Geography of New Zealand

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New Zealand
New Zealand

New Zealand is located east of Australia in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean and therefore on the other side of the globe when viewed from Europe . For this reason, the country is often referred to as " The End of the World ", especially from a German perspective . But the New Zealanders themselves, who like to call themselves kiwis , see themselves - with a pinch of humor - lying at the end of the world and like to use the clichés of German or European tourists.

If one only considers the three main islands North Island ( Māori : Te-Ika-a-Maui ), South Island ( Māori : Te Wai Pounamu ) and the much smaller Stewart Island , which together make up around 98.3% of the island state, projected onto the northern hemisphere , New Zealand extending from a point northwest of Rabat in Morocco , across Spain and Portugal up to the Celtic Sea .

Extension and location

Geographically speaking, New Zealand is part of Oceania and thus one of those islands that, geologically, cannot be assigned to any of the seven known continents . The country consists of the two large main islands North Iceland and South Iceland , subsequent to the south much smaller Stewart Iceland , about 700 other small islands, all of which not more than 50 km of the main islands are removed as and New Zealand outlying islands designated Islands, which include the Chatham Islands , the uninhabited subtropical islands Kermadec Islands and Three Kings Islands in the north and the also uninhabited and sub-Antarctic islands Antipodes Islands , Auckland Islands , Bounty Islands , Campbell Island and Snares Islands in the south. All of the islands are located on a sub-sea level continent commonly known as Zealandia . The continental shelf is half the size of Australia, with the land mass protruding from the water and representing New Zealand making up only 7% of the total continental shelf.

The continent of Zealandia, hidden below sea level

The three main islands, which the Māori collectively call Aotearoa (German: Land of the Long White Cloud ), are located in the south at the height of Fiordland around 1490 km east of Tasmania . The northernmost tip of New Zealand, Cape Reinga , is located 1965 km east of Australia and almost at the same latitude as Sydney . In the north, the next larger islands are around 1400 km away, with those of New Caledonia and 1865 km with the Fiji Islands . It is around 2,460 km to Antarctica in the south and more than 7,400 km to the east between the Chilean coast and the South Island of New Zealand. In the west, the main islands border the Tasman Sea , in the north, west and south the Pacific Ocean surrounds the country.

The entire national territory of New Zealand covers an area of ​​270,534 km², of which around 97.6% is on the two main islands

  • North Island , (North Island) with 113,729 km² and
  • South Island , (South Island) with 150,437 km²

omitted.

The next largest inhabited islands are

  • with 1680 km² Stewart Island , 30 km south of the South Island and
  • with 963 km² Chatham Islands , 650 km southeast of the North Island.

All other offshore islands are uninhabited.

The two main islands plus Steward Island in the south extend, lying on a southwest-northeast axis, over about 1600 km. The Cook Strait , 35 km wide at its narrowest point, separates the South Island from the North Island, while the up to 26 km narrow Foveaux Strait separates Stewart Island from the South Island. Nowhere on the New Zealand Islands is the sea coast more than 130 km away. Due to the partly rugged coastal landscapes, New Zealand has an estimated between 15,000 km and 18,000 km of coastline.

Coordinates

As a state structure with all its islands, New Zealand begins in the west at the coordinates 50 ° 48 ′  S , 165 ° 52 ′  E with the Auckland Islands and in the north at 29 ° 13 ′  S , 177 ° 55 ′  E with the Kermadec Islands , ending in East at 43 ° 58 ′  S , 175 ° 50 ′  E with the Chatham Islands and to the south at 52 ° 38 ′  S , 169 ° 7 ′  E with the Campbell Islands . But if one only considers the three main islands of the country, then the heartland extends from North Cape ( 34 ° 23 ′ 47 ″  S , 173 ° 1 ′ 0 ″  E ) in the extreme north to the South Cape as the southernmost point on Stewart Island ( 47 ° 17 ′ 25 ″  S , 167 ° 32 ′ 16 ″  O ).

Topography and natural spaces

The vast majority of New Zealand consists of mountain and hilly landscapes. Larger plains with the Canterbury Plains and the Southland Plains are only in the center and south of the South Island and with the Waikato Plains south of Auckland on the North Island. The Maniototo Plain in Otago , the Hauraki Plains southwest of the Coromandel Peninsula and the Heretaunga Plains southwest of Napier are among the country's smaller plains.

