karlsruhe in 1893 , and an offshoot of the Scottish Nairn Ltd. was established in Bietigheim in Württemberg in 1899 . , the Linoleumwerke Nairn AG .
With the beginning of the First World War in 1914, German linoleum production collapsed because almost all raw materials came from abroad. After the end of the war in 1918, it took until the beginning of the 1920s for the industry to recover and to match the pre-war production figures.
With the end of the founding phase around 1900, a phase of corporate concentration began. By 1922, all plants in the Berlin region had merged into Delmenhorster companies, in 1926 the Delmenhorster and southern German companies merged to form Deutsche Linoleum Werke Aktiengesellschaft , initially based in Berlin, and from 1938 in Bietigheim. The concentration also continued at the European level: In 1928, Deutsche Linoleum-Werke AG Berlin was a co-founder of the Continentale Linoleum Union , but left it again for political reasons towards the end of the 1930s.
In the Second World War, German linoleum production collapsed again due to a lack of raw materials. Only after 1949 did she recover. Between 1951 and 1955, annual production doubled from 2.8 million to 5.6 million square meters.
The Rheinische Linoleumwerke Bedburg (RLB) assumed an outsider position . The company, which was founded in 1897 and has been family-owned for all of its existence, has always remained independent of the rest of the industry. During the Third Reich, the RLB took over several Jewish-owned companies, including two linoleum factories: the Austrian linoleum, oilcloth and artificial leather factory and the Prague-based company Linoleum-Industrie Leopold Blum . In the post-war period, the company became the second largest German manufacturer after DLW AG and employed up to 1,100 people.
The crisis of the 1960s led to a drastic decline in production. In 1960 linoleum and similar floor coverings such as Stragula and Balatum still had a market share of over 50%, by 1969 it had fallen to around 10%. As a result, all German plants except the one in Delmenhorst had to close or stop the production of linoleum. In the 1970s, the production of DLW AG was only 150,000 square meters per year, the RLB stopped the linoleum production in 1973 and had to file for bankruptcy in 1978. It was not until the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s that demand grew again in the wake of growing environmental awareness up to the turn of the millennium, and the building material, which mainly consisted of natural raw materials, gained new importance.
In Germany, DLW AG is traditionally the market leader, its market share was stable at around 54 percent at the turn of the millennium ( Forbo 36%, Tarkett 10%). The total sales figures stagnated between 2003 and 2007 at 9 to 10 million square meters sold, of which around 8 to 8.5 million square meters were in the so-called property sector . In Germany, linoleum has a share of around 7% of the resilient flooring product group .
Sweden
The Swedish linoleum AB Forshaga was founded by Karl Ekström in Forshaga in 1896 , but after a few years moved to Gothenburg in order to have better access to raw materials and shorter export routes via its port. The company dominated the Swedish flooring market for over half a century. In the 1960s, the factory expanded its production range to include PVC and textile floors. The founding member of the Continentalen Linoleum Union then became part of the Forbo Group in 1968. Today, linoleum is no longer made in Sweden.
Italy
Production in Italy began in 1898 with the establishment of the Società Italiana del Linoleum based in Milan by the industrialist Giovanni Battista Pirelli , who rededicated his rubber factory in Narni to the only Italian production facility for linoleum. The Società Italiana del Linoleum was part of the European linoleum cartel and thus largely protected against imports. Based on its home market, the monopoly increased the export share of its production to up to 30% in the 1930s. However, at the end of the 1960s this plant also fell into the crisis of the industry and had to close in 1985. The plant was taken over by Sommer Allibert , which was extensively modernized in the following years after their merger with Tarkett in 1997 and is now one of the last four linoleum plants still active.
