Gentrification

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Marina in St Katharine Docks , June 2004: symbol of the completed gentrification of London Docklands

As gentrification (of English gentry "Gentry"), even gentrification , in the jargon of the Yuppisierung (see yuppie ), is called the socio-economic structural change of metropolitan area by increasing the appeal in favor of paying more powerful owners and renters than before and their subsequent influx.

Linked to this is the exchange of entire population groups. The term, which is sometimes used as a political catchphrase, is important in urban research, but is still not clearly defined in theory. Among other things, it is interesting why and where it does not take place. Among other things, it is quite controversial whether rising house prices are the cause or effect of the exchange process. The first signs of gentrification can always be found before the price changes in the housing market. The differences in habitus , taste , social and cultural expressions and symbolically staged consumer habits of newcomers and the existing population in public spaces are also considered important.

Fundamentally different explanatory patterns of gentrification focus on changes in the social and spatial organization of work, as well as on the emergence of gentrifiers - others on the material production (or reproduction and renewal) of the built environment.

Among other things, gentrification counteracts the rural exodus seen in the 1950s and 1960s and the expansion of the suburbs and is an expression of the increased attractiveness of some inner-city areas since then, especially for new middle classes . It is particularly strong in cities in the 19th century (see. Founder time created) residential development in downtown locations. A central aspect of the more recent research includes consumer habits and changes in local trade beyond the housing market. The previous empirical studies had neglected commercial gentrification, the role of retail, boutiques and restaurants, compared to residential gentrification, the change in the resident population.

As a countermeasure, urban law in the sense of access to the city, the right to the city as living space, is also called for for groups who do not meet the relevant requirements (e.g. the new middle classes). The aim is also to counter gentrification processes and their excesses with planning specifications and regulation as well as with regional initiatives.

Origin and context of the term

The term gentrification , which can be traced back to 1888 , was adopted in 1964 by the British urban sociologist Ruth Glass . She used it for the phenomenon of the influx of middle-class families into the London borough of Islington, which was originally primarily inhabited by workers . This had significantly changed the social structure of the district.

Glass saw an analogy with events in the 18th century, when parts of the lower nobility ( gentry ) moved from the outskirts of the cities back to the centers.

"DIE YUPPIES" (German: Dying Yuppies ), graffito in Cambridge (Massachusetts)

The term and the appearance encompass diverse, multidimensional aspects of urban development and urban economics . They are often related to the metropolitanization and reurbanization of cities. Therefore, gentrification has been a central area of ​​conflict in urban geography and urban sociology for decades . According to sociologist Chris Hamnett, some of the common theories about gentrification cannot conclusively explain why a quarter is gentrified and the other not. According to Hamnett, it also remains in the dark why - from a global perspective - gentrification is essentially concentrated in a few large cities that were already important during the period of industrialization.

According to Jürgen Friedrichs, gentrification in the narrower sense is characterized by the exchange of a population with a lower status for a higher status . According to Andrej Holm , this includes significant changes in the neighborhood milieu and neighborly relations. It is about the socio-cultural and real estate economic changes in originally inexpensive city ​​districts , in which real estate is increasingly being occupied and structurally upgraded by wealthier owners and tenants. Residents with a lower social status are replaced or displaced. Most of the city districts of metropolitan areas close to the city center are affected by such processes. Areas are also affected in which industrial plants from the 19th century can be converted into loft apartments .

Use as a catchphrase

The sociologist Andrej Holm criticizes that the term is used in public disputes as an inflationary universal metaphor. According to the sociologist Hartmut Häußermann the term has become a "political [n] battle cry became" the will used without sound evidence.

Gerhard Hard classifies the term under the new urbanization discourse of the 1970s. The term is significantly exaggerated. The actual gentrification is often limited to just a few blocks of houses and symbolic places. Likewise, according to Hard, the housing supply in the vicinity of the core cities remains very low, with the main migration movements going to the surrounding areas. More important is the significance in a discussion on urban development led by a few eloquent trendsetters .

Research and explanatory approaches

Gentrification is subject of research in various disciplines, including the space research and urban planning , the geography , the urban research , the history of urban development and the urban morphology , the folklore , the sociology , the economics and the general cultural studies .

Research into the phenomenon began in North America. Well-known examples are SoHo or the Meatpacking District , the butcher district in Manhattan . Up until the 1980s and 1990s, there were districts here that were characterized by stressful trade. This is differentiated from the revaluation of formerly affluent and meanwhile impoverished quarters. In the USA, the process is faster and more serious than in the German-speaking countries, because there the property tax and property tax comparable to the real land values ​​and not according to low standard values ​​are calculated. The United States and the United Kingdom have a higher percentage of low-income homeowners. If gentrification is imminent, they can realize considerable speculative gains and buy another property elsewhere. Anglo-Saxon gentrification is more serious and faster due to the generally more liberal requirements in tax and tenancy law, a greater importance of real estate as an investment and asset class, and a more cautious role of the municipalities and the state in questions of social services and urban planning. In the USA, immigration or the exclusion of ethnic minorities is also important. At the same time, in a housing market characterized by owners and the private sector, gentrification takes place differently than in (e.g., Central European) cities with a higher rent share and a stronger role for municipalities in planning specifications and the housing industry.

A key explanation for the intensification of gentrification in the euro area since 2010 is seen in the fact that, as a result of the global financial crisis, the European Central Bank initiated a low interest rate policy , which has led to capital seeking investment increasingly flowing into the real estate sector since the yields to be achieved there are higher than in other asset classes, such as government bonds, stocks or savings accounts.

Pattern course

Mainzer Strasse in Berlin-Friedrichshain, which is characterized by alternative subculture, in June 1990
Mainzer Strasse after complete renovation in 2006

Gentrification processes follow typical patterns: Due to low rents and increasingly attractive locations, individual districts are becoming attractive for “pioneers” (students, artists, subculture ). These add value to the districts through cultural activities and initiate a process of segregation . Artists and restaurateurs are establishing themselves and bringing more interested parties to the districts. Students enter working life, earn more money than before and start families, which increases their need for living space; so gentrification does not always depend on the arrival of new residents. Investors see opportunities to increase in value, houses and apartments are being bought up and restored, scene clubs and bars are emerging. Rents are rising and the financially weak are moving away. The population structure and the character of the neighborhoods are changing. Gentrification goes hand in hand with a general process of segregation .