Mount Ngauruhoe

The North Island of New Zealand is subdivided by broken clod mountains, which stretch with their faults from the Remutaka Range near Wellington , running northeast to the Raukumara Range in the northeasternmost tip of the North Island. In the middle of the island is the North Island Volcanic Plateau , with its up to 2797 meter high volcanoes Mount Ruapehu , Mount Ngauruhoe , Mount Tongariro and Mount Taranaki and the former collapsed volcano Taupo , in whose crater Lake Taupo, New Zealand's largest inland lake, is formed had the landscape.

On the South Island, the Southern Alps (New Zealand Alps) with their foothills largely determine the landscape. The over 3000 m high alpine mountain range divided the north of the South Island into two parts and then running further south to form the west coast of the island with high mountains, deep fjords and the rainforest typical of New Zealand. Aoraki / Mount Cook ( Māori : Aoraki ), with 3724 m the highest mountain in New Zealand, is located halfway along this south-south-west running mountain range.

Nine ecoregions

New Zealand is divided into nine ecoregions, classified according to geological, climatic, topological and biological criteria:

  • The northern islands - The northern islands, which include Kermadec Islands , Three Kings Islands , Poor Knights Islands and Norfolk Island , although the latter is part of Australian territory but is geographically closer to New Zealand. The islands have a warm and humid climate with originally flat forests and bushes. The islands are of great interest to scientists as they are biologically a link between the main New Zealand islands and the Pacific islands.
  • Northern North Island - The ecoregion of the northern part of the North Island extends from the North Cape down to Kāwhia and in an easterly direction to the East Cape . This region is climatically determined by humid and warm weather, with subtropical conditions on the coasts. The forests in the region are therefore particularly rich in species and diverse. Over a hundred different types of trees and shrubs can be found here, many of which are unique to this region.
Part of the New Zealand Alps
  • Windward districts (exposed to westerlies) - Since New Zealand's preferred wind direction is southwest to west, the winds bring a lot of moisture from the Tasman Sea and leave the rainy clouds on the rising slopes of the mountain ranges on the west coast ( West Coast and Fiordland ) rain. The vegetation is correspondingly lush here . Especially the west coast of the South Island is known for the always humid and temperate rainforest typical of New Zealand with its exotic looking tree ferns .
  • Leeward districts (protected from westerlies) - The areas east of the mountain ranges are drier and sunnier than the western regions. Accordingly, the vegetation here has adapted to the lack of rain. On the shallow sloping hills and plains areas dominated by coniferous woods are with trees as Matai , Totara and Miro . Rimu , Silver beech , Rātā, and Kāmahi occur on the moister slopes of the inland mountains. In the plains you can find the typical New Zealand tussock .
  • Central Otago District is one of the driest and coldest regions in New Zealand in winter. Protected by the mountains in the west, the weather has developed here, corresponding to a land climate. With less than 600 mm of precipitation per year, the vegetation is sometimes sparse. Toatoa , Kānuka , Kōwhai , Muehlenbeckia , Coprosma , Olearia , belong to the predominant vegetation. Due to the high degree of evaporation in the region, the soils are more salty than elsewhere. New Zealand's only salt lake, Sutton Salt Lake , is located in the Otago Highlands, 65 km northwest of Dunedin .
  • Chatham Islands - The islands of Chatham is situated 650 km south-east of the North Island of New Zealand. Mostly cool, cloudy, windy and rainy, the islands, which are up to 300 meters high, have their own vegetation. Numerous plants are considered endemic . The majority of the endemic bird species, however, have already become extinct due to human impact.
Emerald Lakes , Red Crater and Mount Ngauruhoe as part of the Tongariro Northern Circuit of the Tongariro National Park

National parks

New Zealand has 14 national parks with a total area of ​​31,168.53 km². The parks are subordinate to the Department of Conservation , which is responsible for nature conservation in New Zealand. The oldest National Park is the Tongariro National Park in the central highlands of the North Island, founded in 1887, and as 1990 UNESCO - World Heritage Site was awarded. The largest of the parks, however, is the Fiordland National Park in the southwest of the South Island with around 1257 km² .