Switzerland
The Italian company also became the mother of the only Swiss linoleum factory that Pirelli founded in Giubiasco in Ticino in 1905 . After a few initial difficulties, the plant was able to establish itself successfully on the market, but had to interrupt production during the First World War. Two years after the resumption of production in 1919, the branch in 1921 became an independent company, Linoleum AG Giubiasco , which became a co-founder of the CLU in 1928 . The plant continued to operate successfully and between 1930 and 1940 employed up to 225 people before the crisis. After the Second World War, the company expanded and further expanded its range. Linoleum production stopped the plant in 1965 and shifted to the production of synthetic floor coverings. In 1974, the factory was merged with the Forbo Group, to which it still belongs to this day, nowadays pressed panels for antistatic floor coverings are produced there.
Netherlands
The first Dutch linoleum factory was built in Zaanstad in 1898/1899 , but it burned to the ground in 1903. At the same time, the Nederlandse Linoleum Fabriek set up a plant in Krommenie , which was expanded to include another plant in the immediate vicinity in 1922. Both the Zaanstad plant and the Krommenie plant were operated under license from Frederick Walton, who also provided knowledgeable staff. The NLF joined the CLU in 1929 . In 1968 NLF expanded its product range to include vinyl floors in order to face the crisis. In the same year, the companies in the CLU merged to form the Forbo Group. As part of the reorganization of the group, it was the plant in Krommenie that was selected for further linoleum production alongside the one in Kirkcaldy. To date, the Dutch market is dominated by Forbo , which in 2006 had a market share of over 90%.
Austria
The first Austrian linoleum factory (Prima Fabbrica Austriaca di Linoleum) was founded on May 28, 1895 in Trieste ; Their central office and board of directors were in Vienna . It was initially the first and only production facility in Austria-Hungary. In 1904, she introduced production using the Walton system. In 1905 the production of Taylor goods was stopped, in 1910 that of Linkrusta. In 1907 the production of inlaid goods started. In 1916 linoleum production in Trieste was stopped. It was not until the 1920s that the Austrian linoleum, oilcloth u. Kunstlederfabriken-Aktiengesellschaft, with a plant in Brunn am Gebirge, has again set up a production facility for linoleum in Austria.
In 1922, the company Blum Haas founded in Traiskirchen the Austrian linoleum, Wachstuch- and synthetic leather factories AG . The company was " aryanized " in 1938 , bought by the Rheinische Linoleumwerke Bedburg and renamed Wiener Linoleum Oilcloth Factory . In 1945 the company was expropriated and run as a USIA company, in 1955 it was returned to the founder, who had returned from the USA, and in 1958 it was taken over by the semi-state Semperit Group. It is not known when linoleum production stopped. Today, ÖLW AG produces artificial leather and coatings.
Cartel formation
In 1928, Deutsche Linoleum-Werke AG , the Swedish Linoleum Aktiebolaget Forshaga and the Swiss Linoleum AG Giubiasco founded the Continentale Linoleum Union (CLU) based in Zurich , which according to its own account at that time represented "around 80% of continental European linoleum production". In the following year the Nederlandsche Linoleumfabriek (Netherlands) was added, later also companies from Austria, France and Latvia. The DLW left the Union for political reasons towards the end of the 1930s. Forbo Holding AG emerged from the Continentalen Linoleum Union in the 1970s .
Competing products
A short time after its establishment, linoleum was the dominant product among resilient floor coverings and was able to maintain this position for almost a century. During this time, however, alternatives were repeatedly developed that competed more or less strongly with linoleum. In the early days, this was mainly the older Kamptulikon mentioned above , but it was less warm underfoot and wear-resistant than linoleum. The raw material rubber, which became more and more expensive towards the end of the 19th century, also made it less and less competitive in terms of price. At the turn of the century it disappeared from the market for good.
In 1871, about ten years after the discovery of linoleum, corticine , later simply called cork carpet, was developed. This consisted of cork flour and polymerized oil. In 1875 the designer William Morris patented an African design of this material, which was available until around 1900. However, corticine could not prevail against linoleum.
