History of Florence
This article covers the history of the city of Florence . General information about this city can be found under Florence . For Machiavelli's work, see Istorie fiorentine .
Preliminary remark
The history of Florence is so well known today because it was first written down around 1520 by Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527). He wrote his Istorie fiorentine on behalf of the Medici and presented the extensive work in 1525 to Pope Giulio de 'Medici, who called himself Clement VII . Machiavelli began writing down the history of his hometown as a young man and called his first book Decannale . He later followed up on it and became one of the first historians .
From the history of antiquity and that of his city, he concluded that history repeats itself, that people are subject to a calculable mechanism in their behavior, so that if the circumstances are the same, the same causes trigger the same effects and therefore the same facts the same rules of behavior require. A remarkable passage from Machiavelli's book applies in particular to the eventful history of Florence:
«Soglono le provincie, il piu delle volte, nel variare che le fanno, dall'ordine trapassare; perchè non essende dalla natura conceduto alla mondane cose il fermasi, come elle arrivano alla loro ultima perfezione, non avendo piu da salire, conviene che scendino; e similmente scese che le sono, e per gli disordini all'ultima bassezza pervenute, di necessita, non potendo piu scendere, conviene che salghino: e cosi semper dal bene si-scende al male, e dal male si sale al bene. »
“When they change, the countries tend to come from order to disorder and then go over again from disorder to order. It is not allowed by nature to stand still. As they have reached their highest perfection and can no longer increase, they must decrease. Likewise, when they have sunk, come down to the lowest inferiority through disorder, and thus can no longer sink, they must necessarily rise. So you always sink from good to evil and rise from evil to good. "
Antiquity
Florentia (Florence) was founded much later than Faesulae ( Fiesole ), located on a small hill nearby . As the name shows, it was built in Roman times in antiquity and probably in connection with the construction of the Via Flaminia , part of the later Via Cassia from Bononia ( Bologna ) to Arretium ( Arezzo ), 187 BC. At the crossing of this road over the Arnus ( Arno ). Little is known about the city from ancient times; it appears to have been affected in the war between Marius and Sulla , and in 15 AD it opposed the diversion of part of the waters of the clan ( Chiana ) into the Arno. Tacitus mentions the colony and Florus describes it as one of the municipia splendissima .
A bishop of Florence is mentioned in 313. The first significant event is the siege of the city by the Goths in 405 and its liberation by the Roman general Stilicho . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Italy was ruled by the Ostrogoths after 493 , with the last heyday of late antique culture.
The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I , however, pursued a policy of restoration and from 535 had Italy recaptured in bloody battles by his generals Belisarius and Narses . The Ostrogoth king Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by an imperial garrison; later it was occupied by the Goths. The Lombards appeared in Tuscany around 570 , and in the eighth century a Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum is called, from which one can conclude that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of the sub-units of the Lombard Empire); Ostrom could only hold a few coastal regions.
middle Ages
From the Frankish rule to the investiture dispute
The Frankish king Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and gave the city many privileges, which became more important because of its location on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the struggle against simony and the corruption of the clergy, San Giovanni Gualberto of the Monastery of San Salvi led the movement in Florence. The Simon election of Pietro Mezzabarba as Bishop of Florence in 1068 caused serious unrest and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the triumph of the monk Petrus Igneus from the reform movement after a trial by fire . This event marked the beginning of a Florentine self-awareness.
Tuscany was a margraviate under the Carolingian emperors , and the margraves became so powerful that they themselves could be dangerous to the empire. Under Emperor Otto I , Ugo († 1001) was a margrave, and Emperor Konrad II (elected 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa margrave of Tuscia, a territory that stretched from the Po to the borders of the Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and the following year the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous Countess Matilda , who ruled for 40 years and played a prominent role in the history of Italy during that period.
In the wars of investiture , Matilda was always on the papal side (later called Guelphs) against the emperor and the party, which was then called the Ghibellines ; she often led armies into battle herself. At this time the people of Florence began to gain political influence for the first time, and while the countess presided over the courts of justice on behalf of the empire, she was assisted by a group of feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, etc., who, as usual in Tuscany, the boni homines or sapientes formed. Since the countess was often absent, the boni homines passed judgments without her, paving the way for a free city. The citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility in the hill country around the city, Teutonic feudal men with Ghibellian sympathies who hindered the commercial interests of the city. Florence often waged war with these nobles and other cities on its own account, albeit in the name of the Countess. The citizens began to organize themselves in groups and associations, which formed the germ of the arti or guilds. After the death of Margravine Matilda in 1115, the grandi or boni homines continued to rule and administer the judiciary, but now in the name of the people - a change that was hardly noticeable at first, but which marked the establishment of the commune and the beginning of a Republic of Florence as state entity.
Rise of the Republic
After 1138 the boni homines began to be called consuls, while the population was divided into the grandi or delle torri (that is, the noble families who had towers) and the arti or trading guilds. First the consuls, of which there seem to have been twelve (two for each district), were elected by the delle torri , and they were advised by a council of 100 boni homines , in which the arti predominated. The government thus came into the hands of a few more powerful families. The republic was now expanding its sphere of influence. In 1125, Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the nobility in the surrounding area, protected by imperial margraves, was still influential. The early margraves had allowed the Florentines to wage war against the Alberti family, whose fortresses they destroyed. Emperor Lothar III. forced Florence to submit to his authority, but after his death in 1137 things returned to their old state and the Florentines successfully fought against the powerful Counts Guidi .
Friedrich Barbarossa, on the other hand, who was crowned emperor in 1152, showed his authority in Tuscany and appointed a Guelph of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to provide troops for the emperor's campaigns in Lombardy , and he began to set up a centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany. He appointed a potestas (governor), who resided in San Miniato (hence the name San Miniato al Tedesco), represented the emperor and exercised his authority in the contado; this double authority of the consoli in the city and the potestas in the hinterland created confusion.
By 1176 the Florentines ruled the entire territory of the dioceses of Florence and Fiesole; but a civil revolt broke out in the city between the consuls and the higher nobles, led by the Alberti and reinforced by many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles and live in the city (1177–1180) . In the end, the Alberti did not win, but they did manage to occasionally be admitted as consuls.
Florence now formed a league with the capitals of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi and humiliated the Alberti, whose castle in Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later there was a potestas within the city, elected for one year and supported by seven councils and seven rectores super capilibus artium . This represented a triumph for the feudal party, which had won the support of the arti minori, or lower guilds. The Potestas were from then on strangers, and in 1207 this dignity was bestowed on Gualfredotto da Milano; a new council was formed, the consiglio del comune , while the older senate continued to exist. The Florentines set about opening the trade routes to Rome because their city was already an important industrial and banking center.
Conflict between Guelfs and Ghibellines
Again discord broke out between the large families, and the attempt at mediation by the marriage of Buondelmonte de Buondelmonti with a daughter of the Amidei only led to a new dispute (1213), although the causes of these disputes were deeper, as they were from the general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of annihilating the nobles of the Contado and maintaining the position of the city among the rival cities continued. In 1222 Florence waged successful war against Pisa , Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years with Siena , with varying degrees of success; although the emperor supported the latter as Ghibellines, when he left for Germany in 1235 the Sienese were forced to accept a peace on unfavorable terms. During the interregnum (1241–1243) after the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was restored.
The riots against the Patriotic heretics (1244-1245), many of whom were Ghibelline nobles who were favored by the Podestà Pace da Pesamigola, mark a successful Guelfic reaction. But after Frederick II had defeated his enemies in both Lombardy and the two Sicilies , he appointed his son Frederick of Antioch as imperial vicar in Tuscany. When the civil war broke out, it penetrated the city with German knights. The Ghibellines now fully triumphed, and in 1249 the Guelf leaders were forced into exile - the first of many examples of mass exiles of a defeated party in Florentine history.