Marine protected areas

New Zealand established a total of 39 marine protected areas on its territory between 1975 and 2008 . 33 of them are designated as Marine Reserves (marine protected areas ) and six of them are Marine Mammal Sanctuaries (protected areas for marine mammals ). All areas, which cover a total area of ​​around 3670 km², are also subject to the Department of Conservation . The first marine reserve was Cape Rodney-Okakari Point Marine Reserve , west of Little Barrier Island with a modest area of ​​547 hectares. New Zealand's largest marine reserve is now the West Coast North Island Marine Mammal Sanctuary with an area of ​​around 1193 km² along the west coast of the North Island from New Plymouth up to below Hokianga Harbor .

Land and land use

It is not for nothing that New Zealand is highly valued for its diverse and often still pristine natural landscape . Statistics from 2002 show that more than half of the country is still untouched nature, of which 50% of the country is natural vegetation, forest and other natural areas and 9% is covered by exotic forest and bushland . According to this, 39% of the land is used as pastureland and only 1.6% of the land area is used for growing grain, fruit, vegetables, wine, etc. Cities and infrastructure make up 0.8% of the land.

New Zealand's cultural landscape as it is today is the result of more than 150 years of European immigration and civilization. Huge areas of pasture define large parts of the cultivated land. In 2009 around 32.4 million sheep for wool and meat production, over 5.8 million dairy cows for milk production and around 4.1 million cattle and around 1.1 million roe deer for meat production were kept on them. Although fruit, vegetable and wine cultivation has increased in the last 20 to 30 years and has gained greater economic importance, the use of land is relatively insignificant in relation to that of the livestock industry.

From the 1950s onwards, the use of wood for the production of land became increasingly important in New Zealand, along with land consumption. In two waves of reforestation in the 1960s and 1980s, land consumption was stopped and sustainable management of the commercial forests took hold. Today, 7% of New Zealand's forestry is sustainably managed.

Infrastructure

Since New Zealand is completely surrounded by the Tasman Sea and the Pacific Ocean, the airports and seaports are of particular importance for international passenger and freight traffic. While international passenger transport by air is carried out via the two international airports in Auckland and Christchurch , goods transport is distributed in different ways between the 14 seaports and the two largest airports in the country. By far the largest and leading seaports are those of Auckland , Tauranga , Christchurch , Dunedin , Whangarei , Napier and Wellington .

Ferries operate between the country's inhabited islands, whereby the ferry connections between the two large islands via the Cook Strait are by far the most important in the transport of people and vehicles, and in some cases also goods.

The road network is very well developed and serves as the main transport system with 92% of all freight that is transported by land. The rest is accounted for by rail transport. In 2000, New Zealand had around 16,000 km of city roads and around 65,500 km of country roads, including highways and around 16,770 bridges, with the World Bank in its 2009 report indicating the total length of the New Zealand road system to be just over 94,000 km. The rail system is quite underdeveloped with 3913 km.

climate

Average annual temperatures from 1870 to 2008

The climate of New Zealand has a wide range, from warm subtropical weather in the north, to alpine weather conditions on parts of the South Island, local land climate influence in Otago , to rainy cool weather in the south.

If you look at the two main islands of the country, the mainland of New Zealand is roughly divided climatically into two parts by the mountain ranges that stretch through the country. Due to the prevailing westerly winds, the western parts of the country are more humid and the eastern parts are drier. Most of New Zealand can expect 600mm to 1600mm of rainfall throughout the year, with drier periods in summer. The north has more rain in winter, whereas the winter in the south is a little drier.

The mean annual temperatures range from 10 ° C in the south to 16 ° C in the north. July is considered the coldest month, January and February are the warmest months of the year. The temperature fluctuations over the year are relatively small. From the coast to the mountains, the temperature drops by an average of 0.7 ° C per 100 meters of altitude.

In the east, on the leeward side of New Zealand, the sunshine duration is longer than in the rainy western coastal regions, with most regions can expect at least 2000 hours of sunshine per year. The midday UV index in summer is very high in New Zealand, especially in the northern regions and in the mountains.