Stragula , balatum , bedola and triolin were originally developed as substitutes in the first half of the 20th century . All of them existed in parallel for a time and only competed with linoleum in the lowest price segment. Another competitor product that was frequently used up until the 1970s was floors made of vinyl asbestos panels - visually hardly distinguishable from the linoleum versions of the time. It was not until the second half of the 20th century that PVC became increasingly popular as a floor covering and, in addition to the various alternatives, almost completely replaced linoleum from the market.
Cultural history
Design and architecture
Technical requirements
Originally there was only single-color pigmented linoleum. Decorations could be printed on it, a practice that has probably been common since the invention of linoleum, but such prints were not wear-resistant and would wear off with use. Probably the earliest method of designing the material itself was a process that already existed in 1863 and was improved again in 1879, which gave the linoleum a granite-like appearance. Charles Frederick Leake, an employee of Walton, then succeeded for the first time in 1880 in developing a method for the production of non-granitized, multi-colored linoleum, but the process still lacked precision. In 1997, the art historian Pamela Watson spoke of "patterns that look a bit blurry, but which could not imitate the precision of a design using tiles". Then in 1882 Walton invented the so-called straight-line inlaid process, an inlay technique that finally made a permanent design possible. Patterns were cut out of different colored strips, put together like a mosaic and put together using pressure and heat. In the beginning, the linoleum produced in this way was very expensive and accordingly not very successful, as the cutting and folding had to be done by hand. It wasn't until Walton found a way to machine inlaid linoleum in 1890 that nothing stood in the way of its success. Walton founded the Greenwich Inlaid Linoleum Company in 1894 , which specialized in this form of linoleum.
Early design
If linoleum was designed at all in the first few decades, the leading English manufacturers at the time were usually guided by the public tastes of their conservative home markets, while the few producers in other countries such as the USA or France usually looked to England. With the intention of visually upgrading the linoleum to increase its acceptance, particularly high-quality or valuable materials such as oriental carpets , stone floors or parquet were imitated. These design principles remained decisive well into the 20th century. In 1912 Gustav Gericke stated : “France tends to be even more conservative in its taste than England and to regard the developing new German style as inferior to the historical French styles, or at least absolutely not appealing to French taste. The factories in Sweden, Norway, Italy, Austria and Switzerland, which are eligible for competition with Germany, have so far limited themselves to copying England in the pattern. "
Modern design from 1900
In Germany, a more modern approach to linoleum design was able to prevail from the turn of the century, which integrated influences from Art Nouveau , Art Deco and New Objectivity . The first manufacturer to join forces with progressive artists for a contemporary design of the linoleum was the Delmenhorst-based Hansa-Werke. An artistic advisory board had existed here since 1892, but it did not succeed for a long time in providing adequate templates. In 1903, Hansa-Werke started a competition and then implemented four of the designs, including one by the Munich Art Nouveau artist Richard Riemerschmid .
The breakthrough in modern design in German linoleum production is mainly due to Gustav Gericke, who had been director of the Anker-Werke Delmenhorst, founded in 1892, since 1903. Gericke was not only a successful businessman, but was also connected to a reformist, art-loving ideal. Probably immediately after taking office, he contacted the industrial designer Peter Behrens , who in the following years, strongly influenced by Art Nouveau, not only presented designs for the linoleum itself, but also revised the entire image of the company, from letterheads to posters, brochures and exhibition pavilions. From 1906 onwards, the product range of the Anker-Werke, based on the so-called artist's patterns, expanded; in addition to Behrens, important artists such as Richard Riemerschmid, Bruno Paul , Albin Müller , Rudolf Alexander Schröder , Josef Hoffmann , Henry van de Velde , Willi Baumeister , Lucian Bernhard , Johann Vincenz Cissarz and numerous others for the Anker-Werke.
The commitment of the Anker-Werke under Gericke went far beyond opening up a niche in the market. In 1907 the company joined the newly founded Deutscher Werkbund , to which some of its designers belonged, Gericke was also a member of the board for a time. They commissioned the Bremen architect Heinz Stoffregen to build new buildings for the plant between 1910 and 1912 ; his new-object buildings attracted just as much attention from modern architects as the artist's samples in the collection. The very graphic and strongly geometric designs ensured that the Anker works were not only considered to be leaders in terms of market share, but also artistically. The other plants in Delmenhorst could not avoid this development either. In 1911, Hansa-Werke organized another competition and even the smaller key works sold designs by Heinrich Vogeler , among others .