The attempt to take Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelf exiles had gathered failed, and in 1250 the citizens elected 36 caporali di popolo , which formed the basis of the primo popolo , a body of citizens independent of the nobility and that of the Capitano del Popolo board. Because the Ghibellines were unable to maintain their supremacy, the city split into two almost autonomous republics, the comune led by the Podestà and the popolo led by the Capitano , militarily organized into twenty companies. The central authority was represented by twelve anziani or elders. The podestà, who was always a stranger, usually commanded the army, represented the city to foreign powers and signed treaties. He was supported by the 90-strong consiglio speciale and the 300-strong consiglio generale made up of nobles, while the Capitano del popolo also had two committees made up of citizens, the chairmen of the guilds, the gonfalonieri, etc. The Anziani had a council of 36 Citizens, and there was also a parlamento or general assembly of the people that only met on important occasions.
It was at this time that the Palace of the Podestà (the Bargello ) was built and the gold standard was first minted, which was soon accepted as the standard across Europe. But although the Guelphs, who could now be called democrats in contrast to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were now strengthened, they were by no means successful across the board, and in 1251 they faced a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) , aided by Florentine Ghibellines to defend. The Florentine Uberti, exiled after their plot in 1258, took refuge in Siena and spurred the city on in their hostility towards Florence.
After renewed disputes over the property of Montepulciano and other places broke out, the Florentines declared war again. A Florentine army, supported by other Guelf cities, was cunningly tricked into believing that Siena would surrender at the first summons. In fact, it faced a Sienese army, reinforced by Florentine exiles, with Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, the cavalry of Manfred of Sicily , led by Conte Giordano d'Anglano and the Conte d'Arras. On September 4, 1260, the Florentines were defeated at Montaperti . Conte Giordano invaded Florence, made Conte Guido Novello Podestà and carried out a series of persecutions of the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed tearing down the city walls , but Farinata degli Uberti vigorously opposed the idea, as he fought to regain his fatherland, not to destroy it.
During this renewed Ghibelline domination (1260-1266), the old freedoms were abolished and the popolo deprived of any participation in the administration. But when Charles I of Anjou went to Italy as the champion of the papacy and defeated Manfred (1266), the popolo, who had achieved prosperity in trade and industry, was ready to rise. After some unrest, Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were driven out, but it should not be the popolo that triumphed: the Pope and Charles were the real masters of the hour, and the Florentines found that they were a foreign and Ghibelline protector against a foreign and had exchanged guelf fish.
However, much of the old order was restored; the Podestà, who represented King Charles, was supported by 12 buoni uomini and the council of 100 buoni uomini del popolo , without whose advice no major matters or expenses could be undertaken. Other bodies and magistrates were retained, the Capitano del popolo, now called Capitano della massa di parte Guelfa ; became an increasingly important person. The Ghibelline property was confiscated and a commission was appointed to administer it, essentially using it to prosecute the Ghibellines. Although the constitution of the republic was essentially democratic, it appeared to have been designed to encourage civil disputes and weaken central power.
The link to France, which was to be attached to Guelfentum, gave rise to a retrospective explanation : the commune must have had a special relationship with Charlemagne.
Florence as a trading power
While the constitution was evolving in a way that suggests little political ability and no stability, the people had built an amazing trade organization. Each of the seven arti maggiore or higher guilds was organized in a small state, with its own councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, etc., and set up a citizen militia in difficult times. Florentine textiles in particular were valued and purchased across Europe, and the Florentines were considered the first merchants of the age. If life in the city continued uninterrupted during the many changes in the government and the almost constant civil war, this was due to the solidity of the guilds, who were able to manage their administration even without a government.
After Charles' victory over Konradin von Hohenstaufen in 1268, the Florentines defeated Siena (1269) and made frequent raids on Pisan territory. Since Karl interfered constantly in their affairs and always preferred the grandi or Guelf nobles, some of the Ghibellines were called back as a counterweight, which only led to further dispute. After Rudolf von Habsburg , who was elected Roman king in 1273, with Pope Nicholas III. Having come to an agreement, Karl was forced in 1278 to give up his title as Imperial Vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the interregnum after the death of Frederick II.
In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the monk preacher Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had made Cardinal Bishop of Ostia in the same year , to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino achieved some degree of success and was granted some sort of temporary dictatorship. He increased the number of buoni uomini from 12 to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), and they changed every two months; they were supported by a 100-strong council. A 1000-strong troop was available to the Podestà and Capitano (who were now both elected by the people) to maintain order and to force the grandi to obey the law. The Sicilian Vespers weakened the position of Charles and strengthened that of the commune, which sought complete independence from emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the Signoria was composed of 3 (later 6) priori of the guilds (the merchant, politician and chronicler Dino Compagni played a not insignificant role in establishing them); it ended with the ousting of the buoni uomini, while a defensor artificum et artium took the place of the capitano. So the republic became essentially a commercial society, ruled by the popolani grassi, or wealthy merchants.
The republic set about breaking the power of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini at Campaldino were completely defeated by the Florentines; the battle is famous because Dante took part in it. The war against the Pisans, fought by the Genoese in the naval battle of Meloria in 1284 , was less systematic and peace was made in 1293. But the grandi who had contributed significantly to Campaldino's victory, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de Cerchi, became more powerful, and Charles had increased their numbers by the appointment of many knights. However, their attempts to interfere with the administration of justice were severely pushed back, and new laws were passed to limit their influence. Of the other internal reforms, the abolition of the last remnants of serfdom in 1289 and the increase in the number of arti, first to 12 and then to 21, should be mentioned.
Ordinamenti della giustizia
However, this was not enough for the Florentine democracy, which watched with alarm the growing power and arrogance of the grandi, who, despite their exclusion from many offices, were still influential and formed independent clans within the state. The law required each member of the clan ( consorteria ) to vouch for all other members, that is, to give a financial guarantee for the payment of fines for offenses committed by any other clan. This precaution became necessary because the whole clan acted collectively. Since the laws were not always enforced, new and stricter ones were passed. These were the famous Ordinamenti della Giustizia of 1293, by means of which all but the guild members were excluded from the Signoria. The priori remained in office for two months and appointed the gonfaloniere , also for two months. Then there were the councils of the guilds and two savi for each sestiera, with 1,000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of grandi families was set at 38 (later 72). There was no appeal to judgments on questions of the Ordinamenti. The spiritual father of these reforms was Giano della Bella, a nobleman who had become popolano through his entry into the trade. The grandi tried to make him unpopular with the popolani grassi, speculating that without him the ordinaments would not come into force. They opened negotiations with Pope Boniface VIII (elected in 1294), who sought to extend his authority to Tuscany. After a Signoria hostile to Giano had been elected, he was banished in 1295. The grandi regained some of their power by corrupting the Podestà and by the benevolence of the popolo minuto , the disorganized people. But the quarrel among them prevented their full success, while the arti were stable.