Snowfall can be abundant in the mountains and highlands of Otago , but very rare on the coasts.

geology

New Zealand lies between two large tectonic plates, the Australian and the Pacific plate. The latter moves slowly under the Australian plate on the North Island and its movements are offset against each other on the South Island. The consequences are earthquakes , faults and volcanic activity at the breakpoints. New Zealand lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , a volcanically active belt that surrounds the Pacific Ocean and is one of the countries with the highest number of earthquakes, even if most of them are not as serious as in comparable countries. Between 1843, when earthquake records were first recorded, and 2011, only 24 major earthquakes occurred in New Zealand , resulting in significant damage or even death.

New Zealand is rich in natural resources , although the land used for mining is extremely small in comparison. Most important for New Zealand are the coal and gold deposits , followed by silver , platinum metals and iron sand for the metals and bentonite , pumice stone , diatomite , dolomite , halloysite-7Å , limestone , perlite , silicon dioxide , various clay minerals and zeolites for the minerals .

Important coal deposits are located on the North Island in the eastern part of Northland, south of Auckland down to the Taranaki region and on the South Island on the West Coast around Greymouth and Westport , as well as in parts of Southland . Gold deposits are found in the South Island throughout the Otago region , in the central area of ​​the West Coast up to Westport and in the area around Waihi on the North Island.

Waters

Rivers

Whanganui River at Whanganui

New Zealand has countless rivers that add up to a length of around 426,000 km. Of the major rivers, 17 are on the North Island and 19 on the South Island. The longest river is the Waikato River , which is located on the North Island and measures 425 km in length. It is followed by the Clutha River with 322 km on the South Island. Between 200 km and 300 km in length follow in sequence the Whanganui River (290 km), Taieri River (288 km), Rangitikei River (241 km), Mataura River (240 km), Waiau River (217 km), Clarence River and Waitaki River with each 209 km and the Oreti River with 203 km length.

However, if one considers the rivers in terms of the significance of the respective discharge volumes into the sea, a different statistical picture emerges. Here the Clutha River leads with just over 600 m³ / sec. the list of the most important rivers, followed by the Waiau River with just over 500 m³ / sec., Buller River with 450 m³ / sec., Gray River and Waitaki River with 380 m³ / sec each, Waikato River with 350 m³ / sec. , Haast River , Rakaia River and Whanganui River with around 200 m³ / sec. and as the last of the top ten the Taramakau River with around 170 m³ / sec. Water flow rate.

Lakes

If you look at the three main islands of the country, New Zealand has 775 lakes with a minimum length of 0.5 mkm. All of these lakes together make up 1.3% of the land area, with the formation of the lakes having very different causes. Most of the lakes, 38% formed by glaciers. All of these lakes are located on the South Island. 16% of the lakes were formed by rivers, 15% by sand dunes in the coastal regions, 5% by landslides in the mountains, 4% by barriers that formed on the coasts and 4% were also created by volcanic activity. The latter occur exclusively on the North Island. 8% of all New Zealand lakes are artificially created. The history of the formation of the remaining 10% of all lakes is unknown.

Lake Taupo

60 man-made lakes were created to generate electricity or to store water. The largest of them is Lake Benmore . With an extension of 74 km² it is also the twelfth largest of all lakes in the country. The largest lake by far is Lake Taupo . Originating from a collapsed volcano, the Taupo , the caldera lake covers an area of ​​623 km², is 163 m deep and has an estimated water volume of 59 km³. The lake is found in the Taupo Volcanic Zone on the North Island. The next largest lake, Lake Te Anau , was created by glacier formation and is 348 km² in size, followed by Lake Wakatipu with 289 km². Lake Ellesmere with 182 km² represents a coastal lagoon and was created naturally by separation from the sea.

Sutton Salt Lake , the only salt lake in New Zealand

Lake Wanaka (180 km²), Lake Manapouri (143 km²), Lake Hāwea (138 km²), Lake Pukaki (99 km²) and Lake Tekapo (87 km²), all created by glaciers, are located on the South Island. Lake Rotorua is located on the North Island, is of volcanic origin and has a size of 80 km². The largest lake that was created by a landslide is also on the North Island and is called Lake Waikaremoana . It covers an area of ​​56 km².