Although this artistic orientation proved to be quite successful on the market in Germany, it should prove to be an obstacle internationally. Gericke had to recognize that “modern German patterning has so far been able to gain relatively little ground in the competition on the foreign market”, in Switzerland, Austria, Holland, Belgium and the Scandinavian countries alone “some successes […] could be seen”.
The few examples of upscale design outside Germany included a few samples by Josef Hoffmann and other artists from the Wiener Werkstätte , which the North American company Armstrong Industries added to its range around 1915, as well as works by Christopher Dresser for Frederick Walton.
Material in modern architecture
With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and the collapse of the German linoleum industry, this intensive phase of cooperation between the linoleum works and contemporary artists ended; it was only to emerge again in the mid-1920s after the merger of almost all German works to form the German Linoleum Works in 1926 , but then mainly under architectural auspices.
Architects such as Walter Gropius , Ludwig Mies van der Rohe or Bruno Taut did appreciate the flooring as modern and hygienic, but according to their concepts, they used plain, unpatterned linoleum in clear colors. Between 1928 and 1930, Mies van der Rohe designed a special, pure ivory-white linoleum covering for the construction of the Villa Tugendhat in Brno. This covering was used on a large scale in the Stuttgart Weißenhofsiedlung , where 20 of the 21 buildings were lined with linoleum.
Different monochrome coverings were often used to structure the room. Linoleum tiles were ideal for this. Gropius used the flooring as a room divider in the Dammerstock estate in Karlsruhe , where it was also used for the walls and furniture, and Bruno Taut laid large, simple patterns of linoleum tiles in almost every room in his second home (Haus Taut II) in 1927.
When the National Socialists came to power in 1933, this short phase was also to come to an end. When production was resumed in the post-war period, design issues did not play a role at first; plain-colored linoleum was usually required. It was not until 1957 that the tradition of artist patterns was resumed with the Inlaid '57 collection designed by Hertha Maria Witzemann . In cooperation with architects, the two patterns Mikado and Confetti were published by DLW . The program was discontinued in 1959 for cost reasons. Nowadays there are no more inlaid collections, inlaid is only made for special orders.
Linocut
→ Main article: Linocut
In the fine arts, linoleum is used for the relief printing process of linocut , where a negative is cut into the linoleum that will later serve as a printing plate. Unlike the similarly used wood, this has no grain , which means that the printing surfaces are clear and even and the lines are soft, as it is easy to cut. With these properties, the process favors large-area picture elements. Special colors are used to color the printing plate; printing is usually done on paper, but also on fabric.
It cannot be precisely dated when linoleum was first printed. A printer in Szczecin who printed wallpaper in this way in 1890 is frequently cited, but the claim is unfounded. From 1895 onwards, linocut established itself in Germany as a technique in school art and handicraft lessons and was also used by artists in the first years of the 20th century. The first known fine art linocut was by Erich Heckel in 1903, and other artists quickly followed, some of whom made extensive use of the new technique, such as Maurice de Vlaminck , Henri Matisse , Wassili Kandinsky , Gabriele Münter or Christian Rohlfs . In the 1920s, constructivists such as Heinrich Hoerle or Gerd Arntz worked with linocut in a very graphic and formulaic manner.
In the post-war period, artists began to explore lino printing apart from the previous techniques. Wilhelm Lachnit etched linoleum, Pablo Picasso broke away from the classic process of separate work steps and developed single-plate color printing, in which he alternately printed and cut using increasingly darker colors and reprinted contours in the last step. The largest part of Karl Rössing's late work consists of linoleum work, often in combination with the offset technique . HAP Grieshaber added linocut as a central technique to its repertoire and used it to create major works such as the Joseph legend , a 7 × 9 meter altar wall. In contemporary art, Per Kirkeby and Markus Lüpertz , who combined lino printing and copperplate engraving , as well as Georg Baselitz , Jörg Immendorff , Norbert Prangenberg and Jess Walter, should be mentioned.