In 1295 a Signoria, favorable to the grandi, passed a law that softened the Ordinamenti, but now the Grandi were divided into two factions: one was headed by Donati, who hoped to abolish the Ordinamenti, the other by the Cerchi, who hoped for it to be abolished had given up. Later these parties were called Neri (blacks) and Bianchi (whites). Dante is one of the latter, who campaigned for the city to be autonomous from the Pope. A plot by Donati to establish their influence on Florence with the help of Boniface VIII was uncovered (May 1300) and serious unrest broke out between Neri and Bianchi. The Pope first tried to reconcile the black and white Guelphs with the help of a diplomatic envoy (Cardinal Matteo d'Acquasparta ). However, the priors insist on their independence and are suspicious of the papal envoy. As a result of the uprisings, among others, Dante's friend and supporter of the whites, Guido Cavalcanti , and the leader of the blacks, Corso Donati, are banished from the city. With the help of Karl von Valois , the Pope now wants to finally establish his authority in Florence with the help of the supremacy of the guelfi neri . The white Guelphs split up again, into those who are willing to compromise and those who are radical, to which Dante belonged. On November 1, 1301, Charles occupied Florence after being appointed paciaro or peacemaker by the Pope . He allowed Corso Donati and his supporters to return and attack the Bianchi. The new Podestà Cante Gabrielli da Gubbio, who had come with Karl, punished many from this party; among those exiled by him was Dante. Corso Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made many enemies through his arrogance and was forced to rely on the popolo grasso; his anger at him led to a riot in which he was killed (1308).
In the same year, Heinrich of Luxembourg was elected Roman-German King and came to Italy in 1310 with the favor of the Pope. Dante and the Ghibellines of Italy saw him as a savior for the country. In 1312, Henry was crowned emperor in Rome as Henry VII, but instead of the universal ruler and peacemaker he wanted to be, circumstances forced him to act as emperor and try to subdue the rebellious communes. He besieged Florence without success, even though he was able to defeat the Florentines several times, and died of malaria in 1313 near Siena .
The Pisans, who feared the Guelphs' revenge after Henry's death, had accepted the rule of Uguccione della Faggiola , the imperial vicar in Genoa. The courageous general and ambitious man conquered Lucca and in 1315 defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples near Montecatini . But the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to flee Tuscany. Florence now threatened a danger in the person of Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli , who made himself lord of Lucca and received support from Milanese lord Matteo I. Visconti and other Ghibellines from northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he attacked the Florentines and defeated them several times, occupied Pistoia, devastated their territory up to the city walls, despite the help of Naples under Raymundo di Cardona and the Duke of Calabria (King Robert's son); Florence had never been so humiliated before, but in preparation for an attack on Florence he died in 1328. Two months later, the Duke of Calabria, who had been appointed protector of the city in 1325, died and further constitutional reforms were carried out. The previous assemblies were replaced by the consiglio del popolo of 300 popolani under the capitano and the consiglio del comune with 250 members under the podestà, half of which were nobles and half of popolani. The priori and other officials were selected by lot from the more than 30-year-old Guelphs, who were found suitable for public office by a special committee of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in and many people were unjustifiably expelled from office; after anticipating trouble in 1335, a capitano della guardia was created, but the first incumbent Jacopo dei Gabrielli from Gubbio used his dictatorial power so ruthlessly that no successor was elected at the end of the year.
The Florentines now turned to Lucca. Immediately after Castruccio's death they could have bought the city for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so because of differences of opinion in the Signoria. Martino della Scala, Lord of Verona, promised them in 1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not exactly flourishing at the time, they allied themselves with Venice in a war against him. At first they were successful, but Venice signed a truce with Scala independently from the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they received only part of the territory of Lucca. At the same time they acquired the protectorate of Arezzo from the Tarlati for ten years. But misfortune fell upon the city: Edward III. of England refused to acknowledge the high credits he had taken out for his wars in France with the Florentine banks Bardi and Peruzzi (1339). These and other, smaller companies eventually went bankrupt and shook confidence in the Florentine banking system across Europe. Philip VI of France extorted large sums of money from Florentine merchants and bankers in his territory by accusing them of usury.
Late Middle Ages and Renaissance
Plague, war and civil unrest
In the late Middle Ages in the 1440s, the plague and famine wreaked havoc and revolts between grandi and popolo broke out again, partly as a result of recent unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of finances. To put an end to these riots, Walter VI. von Brienne , Duke of Athens, elected conservator and captain of the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute, and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine, he began his government with a policy of reconciliation and impartial justice, which made him very popular.
But as soon as he believed he was on safe ground, he succeeded in being recognized by the people as ruler of Florence for life, and on September 8th he was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. While the Podestà and the Capitano approved his betrayal, he dismissed the Gonfaloniere, reduced the priori to a powerless position, disarmed the citizens and soon after accepted rule over Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men - all of them French - who behaved rampantly and brutally. Because of his oppressive taxes and his cruelty towards all opponents and because of the inadequate contracts he concluded with Pisa, bitter hatred against his rule built up. The Grandi were disappointed because he did not destroy the popolo, and the latter because he had withdrawn their freedoms and interfered with the organization of the arti. Many unsuccessful conspiracies were hatched against him, and after discovering one of Antonio degli Adimari's, he had him called to the palace and held as a prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of wanting to consult them, but since they suspected treason, they refused to appear. On July 26th 1343 there was an armed uprising, the citizens demanded the abdication of the duke and besieged him in the palace. Neighboring cities came to the aid of the Florentines. The Podestà was expelled and a fourteen-member Balia (Provisional Government) was elected. The Duke was forced to release Adimari and his other prisoners, and several of his bodyguards were killed by the mob. Three of his main followers whom he was forced to extradite were literally torn to pieces and he was eventually forced to resign on August 1st. He left under heavy guard a few days later, and the fourteen annulled his ordinances.
The expulsion of the Duke of Athens was followed by several measures to further humiliate the grandi, while the popolo minuto, or the artisans, began to show signs of dissatisfaction with the rule of the merchants and the mob destroyed the homes of many nobles. As soon as order was restored, a balia was appointed to reform the government. The ambassadors from Siena and Perugia and Simone de Battifolle helped with this task. The number of priori was reduced to 8 (2 popolani grassi, 3 mediani and 3 artifici minuti), while the gonfaloniere had to be chosen alternately from each of the three classes; the grandi were excluded from the administration, but they were still admitted to the consiglio del comune, the cinque di mercanzia and other offices of the commune. The ordinamenti were retained in a softened form and certain grandi were assigned to the popolo as a favor. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial republic and all its politics were dominated mainly from a commercial point of view: its rivalry with Pisa had its roots in an ambition to get safe access to the sea, its strong guelfism was the result of his determination to keep banking of the papacy and its efforts to expand the territory within Tuscany, a consequence of the need to keep the country's trade routes open. However, Florentine democracy was limited by the city walls, because no one from the Contado and none of the citizens of the conquered cities enjoyed political rights reserved for the residents of Florence and by no means all of them.
Florence was a city of 100,000 inhabitants in the 14th century, 25,000 of whom could carry weapons. There were 110 churches, 39 religious houses; there were over 200 shops of the arte della lana (cloth and fur traders) that produced fabric worth 1,200,000 florin. Florentine bankers and merchants were found all over the world and often held positions of responsibility in the service of foreign governments; the republic's revenue, largely from city tariffs, was around 300,000 florins, while its normal expenses, excluding military affairs and public buildings, were only around 40,000. The city was already a center of art and literature and was full of beautiful buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that the grandi were politically oppressed, members of the lowest classes came to power, mostly adventurers with no sense or virtue who usurped public office through unfair and forbidden practices. This paved the way for tyranny.