According to the theory of the “double” invasion - succession cycle, the students and artists are already the first “invaders”. They displace other social groups and create a new kind of social milieu that can be better valued (renovations) and thus that Creates the environment for the second "wave of invaders", the so-called "gentrifiers". The previous groups are being displaced more and more, and formerly marginal residential areas close to the city center are being upgraded (a process of reurbanization ). According to Chris Hammnett, gentrification not only affects the residents, but also has a very intense effect on the availability of apartments and rooms and their quality (“luxury renovation”).

Persistent political conflicts often arise from gentrification and its social consequences. The increase in value from the sale of residential property and moving away is offset by the interest in a growing social structure and atmosphere. In contrast, the geographer Neil Smith sees purely economic explanations for gentrification within the framework of the rent gap theory . This does not explain why there are different and temporally changing preferences and thus rental price differences for one or the other city district.

Gentrification by no means always takes place in and in every run-down inner city area. In the United States, for example, there is hardly any gentrification in Dallas, Phoenix and other cities in the south and west (e.g. Rust Belt) .Gentrification is particularly strong in cities such as Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington, which had a significant supply from the 19th Century have built residential buildings. The decisive factors are the existence and interest of gentrifiers who want to settle in such an area, and a certain actual minimum supply of apartments in the inner city area. The taste plays a central role in the corresponding upgrading processes. It is not so much the pure presence of gentrifiers, such as artists as the resident population, that drives the process of upgrading and thus displacement. Their taste for certain products, designs and dishes, which is very well received by the new middle class, leads to a cultural appropriation of the respective city quarters in the everyday cultural environment and associated processes of displacement. In the US discussion, gentrification processes are also associated with an increase in the subjective feeling of security (for the new middle classes). With the exception of Berlin-Neukölln, for example, this was less of an issue in Germany.

Architectural innovations

Loft buildings in Leipzig

In addition to the converted brownstone, Wilhelminian-style buildings made of sandstone, for example in Brooklyn, the architecture and lifestyle associated with the loft became the epitome of gentrification in English-speaking countries. The first loft residents were artists who lived and worked in the correspondingly spacious former industrial buildings, for example in the SoHo district of Manhattan, and presented their art as a person like themselves. The loft thus became both a studio, a gallery and a living area; as a factory , for Andy Warhol , for example, it also became a place of cooperation and art production en masse. The apartment aesthetics that originally emerged in existing buildings and within an artistic avant-garde, and the associated prestige, became both a model for new buildings and a status symbol. Later loft users took advantage of the loft's positive image to portray themselves as members of the creative class.

Role in social networks

Orthodox Jews on Stamford Hill in Hackney London

The pair of terms gentrification / white flight was already used in a figurative sense for the exodus of whites from social networks such as myspace and the move to Facebook , which was originally very elite and only used at certain universities . The topic was also present when activist Ani DiFranco invited to a Righteous Retreat (recovery of the upright) workshop in a former slave plantation in Iberville Parish in White Castle, Louisiana in 2013 . Facebook was considered safer, but - as far as black activists were concerned - more exclusive than MySpace. The conflicts between successful and excluded minorities in gentrification were compared with conflicts between the bourgeois women's movement and the emancipation of racial minorities. The ostensible efforts of the whites to clean up Twitter and make it safe would be at the expense of the minorities.

In fact, social networks like Twitter and Foursquare make it possible to predict gentrification processes. The poorest and richest areas in London are comparatively homogeneous - the likelihood of gentrification increases with a combination of high diversity and past economic decline. In the poor but highly diverse London Borough of Hackney , current (2016) behavior in social networks such as rising property prices and falling crime point to gentrification.

Spaces, motifs and actors

The process of gentrification is embedded in a highly complex framework, the far-reaching relationships of which have not yet been comprehensively researched and therefore cannot be fully explained. This includes the question of the historical context in which gentrification took place in earlier societies.

The symbolism and aesthetics of a location seem to play a significant role in a gentrification process. Their typical structural structures, in some cases significant interior fittings and signs of use, are deliberately kept legible when they are re-stamped, so that they form a meaningful contrast to the new users and uses. It is not uncommon for the interiors of gentrified places to be deliberately designed in a prestigious , anachronistic or non-conformist way with historical, rural or punk furniture and objects . In the form of the architectural quotation, the new architecture at gentrification locations often refers to historical styles, construction methods and forms. In this respect, the process of gentrification in the consumer sociological and socio-psychological context of fashion , prestige , status symbols or a staged counter-culture to the modern, rationalized and mechanized and mentally stressful working life are set (see. Nostalgia , retro wave , cocooning ).

The striving for authenticity and diversity , with which one sets oneself apart from the suburban settlements that are perceived as anonymous, has meanwhile become self-exclusive in the inner city districts affected. While authenticity used to be associated with people, it is now an attribute of things - such as food and drink - and consumable experiences and spaces of experience. Authenticity and diversity thus become a lever of cultural power with which spaces are claimed and taken over without having to enter into a direct confrontation. Here, for example, kebab shops, which are increasingly acting as modern, entrepreneurial McDonaldized in the sense of system catering , were assigned to the lower class - in fact, like hamburger branches themselves, more of a focal point for young people with a migration background.

Interpretation about post-industrialization

The background for gentrification today is the emergence of a post-industrial society and globalization . In this context, some new types of business, service, control and innovation competencies are concentrated in the centers of global cities , metropolises , metropolitan regions and megalopolises of highly developed nations. The concentration gives rise to so-called contact and agglomeration advantages . Qualified and well-paid employees make use of the competencies that arise in such central locations , above all members of the knowledge and information society and the so-called creative class . Their lifestyle and consumer behavior, especially their choice of place of residence, is a decisive factor for reurbanization and the development of gentrified urban structures. Other social framework conditions influence the speed, intensity and direction of gentrification.