Large areas and clear colors made linocut particularly popular among folk-oriented artists. Latin American art groups such as Taller de Grafica Popular (Mexico) or the Club de la Estampa (Argentina) used it, as did artists from the Eastern Bloc countries . In the GDR specialized Ingrid Goltzsche Black on his application.
Other, very rarely used methods based on linoleum are the so-called cerataryte and the bronzo-lino technique by Bruce Onobrakpeya , in which linoleum is bronzed and thus given a relief character.
further reading
- Günther Förster, Josef Eiffler, Uwe Buchholz: Linoleum: The floor covering made from renewable raw materials. (= The Library of Technology; Vol. 107). Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg am Lech 1995, ISBN 3-478-93123-1 .
- Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000. Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 .
- Silvia Tauss: The problem of maintaining linoleum coverings in situ - using the example of the “Cheesmeyer” department store in Sissach. Diploma thesis, HKB Bern 2007 ( full text as PDF )
- Pamela H. Simpson: Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum's Rise and Fall from Grace, in: APT Bulletin 30 (2/3), 1999, ISSN 0848-8525
- The Monopolies and Restrictive Practices Commission (Ed.): Report on the Supply of Linoleum (= HC 366, 1955-56). London 1956 ( online )
Web links
- MATERIAL ARCHIVE: Linoleum - Extensive material information and images
- Video: manufacture of linoleum
Individual evidence
- ↑ Harald Olbrich (Ed.): Lexicon of Art, Volume IV . EA Seemann Verlag , Leipzig 1992, pp. 349-350
- ↑ Eisenbahndirektion Mainz (ed.): Official Gazette of the Royal Prussian and Grand Ducal Hessian Railway Directorate in Mainz of April 9, 1904, No. 19. Announcement No. 171, p. 279: Linoleum may only be laid as a floor covering in railway workers' apartments with a higher permit become.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Günther Förster, Josef Eiffler, Uwe Buchholz: Linoleum: The floor covering made from renewable raw materials. Die Bibliothek der Technik Vol. 107, Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg / Lech 1995, ISBN 3-478-93123-1 .
- ↑ a b c Torsten Ziegler: oilcloth, foot wallpaper, camptulicon, cork carpet: linoleum - the beginning of the ideal floor covering. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000, 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 32–47.
- ↑ Hi .: Our jute fabric in linoleum production. In: The bridge. Werkzeitung der Jute-Spinnerei und Weberei Bremen / Delmenhorst, 10th year, No. 6, 1953, Reprint in: Gerhard Kaldewei (Ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882-2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757- 0962-2 , pp. 54-57.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Silvia Tauss: The problem of maintaining linoleum coverings in situ - using the example of the “Cheesmeyer” department store in Sissach , diploma thesis, Bern, 2007, PDF online ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Expert seminar of the ZVPF in Kassel - PU coating in focus In: FussbodenTechnik 05/06, online , accessed on September 30, 2008
- ↑ Presentation at Standards Direct with associated standards, online , accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ linoleum floors
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Pamela H. Simpson: Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum's Rise and Fall from Grace. APT Bulletin 30 (2/3), 1999; Pages 17-24.
- ^ A b c Anne Pimlott Baker: Nairn, Sir Michael Barker, first baronet (1838–1915) In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press 2004 ( online, access required ), accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Kamptulĭkon . In: Heinrich August Pierer , Julius Löbe (Hrsg.): Universal Lexicon of the Present and the Past . 4th edition. tape 19 . Altenburg 1865, p. 858 ( zeno.org ).