Famine struck again in 1347, followed the next year by the worst plague it had ever seen, killing three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Despite these catastrophes, the republic by no means went under. They quickly gained sovereignty over many cities that had broken off all connections after the expulsion of the Duke of Athens (1348) and they acquired sovereignty over Prato from Queen Joan of Naples , which they had inherited from the Duke of Calabria. Giovanni Visconti , Lord and Archbishop of Milan, had acquired Bologna and allied himself with various Ghibelline houses of Tuscany in view of a war with the dominant Florence. In 1351 Florence declared war on him and, in violation of its Guelfi traditions, placed itself under the protection of Emperor Charles IV (1355) for life . However, this step was not popular and allowed the grandi, who despite being excluded from the main offices, still dominated the Guelfa party, to assert themselves again. In 1347 they succeeded in getting a very strict law through against anyone suspected of Ghibellinism. Since they themselves were unsuspicious in this regard, they were able to throw many members of the popolo minuto out of their offices. In 1358 the Guelfa party made these ordinances even stricter and punished anyone who held office as Ghibelline with death or heavy fines. Convictions could be pronounced without hearing the accused if trustworthy witnesses were available. Even an unproven accusation or an ammonizione (warning not to take office) could result in disenfranchisement. So the party, represented by its 6 (later 9) captains, was able to exercise a real reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation would come on him. The leader of the party was Piero degli Albizzi , head of the Albizzi family , whose main rival was the Ricci family .
At that time, Italy was increasingly overrun by gangs of fortune-tellers. The first of these gangs with whom Florence came into contact was the Grande Compagnia, commanded by Conte di Lando, which invaded Tuscany twice but was driven out by Florentine troops both times (1358-1359). In 1362 Florence was at war with Pisa because of commercial conflicts and because Florence had taken control of Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa recruited Sir John Hawkwood's English mercenary company; this won several battles but was eventually defeated at Cascine, and peace was made in 1364 after neither side gained an advantage. The republic faced renewed danger in 1367, when Charles IV, who had allied himself with Pope Urban V , Queen Joan of Naples and various northern Italian despots to humiliate the Visconti , demanded that the Florentines join the league. They refused and prepared to defend themselves, but in the end they satisfied the emperor with a cash payment.
The tyranny of the Guelfa party continued unabated, and the capitani passed a decree that any measure concerning the party could not even be debated by the Signoria unless it had been approved by her beforehand. However, this notorious law aroused so much opposition that some of the same men who proposed it now gathered in secret to discuss its abolition. Since a dispute between the Albizzi and the Ricci had weakened the party, a balia of 56 was agreed . Several of the Albizzi and Ricci were excluded from office for five years, and a council called Dieci di libertà was created to pass the laws defend and protect the weak from the strong. The Guelfa party and the Albizzi remained very influential, and attempts to abolish the ammonizioni failed.
In 1375 Florence was embroiled in a war which showed how overdone Italy's old party divisions had become. The papal legate in Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet († 1394) thought about annexing the city to the Papal States, although the church was allied with Florence at the time. He denied a request from the Florentines for grain from Romagna and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although much of the people rejected the idea of a conflict with the Church, an alliance was forged with the Florentine arch enemy Bernabò Visconti and war was declared. An eight-member Balia , the Otto della guerra (later called the Eight Saints due to their good management), was appointed to organize the campaign. Treaties were signed with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and Cortona, and soon no fewer than 80 cities, including Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. pronounced an interdict against Florence , ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from foreign countries and obliged a Breton society to invade the territory of the republic. The Eight levied heavy fees on church property and ordered the clergy to ignore the interdict. They turned the tables on the Pope by hiring Hawkwood, and although the Bretons committed atrocities in Romagna on the orders of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (later Antipope Clement VII ), their leaders were bribed by the Republic not to raid their territory. In 1378 peace was made, partly through the mediation of Saint Catherine of Siena , and the interdict was withdrawn in exchange for a cash payment of 200,000 florins to the Pope.
Revolt of the woolen weavers
During the war, the Eight had practically ruled the city, but now the Guelfa party, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio and Piero degli Albizzi, tried to regain power through unauthorized interference in the elections and the generous use of ammonizioni. Salvestro de 'Medici , who had always been an opponent of the party, was elected gonfaloniere despite his intrigues and proposed a law to abolish the ammonizioni, which was finally passed (June 18, 1378). But the people demanded that the party's power be broken for all time. On June 21, riots broke out and the houses of the Albizzi and other nobles were set on fire. The Signoria, meanwhile, founded an 81-strong Balia , which repealed some of the laws promoted by the party and gave some of the ammoniti the right to vote. The people were still dissatisfied, the arti minori demanded further privileges, and the artisans insisted that their complaints against the arti maggiori - particularly the wool merchants who employed them - should be prosecuted. A large group of ciompi (wool weavers) gathered outside the city and conspired to undermine the Signoria and establish a popular government. Although the plot, in which Salvestro did not appear to be involved, was exposed, the violence escalated and, on July 21, an angry crowd occupied the Podestà palace and made it his headquarters. They demanded participation of the popolo minuto in the government, but as soon as this was granted, Tommaso Strozzi, as spokesman for the Ciompi, forced the Signoria to hand over her power to the Eight. When the palace was owned by the people, a Ciompo named Michele di Lando took the lead and put an end to the mess and looting. He remained head of Florence for a day, during which he reformed the constitution - probably with the support of Salvestro de 'Medici. Three new guilds were formed and nine priors were appointed, three from the arti maggiori, three from the minori, and three from the new ones, while each of these classes was to elect the gonfaloniere di giustizia. The first incumbent should be Michele di Lando. This did not satisfy the Ciompi, and the confusion they provoked resulted in a new government reforming the two bodies to exclude the lower classes. However, in order to please the people, several of the grandi, including Piero degli Albizzi, were executed on charges of conspiracy; many others were banished.
The riots dragged on, which also resulted in “capital” being deterred, while at the same time poverty and unemployment grew. In 1382 a reaction set in, and relatively stable conditions were restored by the guilds. Again a new constitution was passed by which the gonfaloniers and half of the priors were elected from the arti maggiori and the other half from the minori; in several other bodies the former were in the majority, and the three new guilds were abolished. The demagogues were executed or forced to flee, and Michele di Lando was banished with great ingratitude. Several subsequent Ciompi uprisings, largely of an economic nature, were fought off and the Guelf families gradually regained much of their lost power. They used it to banish their opponents and to revive the disreputable system of ammonizioni.
In the meantime, the republic maintained its position in foreign affairs, and in 1383 won Arezzo back through acquisition from Lieutenant Charles de Durazzo. After Gian Galeazzo Visconti had made himself master of a large part of northern Italy, he schemed in 1390 to get Pisa and Siena into his hands. Florence alone opposed him and hired Hawkwood, who with an army of 7,000 men could more than assert himself against the mighty lord of Milan. In 1392 a peace was made that strengthened the republic through an alliance with Pisa and several northern Italian states. In 1393 Maso degli Albizzi became a gonfaloniere and for many years remained almost master of Florence due to his influential position in the Arte della Lana. Violent persecutions were launched against the Alberti and other families; they were disenfranchised and banished. Confusion and conspiracies against the merchant oligarchy continued, and the exiles brought much trouble to the republic by intriguing against it abroad.