The causes of gentrification lie in particular in the lifestyle and in the needs of individual groups in post-industrial society, which have changed through individualization and new working environments.

What is striking is the frequent use of trendy drinks as gentrification indicators , such as Bionade or Galao and Latte macchiato , and the Baden Tannenzäpfle has been identified as beer for gentrification .

An increase in the multilocal way of life is also observed , which leads to a specific demand for housing in inner cities and the outskirts of the city. In this context, it is also established that the project developers, as part of a “ commodification of the social”, are not only looking at individual properties, but also entire residential areas as “lifestyle products” and developing them in order to provide customers with an urban lifestyle - for example to offer the “ Bobos ” and “ LOHAS ” - as “hip neighborhoods”, as “urban villages”, as “quarters” or as “living spaces”. In any case, these changes are noticeable on the real estate market , especially the housing market, through the demand for corresponding rental and property properties in mostly central locations, which are characterized by old buildings, urban density and mixed use.

Growth processes and infrastructure

Quartis Les Halles residential project in the new Derendorf districts , Düsseldorf: re- urbanization through condominiums on a former urban wasteland

The better accessibility of a location through new means of transport, the upgrading of a location by reducing environmental pollution, the creation of recreational areas and changes in economic value creation (e.g. higher value creation through research institutions , start-up companies) play a role in the development of gentrification . Companies , internet companies etc.).

Environmental policy and trends towards deindustrialization provide important backgrounds for these urban development processes . For example, a new subway line, the elimination of burdensome facilities and structures (e.g. inner-city power stations, slaughterhouses, market halls and freight stations) and the abandonment of port, industrial and commercial areas (e.g. Docklands ) can be affected Substantially relieve and upgrade city districts so that they become attractive for new population groups. Often such commercial and industrial old locations are included in a large-scale restructuring, which means that the local population is gradually replaced by an economically more efficient clientele, who demand, rent, buy, convert, for these locations with steadily rising prices arranges and transforms their needs. Compared to established, conventional residential areas, considerable price advantages can be achieved, especially at the beginning, because the general rule is: the earlier you invest in an upgrade process, the higher the investor's return.

Another motive for segregation in gentrified city districts arises in connection with the parents' choice of school for their children. Many parents prefer schools in gentrified districts.

For many interested parties, the widening and deepening range of leisure, gastronomic, medical and household services, e.g. B. for household cleaning and raising children. In addition to the shorter distance to workplaces in central business and office districts, a centrally located apartment offers the advantage of high mobility through public and multimodal transport. This fact can be used to abolish or reduce the cost of private transport. Centrally located apartments in districts with a good infrastructure are often purchased for reasons of age-appropriate housing and location as well as with the idea of ​​securing old-age provision .

Subcultures as gentrifiers

Due to their specific mobility, their often limited financial possibilities, their acceptance or preference for urban, disadvantaged and unusual places, their creativity , a feeling for trends and a more pronounced need for innovative self-stylization , artists, students, homosexuals, adolescents and young adults ( " Hipster ” ) are often important harbingers and pioneers of gentrification. They “discover”, use and shape the potential gentrification locations at a low price level in the sense of a hip location of youth culture , as a place of the bohemian or the alternative scene . This makes these spaces attractive for other, higher-income groups as residential, leisure and commercial locations. As a result of the then mostly increasing demand from financially strong individuals and economic companies, the locations finally become interesting for the profit-oriented real estate industry. The allocation of resources and the sale of goods that represent centrally located, high-quality apartments, or the services that can be provided in this economic context, is a profitable business area for them. Investors, project developers , old and new owners as well as brokers then develop numerous activities for the acquisition, upgrading and marketing of the locations, advised by lawyers, planners, specialist engineers, banks and marketing specialists. They are often supported in this by the political leadership and planning administrations of a city. This socio-economic correlation is particularly evident in the metropolises of western countries. In some cases, however, for example in Russia, gentrification gets by with almost no artists, homosexuals and young people as the symbolic gentrifiers , who often themselves belong to the low income groups.

Role of the gay scene

Homosexual men are counted among the gentrifiers because of their assigned lifestyle and their place of residence . Manuel Castells has examined their role as actors and pioneers of gentrification using examples from large US cities, especially San Francisco . The 2006 feature film Quinceañera depicts a similar situation in Los Angeles. The US documentary Flag Wars (2003, by Linda Goode Bryant) shows various tensions between an urban black community and wealthy LGBT newcomers in Columbus, Ohio. The conflicts over gentrification lead to accusations of racism on the one hand and accusations of homophobia on the other. An actual incident became known in Washington, DC, where in 2006 a black Christian community in the traditional, black district of Shaw contested the licensing of a gay bar planned in the vicinity of a church.

In Berlin, the Schöneberg district is regarded as the preferred quarter of the gay scene and the gentrification that it promotes, and as the crime scene of homophobic attacks. Schöneberg to the west of Bundesstrasse 1 ( Potsdamer Strasse / Hauptstrasse ) is now considered a gentrified city district, to the east of it it is known as an immigrant and problematic area.

A book published in September 2011 by Koray Yılmaz-Günay, employee of the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation and board member of the integration advisory board of the city of Berlin, attempts to prove a politically instrumentalized interplay of gentrification and anti-Muslim racism: According to this, members of the gay movement “bought their social acceptance” “That they had adopted anti-Muslim resentment and that the two communities would play off against each other. A similar process of gradual recognition of the originally excluded minorities into civil society and the appreciation of the environment as the neighborhood was, among others, Noel Ignatiev on the example of the Irish immigrants in the United States under the (quite controversial) book title How the Irish know were described .