- ^ A b c d Anne Pimlott Baker: Frederick Edward Walton In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press 2004 ( online, access required ), accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ Linoleum Manufacture In: The Mechanics Magazine, April 7, 1865, pp. 216/217
- ↑ a b c Gustav Gericke: The German linoleum on the world market. In: The thoroughgoing of German work - Yearbook of the German Werkbund 1912, Jena, 1912, Reprint in: Gerhard Kaldewei (Ed.): Linoleum - History, Design, Architecture 1882–2000, 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , Pp. 116-119.
- ↑ a b c Continentale Linoleum Union (ed.): The European Linoleum Group, Basel, Wever & Co, 1928, p. 5, quoted from: Silvia Tauss: The problem of maintaining linoleum coverings in situ - using the example of the “Cheesmeyer” department store in Sissach, diploma thesis, Bern, 2007, p. 22
- ↑ data from Karlheinz Müller, B2B Industriemarktforschung GmbH; Official data acquisition for the linoleum industry, secured by data from the Federal Statistical Office Germany.
- ^ "By 1939 the LMA, and all the important Continental linoleum manufacturers were parties to formal Convention Agreements covering sales of linoleum and floorcloth in all markets except the United States.", Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, p. 35 Online ( memento of the original from October 23, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 73 kB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, p. 35 Online ( memento of the original from October 23, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 73 kB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ a b c d Birgit Geiger: Targeted support for wholesalers - linoleum gaining market share in Germany, the most important market In: eurodecor, 12-05 / 01-06, pp. 22-23, online ( memento of the original from May 9, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 2.0 MB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ a b c Tarkett Sommer invests in linoleum In: BTH Heimtex, 06/03
- ^ A b Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, p. 12 Online ( Memento of the original from October 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 345 kB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ A b Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, pp. 2–3 Online ( Memento of the original from September 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 310 kB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ A b c Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, p. 104 Online ( memento of the original from October 23, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.8 MB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Anonymous: All Change In The Town Center (1960–1969), Online ( Memento of the original from June 15, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 25, 2008
- ↑ Makers Biography of the Historic Houses Trust, Online ( Memento of the original dated August 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Makers Biography of the Historic Houses Trust, Online ( Memento of the original dated August 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Makers Biography of the Historic Houses Trust, Online ( Memento of the original dated August 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ See on the company's website ( Memento of the original dated August 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , there also the downloadable document The History of Forbo Nairn , accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Floorcloth. The Carpet Trade 10 October 1879. From: Pamela H. Simpson: Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum's Rise and Fall from Grace. APT Bulletin 30 (2/3), 1999; Pages 17-24.
- ^ WH Morton Cameron: Canadian register of commerce and industry. , 1959, excerpt from Dominion Oilcloth & Linoleum Co. Online ( Memento of the original dated December 2, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 28, 2008
- ^ Competition Commission London: Report on the Supply of Linoleum. HC 366, 1955–56, pp. 4–5 Online ( memento of the original from September 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 244 kB), accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ The Tarkett Story on FieldTurf Tarkett Corporate Web Site, Online , accessed September 28, 2008
- ↑ Anonymous: Domco. Company Profile. In: Flooring, January 2001, Online ( Memento of the original from December 1, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 28, 2008
- ↑ a b c d e f Roland A. Hellmann: Rise, fall and renaissance of a flooring classic. The history of linoleum in Germany. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum. History, design, architecture 1882–2000. 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 48-53.
- ^ Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Industrial production 1951–1955. (= The industry of the Federal Republic of Germany , special issue 11.) Stuttgart, p. 61.
- ↑ a b Foundation Rheinisch-Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv zu Köln: Description of the holdings Department 58 Rheinische Linoleumwerke Bedburg , PDF online , accessed on May 11, 2014
- ↑ DDP: Linoleum is on the rise again. In: Die Welt Online, October 28, 2003, online , accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ The development of consumption of various floor coverings in Germany , website of the Federal Association of Wholesale Home & Color e. V., online , accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ Silvia Bombara: Il peso della storia. Narni e l'industria. In: Comune di Narni (ed.): Lavoro e formazione - Le aziende narnesi parlano , undated (2007/2008), pp. 20–26, PDF online ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: Der Link was automatically marked as broken. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 30, 2008
- ^ Michael Wortmann: Foreign direct investment and job export? An investigation of the external and internal foreign growth of German companies , FAST study no. 32, Berlin, 2002, p. 60, ( PDF online ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ), accessed on September 30, 2008
- ↑ A century of activity on the company website of Forbo-Giubiasco SA, Online ( Memento of the original from October 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed October 5, 2011
- ↑ Pasquale Genasci: Forbo. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . February 2, 2005 , accessed September 30, 2008 .