From 1397 to 1402 Florence had won two more wars against Gian Galeazzo Visconti , who after conquering Tuscany had striving to gain control of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. After Hawkwood died, Florence enlisted the help of Emperor Rupert. The imperial troops were defeated; but just as the Milanese were about to march on Florence, Visconti died. His territories were then divided between his sons and his condollieri. Pisa was now ruled by Giovanni Maria Visconti , and Florence entered into an alliance with Pope Boniface IX in view of this . one who wanted to regain Perugia and Bologna. War broke out again and the alliance was successful, but as soon as Boniface IX. Having achieved his goals, he made peace and left the Florentines dissatisfied. Her attempt to conquer Pisa alone failed, and Gabriele Maria placed herself under the protection of the French king. The Florentines then made motions to France, which had supported the antipopes through the great schism, and offered that they would the antipope at the time, Benedict XIII. would support Pisa in return for a sale. This was agreed and in 1405 the city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins. Gino Capponi, the Florentine Plenipotentiary, took possession of the citadel, but a few days later the citizens rose with arms and recaptured it from the mercenaries. The next year, the city, ruled by Giovanni Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines who blocked the mouth of the Arno. After six months of siege, Pisa surrendered (October 9, 1406) and, although it was not sacked, many of the citizens were banished and others forced to live in Florence. It should not recover from this depopulation . Florence now had a large seaport and was finally able to conduct sea trade directly.
Except in connection with the Pisa question, the republic had not taken a clear position in the great schism that had divided the church since 1378. In 1408 it appealed to both Pope Gregory XII. as well as the antipope Benedict XIII. and various foreign governments to come to an agreement and propose a council on their own territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee of theologians who declared him a heretic, the council organized by Cardinal Cossa and other prelates convened in Pisa (see Council of Pisa ). This almost led to a war with King Ladislaus of Naples, because he had occupied Rome, which he could only hold as long as the church was divided. The council deposed both popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V (June 26). But Ladislaus still held the Papal States. Troubled by its growing power, Florence formed a league with Siena, Bologna, and Louis d'Anjou, who made claims to the Neapolitan throne to drive Ladislaus out of Rome. Cortono, Orvieto, Viterbo and other cities were brought back for Alexander, and in January 1410 Rome itself was conquered by the Florentines under Malatesti dei Malatesti. Since Alexander had already died in May before moving into the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was named John XXIII. elected pope. Florence made peace with Ladislaus, but without offending him, for he was no longer dangerous. They bought Cortona from the Pope. In 1413 Ladislaus attacked the Papal States again, drove John out of Rome and threatened Florence. But like Henry VII before, Gian Galeazzo Visconti and other enemies of the republic, he died in time (August 6, 1414). John XXIII had lost all authority after leaving Rome, and so a new council was held in Constance (see Council of Constance ), which put an end to the schism with the election of Martin V in 1417. The new Pope came to Florence in 1419 and stayed there until the following year, as he had not yet regained Rome, which Francesco I Sforza believed was Queen Joan II of Naples.
No major changes to the constitution took place during this period, except for the appointment of two new bodies in 1411 to decide on issues of war and peace. The faction led by Maso degli Albizzi remained predominant and after Maso's death in 1417 he was succeeded in the leadership of the party by Niccolò da Uzzano . In 1421 Giovanni de 'Medici was elected Gonfaloniere della giustizia, an event that marked the beginning of power for this wealthy family. In the same year the republic bought Livorno from the Genoese for 100,000 florins and set up a body of consuls of the sea to supervise sea trade. Although 11,000,000 florins had been spent in the previous wars, Florence continued to be very prosperous and its trade flourished.
In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti , who had managed to recapture most of Lombardy, occupied Forli. This prompted the Florentines to declare war on him, considering his rapprochement a threat to their own territory, despite the opposition of the Peace Party led by Giovanni de Medici. The campaign was by no means successful, and the Florentines were defeated several times. The result was that their credit was shaken and several important companies went bankrupt. The Pope was against them too, but when they got the Venetians to step in, the tide turned and Visconti was eventually defeated and forced to accept peace on unfavorable terms (1427).
The old systems for collecting state revenue no longer met the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various state loans were consolidated into a national debt ( monte ). From then on all extraordinary expenses were covered by compulsory loans ( prestanze ), but the distribution method led to dissatisfaction among the lower classes, and in 1427 a catasto, or estimate of the total wealth of the citizens, was formed. Measures have been devised to distribute the bonds according to the ability of each person and to avoid too harsh a burden on the poor. The catasto was mainly the work of Giovanni de Medici, who thereby increased his popularity considerably. He died in 1429.
Cosimo the old man
An attempt to conquer Lucca led Florence, together with Venice, to another costly war with Milan (1432–1433). The mismanagement of the campaign resulted in a dispute between the aristocratic party led by Rinaldo degli Albizzi and the popular party led by Cosimo de 'Medici (Giovanni's son), although both had previously consented to the war. Rinaldo was determined to crush the Medici Party and successfully enforced Cosimo's banishment. The Albizzi tried to strengthen their position by conferring extraordinary powers on the capitano del popolo , but the Medici still had great popular support. Rinaldo's proposal for a coup d'etat found no response in his own party, and he could not prevent the election of a pro-Medici Signoria in 1434. He and other party leaders were summoned to the palace to counter allegations of conspiracy against the state. He responded by summoning 800 armed supporters. A revolution was only averted by the intervention of Pope Eugen IV , who was in Florence at the time.
A parliament was convened and the elected Balia decided to return Cosimo and exile Rinaldo degli Albizzi, Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolò Barbadori and others, despite a weak attempt by Eugen to protect them. On October 6, 1434 Cosimo returned to Florence. For the next three centuries, the history of the city was determined by that of the House of Medici . Cosimo managed to dominate the republic while remaining nominally a private citizen. He banished those who opposed him and ruled through the Balia , which was re-elected every five years, appointed all magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose leader Niccolò Piccinino was defeated by the Florentines under Francesco I. Sforza while entering Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his retinue in the Battle of Anghiari (1440); peace was made the following year.
The abusive system of the catasto was abolished and a progressive income tax ( decima scala ) was introduced with the aim of relieving the poor, who were usually Medici adherents. But since the tax was raised frequently, it ended up depressing society as a whole. Cosimo expanded his own authority and that of the republic by helping Francesco Sforza become Duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the war against Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 Emperor Friedrich III came. on his way to the coronation in Rome through Florence and was greeted as a friend. During the final years of Cosimo's life, things were less under his control, and the gonfaloniere Luca Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, made many changes, such as the devaluation of the posts of Podestà and Capitano, which Cosimo coveted but gladly left to others.
Lorenzo the Magnificent
Cosimo died in 1464, and he was followed - not without opposition - by his son Piero , who was very weak and suffering from gout. The anti-Medici party was called Del Poggio because its leader Luca Pitti's house was on a hill; the Medici Party was called Del Piano because Piero's house was down in town; the other opposition leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. Various conspiracies were hatched against Piero, but his unexpected energy foiled the plans of his opponents. Sforza's death led to a war of succession in Milan, and the Venetians, incited by the Florentine exiles, invaded Tuscany. The war ended after many unsuccessful skirmishes in 1468 with the intervention of Pope Paul II.
Piero died in 1469, leaving two sons behind: Lorenzo (1449–1492) and Giuliano (1453–1478). The former immediately seized the reins of government and became ruler of Florence in ways that neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted. He established his supremacy on a Balia , from the Signoria, the accoppiatori and 240 other members insisted, all Medici supporters, were to be replaced every five years (1471). When a dispute arose over the alum mines of Volterra in 1472 , Lorenzo sent an expedition to the city; it was looted and many residents were massacred. For a variety of reasons, a hostility arose between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV. If the Pope was not an accomplice, he was at least an accomplice in the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (1478).