Immigrant Districts and Chinatowns

The American sociologist Min Zhou distinguishes Chinatowns from other classic “immigrant districts”. Chinatowns are stable for longer and, via a transition station, offer opportunities for different groups and classes, they are to be viewed as separate economic zones. The successful gentrification in the sense of establishing itself as a tourist attraction such as the coming and permanent settlement of people and activities with an Asian connection outside of China is seen as a positive sign.

Historical and current examples

Street in Paris on a rainy day - Gustave Caillebotte's paintingdepicts the " Haussmannized " Paris of the 1870s with the urban redevelopment and the changed population structure.
The Brooklyn Heights boardwalk with the view of Manhattan
Today's trendy Aker Brygge district in Oslo

Since the 1970s, the 14th and 15th arrondissements in Paris have been transformed from working-class to bourgeois residential quarters, and the renovation of the old buildings in the Marais has also been upgraded . In recent decades, the areas around Place de la Bastille , Rue Oberkampf , Canal Saint-Martin , large parts of the 11th and 12th arrondissements  - around Avenue Philippe-Auguste  - and the Quartier des Batignolles of Gentrification affected. This can currently be observed in the Belleville district in the 20th arrondissement .

In Switzerland , gentrification is observed or discussed in the Zurich districts of Seefeld and Aussersihl as well as in Bern in Länggasse and Lorraine . In Switzerland, the term Seefeldization has become a synonym for gentrification.

In Vienna , for example, gentrification processes of a milder nature are currently taking place in the Karmeliterviertel of Leopoldstadt and in the Ottakringer Brunnenmarktviertel . The beginning of gentrification can be observed in places like Wallensteinplatz or Universumstraße in Brigittenau . The process has already been completed at Spittelberg .

Germany's largest housing group Vonovia, which is also expanding in France, was accused of promoting gentrification in Germany by concealing maintenance work, which was illegally passed on to landlords as modernizations.

In Düsseldorf , the former working-class districts of Flingern and Unterbilk in particular are subject to the effects of gentrification.

The working-class city of Cambridge in the USA is in the immediate vicinity of the elite universities Harvard and MIT. The ancestral residents are mainly Irish-American and stand out from the clientele of the universities. Individual local demands, as in the case of the populist Louise Day Hicks, to abolish so-called busing are criticized as racist . In contrast to many other districts, the ancestral population is able to assert itself against the researchers who are often only temporarily present due to temporary contracts and to counteract a complete exchange of residents. The densely populated and still multicultural Cambridge is one of the left-most cities in the USA and has therefore been derisively referred to as the “ People's Republic of Cambridge”.

In San Francisco , bus operators offer a shuttle service for 9,000 to 14,000 employees of technology companies on working days who prefer the metropolis to the towns of Silicon Valley as a residential location - also because rental and property prices in Silicon Valley have exploded and are unaffordable for the middle class became. This preference of residence and the multi-local lifestyle of many employees of foreign companies had or have resulted in housing prices in San Francisco "exploding" and continuing to rise significantly. The rent increase in 2013 was 12.3 percent. A one-bedroom apartment in the popular Mission District costs around $ 3,200 a month. The number of evictions rose by around 170 percent between 2010 and 2013. Owners and landlords can rely on the Ellis Act , a 1986 California legal basis for evictions in the event of a business cessation. Protesting activists felt compelled to throw stones at commuter buses as an expression of “tech gentrification” and to confront Google Inc. with the development. Hipsters and yuppies were threatened with killing with graffiti .

In Belgium , gentrification tendencies can be found in the Brussels district of Marolles ; regionally one speaks of the so-called sablonization .

In Oslo , today one of the most expensive cities in Europe, the former working-class neighborhoods Rodeløkka , Kampen and Grünerløkka are among those affected by gentrification . Aker Brygge , a former industrial bank , has become the city's most expensive location. One speaks of the omens of "newly rich Norway".

In general, symbolic aspects of urban design and urban space are important for the gentrification process. Nevertheless, the role of private investment strategies must not be overlooked. The question is whether gentrification really follows the changing residential preferences of subcultural residents, who are attracted by cheap neighborhoods in need of renovation, or whether the investment in a not too expensive old building fabric with a subsequent population exchange with lower status by higher status residents results in the highest returns. The latter can be assumed for many cities.

From around 2000, a gentrification process began in many old towns in Central and Eastern European capitals. In the countries concerned, socio-spatial segregation hardly appeared to be a problem until 1990; Up until this point in time, the apartment allocation was not primarily based on assets and income, and the old buildings were often worn out and not particularly sought after. This has changed radically with the emergence of a private housing market: social differences are now projected into the spatial structure of cities.

Concept of symbolic gentrification based on the development in Berlin

New gastronomy and (suggested sub-) culture as a sign of gentrification in Prenzlauer Berg, Berlin

The magazine Der Spiegel reported as early as 1981 about an increasing wave of "luxury modernizations" in old building districts of major German cities (Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Cologne and Stuttgart) . In Berlin , Kreuzberg was an object of until 1989 and after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Friedrichshain and Prenzlauer Berg Gentrification processes. The folklorist Barbara Lang speaks of a myth of Kreuzberg that has little to do with reality. In this context, gentrification is a downright violent transformation of an ancestral milieu that is supposedly planned and caused from outside. According to Lang, the contrast between yuppies and alternatives is constructed. On the one hand, consumers and residents are mostly the same, consumption habits and cultural demands have changed. The actual measurable signs of gentrification in Kreuzberg are lower than in other cities. If the traditional Kreuzberg alternative scene were to go out of fashion, this was due to the disinterest of Generation X in such monolithic lifestyles. The long term of a merely “symbolic gentrification” (i.e. not real shifting) is considered an important extension of the term and was transferred to the neighboring Friedrichshain. The area northeast of Hermannplatz ( Reuterkiez / Kreuzkölln ) in Neukölln is one of the trendy districts of Berlin and is affected by symbolic gentrification.