- ↑ Maura Huig: Kaars Sijpesteijns eerste linoleumfabriek (1898–1903) , In: Met Stoom, No. 34, December 1999, online , accessed September 29, 2008
- ↑ Jan Schoen: Honderd jaar linoleum in Nederland In: Met Stoom, No. 34, December 1999, online , accessed on September 29, 2008
- ↑ Yearbook of Austrian Industry. Compassverlag, 1912; P. 541; Christian Benesch: The "First Austrian Linoleum Factory" in Trieste . Central European digital economic and social history interactive archive.
- ↑ Company history on the company's website, online ( Memento of the original from April 6, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 27, 2008
- ↑ Silvia Tauss: The problem of maintaining linoleum coverings in situ - using the example of the “Cheesmeyer” department store in Sissach , diploma thesis, Bern, 2007, pp. 23–24, PDF online ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Accessed September 30, 2008
- ↑ “… inlay in somewhat fuzzy-looking patterns, but it could not imitate the precision of a tile design”. Pamela H. Simpson: Linoleum and Lincrusta: The Democratic Coverings for Floors and Walls. In: Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture , Vol. 7: Exploring Everyday Landscapes , 1997, p. 283
- ^ A b Pamela H. Simpson: Linoleum and Lincrusta: The Democratic Coverings for Floors and Walls. In: Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture, Vol. 7, Exploring Everyday Landscapes , 1997
- ↑ a b c d Nils Aschenbeck: In the age of hygiene. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 140–161.
- ↑ Appendix In: Armstrong DLW (Ed.): DLW References , 2008, p. 248
- ↑ a b Gerhard Kaldewei: Linoleum - Art and Industry 1882–2000 - An introduction. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2
- ↑ Julia Franke: Linoleum for the historical design of the floor covering around 1900 In: Gerhard Kaldewei (Ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882-2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 130-137.
- ↑ Karin Schulte: Linoleum and the DLW exhibition room at the Werkbund exhibition “The Apartment” in Stuttgart in 1927. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 198–207.
- ^ Anonymous: The Dammerstock settlement in Karlsruhe. In: Nachrichten der Deutsche Linoleum-Werke AG No. 12/1930, Reprint in: Gerhard Kaldewei (Ed.): Linoleum - History, Design, Architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , p. 168 -170.
- ^ Bettina Zöller-Stock: On interior designs by the architect Bruno Taut In: Gerhard Kaldewei (Ed.): Linoleum - History, Design, Architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 130–137.
- ↑ a b c Harald Olbrich (Ed.): Lexicon of Art - Architecture, Fine Arts, Applied Art, Industrial Design, Art Theory: Linol (eum) schnitt , Vol. 4, ISBN 3-363-00286-6 , p. 349– 350.
- ↑ a b Andrea Tietze: The linocut in the history and art of modernism. In: Gerhard Kaldewei (ed.): Linoleum - history, design, architecture 1882–2000 , 2000, ISBN 3-7757-0962-2 , pp. 68–93.
- ↑ Harald Olbrich (Ed.): Lexicon of Art - Architecture, Fine Arts, Applied Art, Industrial Design, Art Theory: Cerataryt, Vol. 1, ISBN 3-363-00286-6 , p. 789.
- ↑ Harald Olbrich (Ed.): Lexicon of Art - Architecture, Fine Arts, Applied Art, Industrial Design, Art Theory: Onobrakpeya, Vol. 5, ISBN 3-363-00286-6 , p. 287.
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