The result of the plot, although Giuliano was murdered, was that Lorenzo consolidated his position and had a number of his enemies executed or exiled. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who went to war with King Ferdinand of Naples against him. Neither side was successful at first, but eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale (near Poggibonsi ) and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's position was critical, but his audacity to go to Naples enabled him to make peace with the king, which led to a reconciliation with the Pope (1479–1480). On his return to Florence, Lorenzo was received enthusiastically, which he used to consolidate his power. The Balia , formed in April 1480 , decided u. a. to set up a Council of Seventy ( consiglio dei settanta ), which, although originally only constituted for five years, developed into a permanent institution. Since the members were all supporters of Lorenzo, the council represented a permanent pillar of the Medici rule. As late as 1480, a conspiracy against Lorenzo was foiled. The council then passed a law declaring attacks on Lorenzo's life to be treason . Until Lorenzo's death, the city remained free from party disputes.
Due to his political activity, Lorenzo had neglected the business interests of his company and, in order to make up for certain heavy losses, he seems to have appropriated public funds. His brilliant but expensive foreign policy made further forced loans necessary, and he also laid his hand on Monte delle Doti , an insurance company that provided dowries for girls.
An attempt by the Venetians to occupy Ferrara led to a general Italian war in which Florence sided with Venice. When peace was made in 1484, the republic gained some advantages. In the following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons broke out against King Ferdinand, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII ; Lorenzo initially remained neutral, but because of his policy of equilibrium, and because he did not want Ferdinand to be completely inferior, he supported him despite the unpopularity of the king in Florence. Peace was made in 1486 when the Pope was ready to come to a settlement. In 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana , which Genoa had wrested from the Florentines nine years earlier. The general confusion and ceaseless intrigue throughout Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he managed to tip Florence on the scales of power in Italy. At the time, the Dominican Girolamo Savonarola was in Florence and shook the whole city with his attacks on corruption in the Church and among the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the source of the people's immorality, and to some extent raised public opinion against him. Lorenzo fell ill and Savonarola, whom he had called to his bedside, refused absolution to the destroyer of the Florentine freedoms. Lorenzo, during whose reign Florence had become one of the most important centers of art and literature in Europe, died in 1492.
Expulsion of the Medici
He was followed by his son Piero , who had none of the qualities of his father and made a number of political mistakes. When Charles VIII came to Italy from France to conquer Naples (beginning of the Italian Wars ), Piero decided to support Naples, despite the traditional popular sympathies on the side of the French king. And when Karl arrived on Florentine territory and occupied Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and apologized. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Livornus and other cities, which Piero allowed. On his return to Florence on November 8, 1494, he found the opposition strengthened and his popularity declined, especially when the news of the scandalous cession to Charles became known. He was denied access to the palace, and the people began to shout Popolo e libertà against the Medici call Palle palle (after the bullets on the Medici coat of arms). He fled the city with a small escort, and shortly afterwards his brother Giovanni. On the same day Pisa rose against the Florentines and was occupied by Charles.
The eviction of the Medici caused disorder, but Piero Capponi and other prominent citizens managed to keep the peace. Envoys, one of them Savonarola, were sent to negotiate with the French king, but no agreement was reached until Charles arrived in Florence on November 17th at the head of an army of 12,000. Despite their French sympathies, the citizens were indignant about the occupation of Sarzana and while giving the king a great welcome, they did not like his demeanor as a conqueror. Karl was impressed by the wealth and sophistication of the citizens and above all by the fortress-like appearance of their palaces. The Signoria appointed Piero Capponi Gonfaloniere, a man of great talent and patriotism and experienced in diplomacy. Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio Vespucci and the diplomat Domenico Bonsi became the syndic to conduct negotiations with the French king.
Karl's demands did not please the citizens, and the arrogance and brutality of his soldiers led to riots in which they were attacked with stones in the narrow streets. When the king suggested a return of Piero de 'Medici, the Signoria urged the citizens to get ready to take up arms. The proposal was dropped, but Karl demanded an immense sum of money before leaving town. Long debates ensued, and when he finally issued a presumptuous ultimatum, the syndicates refused. When the king realized what a street fight would mean in Florence, he was immediately ready to come to an agreement. He contented himself with 120,000 florins and agreed to surrender the fortresses he had captured within two years, unless his campaign against Naples was concluded earlier; the Medici were to remain exiled, but their bounty was canceled. But Karl did not want to leave, which caused permanent unrest in the city. Not until November 28th, after a warning from Savonarola, whom he respected very much, did he leave Florence.
Girolamo Savonarola
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It was now planned to restore the government on the basis of the old republican institutions. But one had to recognize that 60 years of Medici rule had turned these institutions into mere shadow structures. The state of government, largely republican, controlled by a balia of 20 accoppiatori and often disrupted by the convening of a parlamento, was extremely chaotic. As a result, people talked about nothing more than a change in government. But unfortunately there was no longer an upper class familiar with public affairs while the lower class was completely demoralized. Many suggestions were made, none of which were of practical value until Girolamo Savonarola , who had already made a name for himself as a moral reformer, began his famous political sermon series.
When the alliance between Pope, Emperor, Venice and Spain prevailed against Charles VIII, he had to withdraw to France. On his way back he passed through Florence, and although the republic had refused to join the alliance, it saw itself in danger because Piero de 'Medici was among the king's entourage. Savonarola was again sent to the French camp and convinced the king to refrain from any idea of reinstating the Medici. At the same time, Charles broke his promise by giving the Pisans help in their revolt against Florence and not returning the fortresses.
After the French had given up Italy, Piero de 'Medici recruited some mercenaries and marched on Florence. However, the citizens - spurred on by Savonarola - took up arms and prepared themselves for violent resistance. Due to Piero's ineptitude and the exhaustion of his funds, nothing came of the campaign. At the same time, the city was not doing well; their resources were strained by the amount paid to Karl and by the war; their creditworthiness was shattered, their trade paralyzed; Famine and plague ravaged the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa went badly. Even worse was the death of one of the most capable and impartial statesmen, Piero Capponi, in 1496.
The league now attacked Florence, because Borgia- Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy the Republic in order to temporarily reinstate the Medici and prepare the way for his own sons. The Venetians and Imperial troops besieged Livorno and there was great misery in Florence. All of this caused Savonarola's popularity to decline somewhat, but after the enemy had been defeated at Livorno and the League seemed to be breaking up, the Florentines took heart and the monk's party was on the rise again. Numerous processions were held, Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have temporarily transformed the citizens, and the 1497 Carnival remained famous for the bruciamenti della vanità (i.e. the burning of "indecent" books and pictures, as well as carnival masks and costumes). The monk's sermons against church corruption and especially against the Pope resulted in his excommunication, which made him lose much of his influence.
In the same year Piero de 'Medici tried another attempt on Florence. When renewed Medici plots were discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other famous citizens were tried and executed; but the party hostile to Savonarola was gaining ground and had the support of the Franciscans who were hostile to the Dominican order . Between Savonarola and his opponents there was now a violent dispute in the pulpit, which was resolved by forbidding him to preach. Savonarola was injured in a trial by fire . After that he lost even more the confidence of the Florentines. The Pope asked for his extradition again and again, but was unsuccessful despite threats of an interdict against the city.
The Piagnoni were no longer in power, and when a Signoria from Arrabbiati was elected in 1493, a mob of opponents of Savonarola attacked the convent of San Marco , where he lived. He was arrested and charged with heresy and treason. The committee appointed to his trial consisted of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had previously tried to assassinate him. Many irregularities occurred during the three trials and Savonarola was repeatedly tortured . The outgoing Signoria made sure that a like-minded Signoria was elected as successor, and on May 22, 1498 Savonarola was sentenced to death and executed the following day.