After 1989, the Prenzlauer Berg district, part of the Pankow district, became the scene of gentrification. The neologism Bionade-Biedermeier introduced in 2007 for this purpose became a popular catchphrase beyond Berlin. The associated new bourgeois lifestyles of the older alternatives served not only as self-assurance, but also for cultural demarcation and distinction. According to mockers, it was not the proletariat but the bohemians who turned out to be the victorious class. The term bobo - bourgeois bohème is used worldwide for the phenomenon. In 2007, the scandal of a planned McDonalds branch in Kreuzberg's Wrangelviertel was caricatured in Berlin under the motto " Frittenskandal im Falafelkiez". According to taz, the US chain was disturbed by an authenticity bubble in which the bourgeois, white middle class in the traditional alternative district had established itself. Academic middle-class tastes tended to stick to the falafel, which appeared aesthetic, folkloric and authentic, the fast food branch became a focal point for young migrants, among others.

Supergentrification

Düsseldorf-Oberkassel : City district with tendencies towards supergentrification

If international investors buy real estate in already gentrified quarters of global cities at an extremely high price level, this is referred to as “supergentrification” or “hyper gentrification”. Loretta Lees from King's College London speaks of a process of "supergentrification" by investment bankers and other extremely wealthy international professionals in view of the City of London . In the Barnsbury district of Islington , where Tony Blair and his family lived before he was elected in 1997, prices for smaller detached houses with gardens were around £ 700,000 and more. Comparable properties in neighboring neighborhoods were mostly £ 100,000 or £ 200,000 less in 2006. The typical newcomers to Barnsbury have an Oxbridge University education. They are wealthy, but unlike the classic super-rich, they depend on a regular income and earn £ 150,000 and more annually, especially in the neighboring City of London.

In the United States, Brooklyn Heights in New York is considered super-gentrified. In Germany, the Düsseldorf-Oberkassel location shows a tendency towards supergentrification. Prices for single-family houses - driven by international demand - averaged 1.4 million euros in 2010 with annual price increases of more than 20 percent.

Conflict resolution strategies

Schwabinger 7 before the move in 2011

Historical and technical processes of upheaval (see the fall of the Berlin Wall or industrialization and de-industrialization ) cannot be prevented. Therefore, the upgrading of impoverished or long-neglected districts is usually advocated in order to avoid urban decay .

Moderated urban development in Munich

The Munich district of Schwabing was already in the 19th century by investing at University and Art Academy significantly enhanced after the former Munich area community initially in a poor suburb, and finally after the incorporation in a fashionable quarter of the previous Art Nouveau and in a preferred artist residential area Wahnmoching was converted . This gentrification, which cannot be separated from urbanization, was accompanied and processed in a large number of literary documents. However, there were considerable conflicts in the 20th century.

The real street battles in the context of the Schwabing riots of 1962 were mainly caused by cultural issues, such as the question of disturbance of the peace by street musicians. In Munich, long before the 1968 riots, a start was made to accompany and moderate urban development in cooperation with the residents. In addition, the procedures of the law enforcement officers were adapted through the use of psychologists, modern technology and new police deployment strategies. The instrument of the conservation statute is still in use in Munich in 2010 in the area of Lehels and Maxvorstadt , among other things, through a right of first refusal for the city to restrict the luxury renovation and division of residential properties into expensive individual apartments. The Schwabinger 7 , characterized by the Mayor of Munich Christian Ude as a drinking bar in a former post-war building barracks , was demolished as a classic representative of rancid , unstyled gentrified Munich for a luxury housing project and re -established in the neighborhood using spoils from the traditional furnishings.

Bologna Charter

Canale delle Moline in Bologna

As early as 1974, when the long-neglected old town quarters in Bologna were renewed, a renovation program was set up, which was recognized, among other things, in a resolution of the Council of Europe and recommended for other quarters. In Bologna, residents were offered alternative quarters during the renovation. The city gave financial support to the renovation of the historical substance in accordance with the requirements of the listed building, while the owners were obliged to pay moderate rents and rent increases. Some buildings were re-used, which took into account the socio-cultural needs and wishes of the existing population.

Strengthening the social city

Peter Marcuse recommended targeted social housing that could be financed through urban development contracts between the planning municipalities and private investors or through appropriate state subsidies from tax revenues. Urban researcher Hartmut Häußermann also advised social housing. The individual residential projects for social urban renewal should be implemented in small units in all parts of the city, similar to a type of urban acupuncture .

In the US, Sharon Zukin stood out from Jane Jacobs in some respects . Jacobs had described and criticized many aspects of gentrification in the life and death of large American cities . Zukin emphasizes an important role for state and local regulation and planning measures, while Jacobs, in Zukin's view, was more communitarian and emphasized the role of local communities. At Jacobs, too, Zukin lacked the commitment to more space planning in order to be able to achieve a lively urban mix in the residential population as well as in trade and industry.

literature

  • Katharina Bröcker: Metropolises in Transition. Gentrification in Berlin and Paris. Büchner, Darmstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-941310-31-5 .
  • Jürgen Friedrichs , Robert Kecskes (Ed.): Gentrification. Theory and research results. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 1996, ISBN 3-8100-1662-4 , pp. 11-15.
  • Maren Harnack : Return of the living machines: social housing and gentrification in London , transcript, Bielefeld 2012, ISBN 978-3-8376-1921-8 .
  • Ilse Helbrecht (Ed.): Gentrification in Berlin. Displacement processes and strategies to stay. Bielefeld, 2016, transcript.
  • Andrej Holm : The restructuring of the space. Urban renewal in the 1990s in East Berlin. Interests and balance of power . transcript, Bielefeld 2006, ISBN 3-89942-521-9 .
  • Andrej Holm: We all stay! Gentrification - Urban conflicts about upgrading and displacement . Unrast, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-89771-106-8 .
  • Florian J. Huber: Neighborhoods in the process of gentrification. Appreciation and displacement in Vienna, Chicago and Mexico City . Wiener Verlag für Sozialforschung, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-944690-10-0 .
  • Tanja Marquardt : Käthe's new clothes. Gentrification at Berlin's Kollwitzplatz from a lifeworld perspective . TVV Verlag, Tübingen 2006 (investigations by the Ludwig-Uhland-Institute of the University of Tübingen), ISBN 978-3-932512-42-1 .
  • Katja Schmitt: A neighborhood in transition. Gentrification and conflicts of use at Helmholtzplatz . SBV Schkeuditzer Buchverlag, Schkeuditz 2005, ISBN 3-935530-46-3 .
  • Jan Üblacker: Gentrification Research in Germany. A systematic research synthesis of the empirical findings on the upgrading of residential areas. Budrich UniPress, Opladen 2018, ISBN 978-3-86388-783-4 .