The Sutton Salt Lake is a specialty among New Zealand's lakes . The lake is located in the highlands of Otago , is less than 2  hectares in size, dries out almost completely in the summer months and is enriched with salt by salt aerosols from the lake. This is how New Zealand's only salt lake was created over an estimated 20,000 years.

Coast and coastal waters

New Zealand has a coastline of around 15,000-18,000 km, with no place in the country being more than 130 km from a coast. Two thirds of the coast consists of rocky coastline, the other coastal sections have sand or pebble beaches. 80% of the coast is directly exposed to the sea, the rest is in more protected areas.

The west of the two main islands borders on the Tasman Sea, while the north, east, south and all so-called offshore islands are surrounded by the South Pacific Ocean. Between the main islands is the Cook Strait , which measures 22 km at its narrowest point and separates the north and south islands. The second strait, Foveaux Strait, is located in the south between the South Island and Stewart Island and keeps the two islands at a distance of 30 km.

A special feature of the New Zealand coast is on the South Island in the south-west of the country in Fiordland . Fiordland is a geographical region that is characterized by high, rugged mountains, numerous lakes and a fjord landscape with rocks that drop steeply into the water and is almost congruent in size with the Fiordland National Park . The fjords are widely ramified, sometimes up to 40 km inland, and thus dominate the coastal landscape. The most famous fjords here are the Milford Sound , the Doubtful Sound and the Dusky Sound .

Main islands

North Island

The North Island of New Zealand, simply called North Island in English , is the second largest island in the country with 113,729 km². Although the island with 3/7 of the total area, based on the two main islands, is a lot smaller than the South Island, lived on it in 2012 around 3,394,000 inhabitants and thus 3/4 of the entire population of the country. The North Island is also home to the two largest cities in the country, Auckland Council , since November 1, 2010 an amalgamation of the cities of Auckland City , Manukau City , North Shore City and Waitakere City as well as the Franklin District , Papakura District and Rodney District , with 1,415,550 inhabitants (2013) megacity by New Zealand standards and Wellington , with 490,100 inhabitants, the second largest city and capital of the island state.

In addition, the island with the highest active volcano in the country, Mount Ruapehu , with the largest lake in the country, Lake Taupo , and with the longest river in the country, the Waikato River (425 km), has some more New Zealand superlatives .

South Iceland

The South Island, as the North Island is simply called South Island , is the largest island in New Zealand with 150,437 km². It has 1,038,500 inhabitants. The island's two largest cities, Christchurch and Dunedin , are on the east coast.

Opposite the North Island, the South Island has the highest mountain in the country, the Aoraki / Mount Cook . Particularly impressive here are the Southern Alps , an alpine mountain world and fjordland that runs along the island , with its fjords on the southwest coast reminiscent of Norway . Furthermore, with a length of 29 km, the largest glacier, the Tasman Glacier , with 1174 m the deepest cave system, the Nettlebed Cave connected with the Stormy Pot around 45 km west of Nelson , with 462 m the deepest lake, Lake Hauroko and the only salt lake in the country, Sutton Salt Lake on the South Island.

Stewart Island

Te Punga o Te Waka a Maui ( The anchor of Maui's canoe ) as Stewart Island was originally called by the Māori , has an area of ​​1680 km² and is sparsely populated. Due to the Rakiura National Park , which takes up around 93.5% of the island's area, Stewart Island is a tourist attraction for nature lovers.