Reinstatement of the Medici
After the Pope was satisfied, the situation in Florence was less critical for the moment. The war against Pisa resumed and in 1499 the city was not captured, perhaps only because of the delaying tactics of the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli; he was subsequently arrested, charged with treason and executed. Louis XII. France, who was now sending an army to Italy to conquer Milan, received the support of the Florentines. Cesare Borgia , who had occupied many cities in Romagna, suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the danger was only averted by making him captain-general of the Florentine troops with a considerable salary (1501).
The weakness of the government became more evident every day, several constitutional changes were made and many old institutions such as those of the Podestà and the Capitano del popolo were abolished. Finally, in 1502, the office of gonfaloniere was bestowed for life to give more stability to the government; he also had the right to submit legislative proposals to the Signoria. The choice fell on Piero Soderini (1452–1522), an honest man with a sense of community who did not belong to any particular party, but who lacked strength of character. A useful measure he took was the establishment of a national militia at the suggestion of Niccolò Machiavelli (1505). In the meantime, the Pisan War dragged on without much progress being made. 1503 were both Piero de Medici and Alexander VI. died, eliminating two dangers for the republic. Spain, at war with France over the division of Naples, helped the Pisans as the enemies of Florence, the ally of Francis I (1501–1504). When this war was over, the Florentines were able to besiege Pisa (1507), and in 1509 the city was forced to surrender by a famine and again dependent on Florence.
After Pope Julius II had formed the League of Cambrai with France and Spain against the Republic of Venice , he withdrew from it in 1510 and shouted Fuori i Barbari (Out with the barbarians), with a view to attracting the French from Italy to evict. King Ludwig then proposed an ecumenical council to create a schism in the church and demanded that it be held in Florentine territory. After some hesitation the republic agreed and the council was opened in Pisa, whereupon the Pope immediately placed Florence under an interdict. At the request of the Florentines, the council was moved to Milan , but this did not save them from the wrath of the Pope.
A Spanish army under Ramón de Cardona , accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de 'Medici and his brother Giuliano , penetrated the territory of the republic and demanded 100,000 florins, the release of Soderini and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Grand Council supported him and provisions were made for defense. In August, the Spaniards took Prato by storm and committed atrocities against the residents. Florence was in a panic, a group of the Ottimati or nobles forced Soderini to step back and leave the city. Cardona's new terms were accepted: the re-admission of the Medici, a cash payment of 150,000 florins and an alliance with Spain. On September 1, 1512, Giuliano and Giovanni de 'Medici and their nephew Lorenzo entered Florence with Spanish troops. A parliamento was convened and a balia was formed, which abolished the Gran Consiglio and created a constitution similar to that of Lorenzo Il Magnifico. Giuliano became the de facto head of the government, but he did not pursue the usual vengeful policies of his house, although he resorted to the Laurentine method of entertaining the citizens with glamorous festivities.
After the death of Julius II in 1513, Giovanni de 'Medici was elected Pope as Leo X , an event that enormously increased the importance of the house. In March 1516, Giuliano di Lorenzo de 'Medici, Duke of Nemours, died and was followed by his nephew Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici , who was also made Duke of Urbino. On his death in 1519, Cardinal Giulio de 'Medici (son of Giuliano, who had been killed in the Pazzi conspiracy ) assumed responsibility for government. He met opposition and had to play the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he did not rule badly and in any case preserved the external forms of freedom. In 1523 he became Pope Clement VII and sent his relatives Ippolito and Alessandro , both minors and illegitimate, to Florence under the tutelage of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was called Il Magnifico and was to become the ruler of the republic.
The Modern Age
Renewed expulsion and reinstatement of the Medici
But Cardinal Passerini's reign turned out to be highly unpopular, and the city soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini was not up to the situation. The Ottimati were for the most part opposed to the Medici, and by 1527 the position became untenable. Through the Sacco di Roma , the influence of the Medici Pope Clemens was temporarily switched off. This led to a successful change of power on May 16, 1527. When Filippo Strozzi and above all his wife threw their political weight on the scales against the Medici and the magistrates spoke out in favor of their exclusion from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (May 17, 1527).
A Consiglio degli Scelti was convened and a constitution similar to that of Savonarola's time was adopted. The Grand Council was revived and Niccolò Capponi made gonfaloniere for a year. But Florence was torn apart by its parties: the Ottimati, who wanted an oligarchy ; the Palleschi or Medici, who generally supported them; the Adirati, who opposed Capponi for his temperance; the Arrabbiati, who were strongly anti-Medici, and the Popolani, who opposed the Ottomati. Capponi did his best to reform the city and save the situation, and while adopting Savonarola's tone on internal affairs, he saw the dangers of the external situation and realized that a reconciliation between the Pope and Emperor Charles V would be devastating Florence would have, for Clemens would surely take the opportunity to bring his family back to power. After he was re-elected Gonfaloniere in 1525, despite opposition, Capponi tried to make peace with the Pope. His correspondence with the Vatican led to the unjustified charge of high treason, and although he was acquitted, he was forced to resign and leave the city for six months.
Francesco Carducci was elected Gonfaloniere in his place, and on June 29, 1529, the Pope and Emperor signed a treaty in which the latter consented to reinstate the Medici in Florence. Carducci made arrangements for a siege, but much of the people were either out of sympathy for the Medici or out of fear against him, although the Frateschi - as the representatives of Savonarola's views were called - strongly supported him. A body called Nove della Milizia , on which Michelangelo Buonarotti also sat, was entrusted with the defense of the city, and Michelangelo himself supervised the reinforcement of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the high command of the army was Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under Philibert, Prince of Orange, marched towards the city. In September Malatesta gave up Perugia and other cities fell into the hands of the imperial troops. Attempts to come to an agreement with the Pope were unsuccessful, and in October the siege began. Although the citizens stood alone against the papacy and empire, they showed themselves undaunted. The most prominent figure in these events was Francesco Ferrucci . But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and in every way hampered the city's defense. Ferrucci, who had re-conquered Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoias to attack the imperial troops in the rear. A battle took place at this point on August 3, 1530, but despite Ferrucci's heroism, he was defeated and killed. The Prince of Orange was also killed in this desperate battle. Malatesta contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous attack by the besieged.
The famine within the city was now very severe and a growing proportion of the population was in favor of surrender. The Signoria finally realized that Malatesta was a traitor and released him. But it was too late, and he was now acting as if he were the governor of Florence - when the troops tried to get his release he turned his arms on them. On August 9th, the Signoria saw that all hope was in vain and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante I Gonzaga , the new imperial commander. The surrender was signed on August 12, 1530: Florence had to pay compensation of 80,000 florins; the Medici were to be called again; the emperor should set up a new government, it being understood that freedom should be preserved. Baccio Valori, a Medici who had been in the imperial camp, now took charge, and the city was occupied by foreign troops. A parliamento was convened, the usual balia formed and all opposition silenced. The city was handed over to Pope Clement, who, in violation of the terms of surrender, hanged Carducci and Girolami (the last Gonfaloniere) and installed Alessandro de 'Medici, the illegitimate son of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, as head of the republic on July 5, 1531. The next year the Signoria was abolished, Alessandro made gonfaloniere for life and his rule made hereditary within his family by an imperial patent. Florence lost its freedom in 1532 and became the capital of the Duchy (later Grand Duchy) of Tuscany .
Florence as the capital of Tuscany
With the founding of the Convento dei Cappuccini di Montughi in the 1570s, the famous Biblioteca del Convento dei Cappuccini di Montughi came into being .
The Medici dynasty ruled Tuscany until the death of Gian Gastone de 'Medici in 1737. The Grand Duchy then passed to Franz Stephan , Duke of Lorraine . It was ruled by a regency until 1753. Florence came under the rule of the Habsburgs when Maria Theresa transferred the reign to her son Peter Leopold . As part of numerous reforms, this abolished the death penalty and torture for the first time in 1786.