Web links

Commons : Gentrification  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Gentrification  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Sharon Zukin: CONSUMING AUTHENTICITY . In: Cultural Studies . tape 22 , no. 5 , September 1, 2008, p. 724-748 , doi : 10.1080 / 09502380802245985 ( ingentaconnect.com [accessed December 30, 2016]).
  2. ↑ a b c d Chris Hamnett: The blind men and the elephant: the explanation of gentrification. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 1991, v. 16, pp. 173–189., (French text see Chris Hamnett: Les aveugles et l'éléphant: l'explication de la gentrification. In: Strates. No. 9, 1996–97, Crises et mutations des territoires)
  3. ↑ Miriam Stock: The Taste of Gentrification: Arabian Snacks in Berlin . transcript Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8394-2521-3 ( google.de [accessed December 30, 2016]).
  4. ↑ Chris Hamnett: Les aveugles et l'éléphant: l'explication de la gentrification , quote from section 89: D'une certaine façon, le conflit a porté sur deux interprétations de la production - la première portant sur les changements dans la division sociale et spatiale du travail et sur la production des gentrifieurs, et la seconde prenant en compte la production de l'environnement bâti.
  5. ↑ Chris Hamnett: Les aveugles et l'éléphant: l'explication de la gentrification , quote from Section 85: Sans l'existence d'un groupe de gentrifieurs potentiels et une offre de prêts d'accession à la propriété, la gentrification ne se produira pas, aussi élevé le différentiel de loyer et also grand le désir des promoteurs de la créer soient-ils.
  6. ↑ a b c "Falafel is poor people's food" FALAFEL Yes, fried cherry pea balls are also an indicator of gentrification. The Berlin cultural geographer Miriam Stock has researched the process leading to mango sauce ( memento of the original from December 30, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. t, Anne Haeming, in taz on the weekend, 18./19. January 2014 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.annehaeming.de
  7. ↑ Miriam Stock, The Taste of Gentrification, p. 13, with reference to Sharon Zukin 2009
  8. ^ Sharon Zukin, Naked City: The Death and Life of Authentic Urban Places. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. p. 244, with reference to Henri Lefebvre and David Harvey
  9. ↑ a b Sharon Zukin in Big Think Interview with Sharon Zukin. Big Think. February 22, 2010 .
  10. ↑ Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society: Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary & Philosophical Society , 1888.
  11. ^ Rowland Atkinson, Gary Bridge: Gentrification in a Global Context . Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-32951-5 .
  12. ^ Ruth Glass: London: aspects of change . London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1964.
  13. ↑ What is gentrification? In: NDR-Info. May 3, 2012, Retrieved May 3, 2012 .
  14. ^ Andrej Holm: An eco-social paradox - urban redevelopment and gentrification. In: Geography blog RaGeo March 20, 2011, accessed June 25, 2011.
  15. ↑ Werner Kurzlechner: Kollwitzplatz: Precarious Paradise. In: Der Tagesspiegel , April 29, 2009, accessed on June 23, 2011.
  16. ↑ a b Gerhard Hard: Dimensions of geographical thinking. In: Osnabrück Studies on Geography. V&R unipress, 2003, ISBN 3-89971-105-X . (Volume 2 of the essays on the theory of geography)
  17. ↑ a b Oddrun Sæter, Marit Ekne Ruud: Byen som symbolsk rom. Byppolitikk, stedsdiskurser og gentrifisering i Gamle Oslo. Universitetet i Oslo / Byggforsk forlag, Oslo 2005. (The city as a symbolic space. Urban politics, urban discourse and gentrification in the old town of Oslo, published by Stadtforschung, Schriften der Universität Oslo)
  18. ^ A b Nicole Gatz: Current Segregation Processes in Berlin: A Qualitative Case Study on Prenzlauer Berg. GRIN Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-640-63840-6 . (Academic series)
  19. ↑ Inga Jensen, Sebastian Schipper: Beyond Swabian Spätzle Manufactories and Kiezige Pubs - Political-Economic Perspectives on Gentrification . In: PROKLA . Verlag Westfälisches Dampfboot, issue 191, 48th year 2018, No. 2, 317-324, here p. 320 f.
  20. ↑ Summarized representation in: Michael Windzio: Lecture: Empirical Urban Sociology WS 06/07 ( Memento of the original from November 16, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 2.4 MB), working paper of November 27, 2006, accessed on July 3, 2011. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.barkhof.uni-bremen.de
  21. ↑ E. Penalver: Country Virtues. In: Cornell Law Review. Ithaca NY 94.2009, ISSN  0010-8847 , pp. 821, 842.
  22. ^ Neil Smith: Toward a Theory of Gentrification A Back to the City Movement by Capital, not People. In: Journal of the American Planning Association. 45: 4, 1979, pp. 538-448. doi: 10.1080 / 01944367908977002
  23. ↑ Miriam Stock, The Taste of Gentrification. See, inter alia, title and introduction such as pp. 101, 120, 261 and 281
  24. ↑ Emerging Histories of Gentrification: The Brownstone, the Loft, and "Gentrification" ', lecture event at Princeton University. Speakers include Suleiman Osman, author of "The Invention of Brownstone Brooklyn: Gentrification and the Search for Authenticity in Postwar New York" (Oxford, 2011), Andrew Sandoval-Strausz, author of “Latino Landscapes: Postwar Cities and the Transnational Origins of a New Urban America ”(Journal of American History, December 2014), Aaron Shkuda, author of“ The Lofts of SoHo: Gentrification, Art, and Industry in New York, 1950–1980 (UChicago Press 2016). In: history.princeton .edu. Accessed December 31, 2016 .
  25. ↑ Loft Living | Callwey architecture books. In: www.callwey.de. Accessed December 31, 2016 .