The offshore islands

Chatham Islands

Kermadec Islands

Three Kings Islands

Antipodes Islands

Auckland Islands

Bounty Islands

Campbell Island

Snares Islands

literature

  • New Zealand . In: Meyer's Large Country Lexicon . Meyers Lexikonverlag, Mannheim 2005, ISBN 3-411-07431-0 , p. 471-476 .
  • Christian Nau: New Zealand . In: The Island Lexicon - All Islands in the World . Heel Verlag, Königswinter 2003, ISBN 3-89880-220-5 , p. 168-170 .
  • New Zealand . In: Harenberg Country Lexicon . Harenberg Lexikon Verlag, Dortmund 2002, ISBN 3-611-01061-8 , p. 728-735 .
  • Burkhard Hofmeister, Wilhelm Lutz : Australia & New Zealand . Harenberg Verlag, Dortmund 2001, ISBN 3-611-00969-5 , The complete picture of New Zealand, p. 344-507 .
  • New Zealand . In: Das Länderlexikon . Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-577-10474-0 , p. 1540-1549 .
  • New Zealand . In: Geography of the World - An Encyclopedia . Bechtermünz Verlag, Augsburg 1997, ISBN 3-86047-603-3 , p. 482-485 (English: The Enzyclopedia of World Geography .).
  • New Zealand . In: Meyer's Encyclopedia of the Earth . tape 5 . Bibliographical Institute, Mannheim 1984, ISBN 3-411-02005-9 , pp. 1936-1945 .
  • New Zealand . In: The Great Encyclopedia of the Earth . tape 15 . Novaria Verlag, Munich 1976, p. 181-215 .

Web links

Individual evidence

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  2. ↑ New Zealand - Tales of the End of the World. In: The world. October 10, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  3. ^ Carl Walrond : Natural environment - Geography and geology . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , September 22, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  4. ^ Lionel Carter, Keith Lewis, Scott D. Nodder : Zealandia: the New Zealand continent . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  5. ↑ New Zealand . In: Meyer's Large Country Lexicon . 2005, p.  471 .
  6. ↑ a b c d e New Zealand Official Yearbook 2000 . Statistics New Zealand , 2000, accessed April 12, 2018 .
  7. ^ A b Carl Walrond : Natural environment - Coast . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , September 22, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  8. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Nine ecoregions . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  9. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - The northerly islands . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  10. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Northern North Island . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  11. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Central volcanic plateau . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  12. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - The Southern Alps and other axial ranges . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  13. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Windward districts: to the west . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  14. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Leeward districts: to the east . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  15. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - Central Otago . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  16. ^ A b Sutton Salt Lake, Otago . Department of Geology, University of Otago , accessed January 14, 2016 .
  17. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - The Chatham Islands . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  18. ^ Matt McGlone : Ecoregions - The southern islands . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  19. ↑ Land cover . Ministry for the Environment , 2002, accessed May 7, 2014 .
  20. ^ B. Hofmeister, W. Lutz: Australia & New Zealand . 2001, p. 355 .
  21. ^ Gordon Winder : Australia and New Zealand . In: Geographical Rundschau . Volume 64, Issue 10. Westermann, October 2001, ISSN 0016-7460 , Sustainability and Structural Change in Agriculture in New Zealand, p.   36-40 .
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  23. ^ Roads of national significance . NZ Transport Agency , accessed February 14, 2016 .
  24. ^ Roads - total network (km) in New Zealand . Trading Economics , accessed June 6, 2014 .
  25. ^ Rail lines (total route-km) in New Zealand . Trading Economics , accessed June 6, 2014 .
  26. ↑ Overview of New Zealand climate . National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) , accessed on May 12, 2014 .
  27. ↑ Introduction to New Zealand's Mineral Resources - Gold . In: Crown Minerals - Ministry of Economic Development (Ed.): Mineral Resources of New Zealand . 2009, ISSN 1836-5752 (English, CD-ROM - Disc 1 ).  
  28. ↑ 26th International Applied Geochemistry Symposium Incorporating the 35th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, November 18-21, 2013, Rotorua New Zealand . GNS , accessed June 8, 2014 .
  29. ↑ Charles Pearson, Mike Scarsbrook : Water resources - Rivers . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  30. ^ David Young : Rivers - Types of river . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , November 14, 2012, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  31. ↑ Charles Pearson, Mike Scarsbrook : Water resources - Top 10 rivers . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  32. ^ Simon Nathan : Lakes - New Zealand lakes . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  33. ^ A b Simon Nathan : Lakes - New Zealand's largest lakes . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , July 13, 2012, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  34. ^ Lake Taupo area . Department of Conservation , accessed May 7, 2014 .
  35. ^ Carl Walrond : Natural environment - Coasts . In: Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Ministry for Culture & Heritage , August 22, 2013, accessed May 12, 2014 .
  36. ↑ 2013 Census QuickStats about a place . Statistics New Zealand , accessed May 5, 2016 .