During the Napoleonic Wars, Grand Duke Ferdinand III. Chased from the throne by Habsburg-Lorraine, and Tuscany annexed by the French Empire in 1808. In 1809 Florence was made the capital of the Kingdom of Etruria ; but after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstalled. He died in 1833, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal revolutionary movement in Florence and Leopold granted a constitution. But unrest broke out, and in 1849 the Grand Duke returned with an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, Leopold was expelled by a bloodless revolution in Florence, and Tuscany was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont .
Florence as the short-term capital of Italy and afterwards
Between 1865 and 1895 there was a major urban redevelopment of the city center, which was referred to as the inner city redevelopment of Florence (Italian Risanamento di Firenze). The short period in the capital from 1865 to 1871 (September 15, 1864 to September 20, 1870) acted as a trigger. The Poggi plan by the architect Giuseppe Poggi was intended to give the medieval town a boost in modernization, take into account the rapidly growing population and improve flood protection.
In this context, Poggi represented the demolition of the city walls at least in the north of the city, the realization of the Viale dei Colli south of the Arno, the construction of a large parade ground , a main station , a slaughterhouse and a gasometer . Work began in May 1865 and lasted five years. In order to be able to carry out the urban redevelopment so quickly, the means of expropriation were often resorted to. The Viali di Circonvallazione ( ring roads ) based on the Parisian model took the place of the demolished walls . Large squares were laid out around the former city gates, which were mostly preserved. Here the residences of the upper class emerged.
The highlight of the panoramic street Viale dei Colli was the Piazzale Michelangelo , a lookout point that has become the city's international tourist trademark. New bourgeois districts emerged, such as Piagentina, the area around Piazza Savonarola, San Jacopino (or Pignone).
In 1869 the project to renovate the Mercato Vecchio was envisaged - a large square with a “Galleria” was to be created here - but the loss of the capital city function to Rome led to a pause in planning. The stagnation and mood of crisis were soon overcome. The task now was to create a modern center in the middle of the old town. The Piazza della Repubblica , then Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, was to create this center. The project was decided on April 2, 1885, as a result of which the affected population was quickly evacuated and the land was expropriated. In the place of historical palazzi, churches and monuments, a modern bourgeois center was created. In 1890 the equestrian statue of the king was placed in the middle of the still unfinished square (it is now on Piazzale delle Cascine).
The economic boom through tourism and modernization thus demanded victims, especially in the short period in which Florence, after Turin and before Rome, briefly exercised the function of capital and in the last two decades of the 19th century.
After the urban population doubled in this century, it tripled in the 20th century and benefited greatly from the new branches of tourism and industry, while long-distance trade and finance flourished again. In a referendum in 1946, the Florentines voted against the preservation of the kingdom and for the Republic of Italy . From 1946 to 1950 a coalition of socialists and communists ruled the city. A rapid economic and social change and upswing took place. The years up to 1964 were shaped by the Christian-social mayor Giorgio La Pira , sindaco from 1950 to 1956 and 1960–1964. The Arno flood of November 1966 damaged countless art treasures and claimed 34 lives, although the exact details were kept under lock and key by the authorities for decades.
Exile and persecution in Florence during fascism
After the Nazis came to power in Germany in early 1933, many emigrated German intellectuals settled in and around Florence. Not all of them were emigrants in the political sense, but often only left Germany because they did not like the cultural climate at home. This applies to the circle around Hans Purrmann , who headed the Villa Romana in Florence from 1935 . This group of people included the writer Kasimir Edschmid , the art historian Werner Haftmann , who works at the German Art History Institute, and the sculptors Toni Stadler and Gerhard Marcks . Even if the Villa Romana was a private foundation, it was subject to the influence of the German Propaganda Ministry and worked under the observation of the NSDAP foreign organization . Access to this facility was therefore inconceivable for Jewish artists.
Politically and racially persecuted, on the other hand, were mainly found in the circles around the publisher Kurt Wolff , the writers Alfred Neumann and Karl Wolfskehl or at the rural school home in Florence . At least until 1938 they were not subjected to serious persecution by the Italian authorities, although many of them were temporarily arrested on the occasion of Hitler's visit in the spring of 1938. Few were as badly off as the writer Walter Hasenclever , who was brought to the fortress of Massa. Kurt Wolff, on the other hand, who lived in a small town near Florence, was warned by the local mayor and was able to move to France with his family. Werner Peiser and Robert Kempner , the directors of the rural school home in Florence, who were also imprisoned in the Florentine prison during Hitler's visit , were even allowed to continue teaching in the prison courtyard and to have food delivered from a neighboring trattoria at their own expense.
After the passage of the Italian race laws on September 1, 1938, the situation for German emigrants (male / female) also worsened in Florence and the surrounding area. The Jewish emigrants in particular were quickly forced to flee again or, like Karl Wolfskehl, had already taken this step after Hitler's visit to Italy in the spring of 1938. The situation became even more precarious after the occupation of Florence by German troops from September 11, 1943 to August 11, 1944, which resulted in raids and subsequent deportations to Auschwitz.
During the time of the occupation, the German consul Gerhard Wolf officiated in Florence . He went down in history positively because of his markedly moderate position as "Il Console di Firenze" (Consul of Florence). Because of the admiration that Adolf Hitler felt for the Ponte Vecchio during his visit to Florence in 1938 , when the German troops withdrew, this bridge was the only one in Florence that was not destroyed, but only its access roads were made impassable.
literature
- Peter Herde : Guelphs and Neoguelfen, on the history of a national ideology from the Middle Ages to the Risorgimento . Stuttgart 1986
- Peter Herde: Dante as a Florentine politician , Wiesbaden 1976
- Niccolò Machiavelli : Collected works a . a. Istorie fiorentine . Edited by Alexander Ulfig , Frankfurt 2006, ISBN 3-86150-774-9 .
- Niccolò Machiavelli: History of Florence . Phaidon, Vienna 1934 ( full text online in the Gutenberg project)
- Robert Davidsohn : History of Florence . 4 volumes, Berlin 1896 ff. (Several reprints; standard work on medieval Florence)
- Il Disegno della città: l'urbanistica a Firenze nell'Ottocento e nel Novecento . Exhibition catalog, Accademia delle arti del disegno, Florence 1986
- Susan B. Puett, J. David Puett: Renaissance Art & Science @ Florence. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park 2016, ISBN 978-1-61248-185-2 .
- Emiliano Scampoli: Firenze, archeologia di una citta (secoli I aC – XIII) , Firenze University Press, Florence 2010.
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Niccolò Machiavelli: Istorie fiorentine. ( Wikisource ).
- ^ Niccolo Machiavelli : History of Florence. In: Herfried Münkler (ed.): Political writings. Translated by Johannes Ziegler. Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 1991, p. 318.
- ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on revocation. Exile in Italy 1933–1945. Volume 1. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-608-91487-0 , p. 88 ff.
- ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on revocation. Exile in Italy 1933–1945. Volume 1. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-608-91487-0 , p. 90
- ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on revocation. Exile in Italy 1933–1945. Volume 1. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-608-91487-0 , p. 420.
- ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on revocation. Exile in Italy 1933–1945. Volume 1. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-608-91487-0 , p. 134 f.
- ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on revocation. Exile in Italy 1933–1945. Volume 2. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1993, ISBN 3-608-91160-X , p. 345 ff.
- ↑ "A Man of Inestimable Courage" - Gerhard Wolf and Florence . Südwestrundfunk, manuscript of a broadcast on June 10, 2005