  26. ↑ Loretta Lees, Tom Slater, Elvin Wyly: Gentrification . Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-1-135-93025-7 , pp. 120 ( google.de [accessed December 31, 2016]).
  27. ↑ a b Janell Hobson: Are All the Women Still White ?: Rethinking Race, Expanding Feminisms . SUNY Press, 2016, ISBN 978-1-4384-6059-8 , pp. 216 ( google.de [accessed on January 1, 2017]).
  28. ^ Feminism's Toxic Twitter Wars . In: The Nation . ISSN  0027-8378 ( thenation.com [accessed on January 1, 2017]).
  29. ↑ Mallika Rao: Ani DiFranco Is 'Remarkably Unapologetic' About Slave Plantation Retreat . In: The Huffington Post , Huffingtonpost.com, December 30, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2014. 
  30. ↑ Philip Bump: Ani DiFranco Canceled Her 'Righteous Retreat' to a Former Slave Plantation , The Wire. December 29, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2014. 
  31. ^ How Twitter and Foursquare can predict the next up-and-coming area . In: The Independent . April 15, 2016 ( independent.co.uk [accessed January 1, 2017]).
  32. ↑ Zukin. Naked City. 2-3.
  33. ↑ Zukin, Naked City , 246.
  34. ↑ Emily Badger: College graduates are sorting themselves in elite cities . Article dated July 12, 2014 in the clintonherald.com portal , accessed on July 19, 2014
  35. ↑ Richard Deiss: Hibbdebach to Dribbdebach: 222 district names and clichés from Applebeach to Zigzaghausen . BoD - Books on Demand, 2013, ISBN 978-3-7322-1235-4 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  36. ↑ Marc Reichwein: G as in gentrification DO YOU SPEAK FEUILLETON? In: The world . 2011, accessed September 27, 2015 .
  37. ↑ Robert Kaltenbrunner, Robert Schnur: Living quarters as a lifestyle product: Building a home . Article from April 25, 2014 in the nzz.ch portal , accessed on May 3, 2014
  38. ↑ cf. Christoph Keese, Silicon Valley (2014), p. 76ff.
  39. ↑ J. Feddersen and P. Unfried: Gentrification harmful to children - “Prenzlauer Berg is apartheid” , article from November 12, 2011 in the online portal taz.de , accessed on November 13, 2011
  40. ↑ Karin Wiest, André Hill: Gentle gentrification, studentization and islands of ethnic concentration in East German inner-city outskirts? Spatial research and spatial planning (RuR), Heft 6, 2007, p. 361 f. ( doi: 10.1007 / BF03184400 )
  41. ↑ Lilo Schmitz, Alexander Flohé: Universities promote gentrification: Help, the universities are coming! Article from January 30, 2014 in the portal taz.de , accessed on January 31, 2014.
  42. ^ A b M. Castells: Cultural identity, sexual liberation and urban structure: the gay community in San Francisco. In: M. Castells: The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements. Edward Arnold, London 1983, pp. 138-170.
  43. ↑ Cordula Gdaniec: Kommunalka and Penthouse: city and urban society in post-Soviet Moscow. LIT Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-8258-6968-7 .
  44. ↑ Flagwars
  45. ↑ In Shaw, Pews vs. Bar stools. In: The Washington Post. Retrieved February 17, 2014 .
  46. ↑ taz , June 7, 2012, accessed on August 5, 2012.
  47. ↑ Is war or what? Queer Nation Building in Berlin-Schöneberg. In: Koray Yılmaz-Günay (Ed.): Career of a Constructed Opposite: Ten Years of “Muslims versus Gays” - Sexual Politics since September 11, 2001. Berlin 2011, pp. 15–24.
  48. ^ Noel Ignatiev: How the Irish Became White. 1995, ISBN 0-415-91384-5 .
  49. ^ Min Zhou: Chinatown: The Socioeconomic Potential of an Urban Enclave Conflicts. In: Urban & Regional. Temple University Press, Philadelphia 1995, ISBN 1-56639-337-X .
  50. ↑ The "yuppization" of the Seefeld. In: tagesanzeiger.ch.
  51. ^ Much sympathy for Langstrasse. In: stadt-wohnen.ch.
  52. ^ Socio-spatial urban development in Bern
  53. ↑ Seefeld is everywhere: How Zurich is becoming more and more “enough”. In: watson.ch
  54. ↑ This is how the Seefeldization works. In: tagesanzeiger.ch
  55. ↑ The Swiss word of the year. In: tagesanzeiger.ch
  56. ↑ Lower city nobility. ( Memento of the original from January 3, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Wiener Stadtzeitung Falter . August 13, 2008, accessed August 27, 2010. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.falter.at
  57. ^ Frankfurter Rundschau: Gallus: A playground as a protest . In: Frankfurter Rundschau . ( fr.de [accessed on March 6, 2018]).
  58. ↑ Martin Teigeler: Gentrification in Big Cities: From Malocherviertel to Top-Lage , article from July 24, 2013 in the portal www1.wdr.de , accessed on August 3, 2013.
  59. ↑ Thorsten Breitkopf: Unterbilk: youthful and ambitious . Article from April 7, 2013 in the portal rp-online.de , accessed on December 27, 2013.
  60. ↑ definition
  61. ↑ Study on the political orientation of cities in the USA. ( Memento of the original from September 5, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.govpro.com
  62. ^ Wicked Good Guide to Boston English.
  63. ↑ Christoph Keese, Silicon Valley (2014), p. 76.
  64. ↑ Blanca Torres: Home prices shoot up 59 percent in San Francisco's Bayview in two years . Article of July 10, 2014 in the portal bizjournals.com , accessed on July 19, 2014
  65. ↑ Kathrin Klette: Rising costs: San Francisco's long-time residents are fighting against gentrification . Article from March 12, 2014 in the nzz.ch portal , accessed on July 19, 2014
  66. ↑ See also article Ellis Act in the English language Wikipedia
  67. ^ Beate Wild: Tech gentrification in San Francisco: Dotcom decadence . Article from July 18, 2014 in the portal tagesspiegel.de , accessed on July 19, 2014
  68. ↑ Jan Johannsen: Zoff at Google I / O: Gentrification and killer robots ( Memento of the original from August 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Article from June 26, 2014 in the curved.de portal , accessed on July 19, 2014 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / curved.de
  69. ↑ John Sasaki: Graffiti message threatens hipsters, yuppies in San Francisco's Mission ( Memento of the original from July 22, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Article from July 18, 2014 in the portal ktvu.com , accessed on July 19, 2014 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ktvu.com
  70. ↑ PVDA : "Un nouveau cœur pour Bruxelles" ( Memento of the original from July 15, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , dated December 29, 2014, accessed on July 17, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / bruxelles.ptb.be
  71. ^ Tone Huse: Tøyengata - et stykke nyrikt Norge. (The Tøyengata, a piece of nouveau riche Norway), Flamme Forlag, Oslo 2010.
  72. ↑ Return calculation for renovated old Berlin building ( Memento from July 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive ); Accessed June 26, 2013.
  73. ↑ D. Krupickaite, H. Standl: gentrification in the old town of Vilnius, Lithuania. In: Europe Regional. 12 (1), 2004, pp. 42-51.
  74. ↑ We stay . Article from April 20, 1981 ( Der Spiegel , No. 17/1981), accessed on the spiegel.de portal on August 14, 2015
  75. ↑ The fine old building districts are there for everyone! . In: The world . June 4, 2012. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
  76. ^ A b c Barbara Lang: Myth of Kreuzberg: Ethnography of a district (1961-1995). Campus Verlag, 1998, ISBN 3-593-36106-X .
  77. ↑ Péter Niedermüller: Seeing social hot spots? In: Berliner Blätter. Edition 32, LIT Verlag, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-8258-6996-2 .
  78. ↑ Nord-Neukölln - Suspected of gentrification . Berlin tenants' association. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
  79. ^ Henning Sussebach: Bionade-Biedermeier. In: Zeit Online. November 7, 2007, accessed September 26, 2015 .
  80. ^ Yvonne Franz: Gentrification in Neighborhood Development: Case Studies from New York City, Berlin and Vienna . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015, ISBN 978-3-8470-0400-4 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  81. ^ Manfred Schrenk, Peterzeile, Vasily V. Popovich, Pietro Elisei: CORP 2012 - Proceedings / conference proceedings . Lulu.com, 2012, ISBN 978-3-9503110-3-7 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  82. ↑ Karin Kaudelka, Gerhard Kilger: Responsible and efficient: The independent individual in the changing world of work . transcript Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-2588-6 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  83. ↑ Waterstradt Désirée: Process-Sociology of Parenthood: Nation-Building, Figurational Ideals and Generative Power Architecture in Germany . MV-Verlag, 2015, ISBN 978-3-95645-530-8 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  84. ↑ Dirk Maxeiner, Michael Miersch: Everything green and good ?: A balance sheet of ecological thinking . Albrecht Knaus Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-641-14310-7 ( google.com [accessed September 27, 2015]).
  85. ↑ David Brooks: Bobos In Paradise - The New Upper Class And How They Got There , Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-85378-7 (Ger. The Bobos. The lifestyle of the new elite , Ullstein, Munich 2001, ISBN 3- 550-07150-7 )
  86. ↑ The Taste of Gentrification: Arabian Snacks in Berlin by Miriam Stock, p. 7
  87. ↑ Noel Castree, Rob Kitchin, Alisdair Rogers: Dictionary of Human Geography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-959986-8 , p. 177 ( online )
  88. ↑ Loretta Lees: Super-gentrification: The Case of Brooklyn Heights, New York City.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Urban Studies. Vol. 40, No. 12, pp. 2487–2509, November 2003, website accessed June 23, 2011.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / wwwcache1.kcl.ac.uk  
  89. ↑ Message in the Portal Gentrification Blog from November 27, 2009 , accessed on August 7, 2011.
  90. ^ Living in London: Attack on the Center , article from November 26, 2009 in the online portal of the Frankfurter Rundschau , accessed on August 7, 2011.
  91. ^ Lewis Smith: There's plain gentrification ... and then you have Islington. In: The Times . September 1, 2006.
  92. ↑ Corpus Sireo Broker: City Report Wohnen 2011. ( Memento of the original from August 13, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Düsseldorf 2011, and Jo Achim Geschke: Scarce living space is driving up prices in Düsseldorf. In: The West. June 22, 2011. Retrieved June 24, 2011. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.heuer-dialog.de
  93. ↑ Michael Sturm: Authorities gone wild? In: Gerhard Fürmetz (Ed.): Schwabinger riots. Essen 2006, pp. 59-105.
  94. ^ Right of first refusal and conservation statutes in the state capital Munich.
  95. ^ End of a cult pub Servus, rancid Munich SZ June 29, 2011 by Christopher Haarhaus
  96. ↑ 1974 Council of Europe Symposium No. 2 - Final Resolution: The Social Aspects of the Preservation of Historic Town Centers. (PDF; 62 kB) Council of Europe (Bologna, October 22-26, 1974)
  97. ↑ Florian Urban: The right to four walls , interview with Peter Marcuse in the Süddeutsche Zeitung from July 11, 2006, Peter Marcuse's homepage, accessed on June 30, 2011.
  98. ↑ "The citizens are an important corrective" - Interview by Kristina Pezzei with Hartmut Häußermann on April 6, 2009 , accessed on the taz.de portal on March 28, 2012.
  99. ↑ a b Sharon Zukin. Jane Jacobs . October 26, 2011. The Architectural Review.
  100. ↑ Sharon Zukin. Naked City . 25th