List of abundances of chemical elements

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Water is a combination of the most common element in the universe (hydrogen) and the most common element on earth (oxygen)

The list of abundances of chemical elements indicates the relative abundance of the individual chemical elements in different systems - such as the entire universe, the earth or the human body. The frequency of the elements differs greatly depending on the system under consideration.

If the entire universe is considered, hydrogen is by far the most common element. This is followed by helium , which has partly been created by primordial nucleosynthesis , but is also created in the course of hydrogen burning in stars. All other elements together make up only a small part of the matter in the universe. The frequencies largely follow the reaction cycles of stellar nucleosynthesis . The elements lithium , boron and beryllium , which are not directly formed in stars, are rare, the following elements such as carbon and oxygen are common. A common heavy element is iron , which is the end point of stellar nucleosynthesis. All heavier elements can only be formed through other astrophysical events such as novae or supernovae and are accordingly rarer. Another characteristic is the different frequency of elements with even and odd atomic numbers, which is also related to nucleosynthesis via helium nuclei ( Harkin's rule ).

The abundance of elements on earth differs from that in space. The lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, which dominate the universe, are rare, as they only accumulate gravitationally in gaseous form in much larger celestial bodies, the stars like the sun and gas planets like Jupiter . Instead, the most common elements are oxygen, iron, and silicon . There are great differences in distribution on earth. A large part of the iron is found in the earth's core, while oxygen and silicon are mainly found in the earth's crust. If one looks at other systems on earth, such as the oceans or biological systems, the frequencies of the elements have changed.

The first systematic investigations into the element abundance come from Victor Moritz Goldschmidt , after him the graphic representation of the element abundance is called Goldschmidt diagram .

Legend

element Name of the element
symbol Element symbol of the respective element
Atomic number Ordinal number of the respective element
Atomic mass Atomic mass of the respective element in the unit u
frequency Frequency of the element in the system under consideration in the specified units ( ppmw (ppm weight) each refers to a mass ratio)
Remarks Notes on the abundance of elements, such as distribution or origin
essential? Is the element essential for the human organism?

Frequencies in the solar system

and display information about the image
Element abundance in the solar system
Element abundance in the solar system
Element
(85 pieces) 		sym
bol 		Properly
nungs-
number 		Atomic
mass (u) 		Frequency
rel. to silicon
with 10 6
 Remarks
hydrogen H 01 1.008 3.2e10 most common element, no compound atomic nucleus (except for heavy hydrogen ( deuterium ))
helium Hey 02 4.003 2.2e9 second most common element, arose partly through primordial nucleosynthesis and hydrogen burning
lithium Li 03 6,941 5.0e1 originated in traces during primordial nucleosynthesis
beryllium Be 04th 9.012 0.81e0
boron B. 05 10,811 3.5e2
carbon C. 06th 12.011 1.2e7th is created by the three-alpha process
nitrogen N 07th 14.007 3.7the6th
oxygen O 08th 15.999 2.2e7th arises from the further reaction of the three-alpha process
fluorine F. 09 18,998 2.5e3
neon No 10 20,180 3.4the6th created by burning carbon
sodium N / A 11 22,990 6th.0e4th
magnesium Mg 12 24.305 1.1e6th created by carbon and neon burning
aluminum Al 13 26,982 8th.5e4th
Silicon Si 14th 28.086 1.0e6th created by burning oxygen
phosphorus P 15th 30.974 9.6the3 created by burning oxygen
sulfur S. 16 32.065 5.0e5 created by burning oxygen
chlorine Cl 17th 35,453 5.7the3
argon Ar 18th 39.948 1.2e5
potassium K 19th 39.098 4th.2e3
Calcium Approx 20th 40.078 7th.2e4th
Scandium Sc 21st 44,956 3.5e1
titanium Ti 22nd 47.867 2.8the3
Vanadium V 23 50.942 2.6the2
chrome Cr 24 51,996 1.3e4th
manganese Mn 25th 54.938 9.3e3
iron Fe 26th 55.845 8th.3e5 The end point of nuclear fusion in stars is created by burning silicon
Cobalt Co 27 58.933 2.2e3
nickel Ni 28 58.693 4th.8the4th
copper Cu 29 63,546 5.4the2
zinc Zn 30th 65,409 1.2e3
gallium Ga 31 69.723 4th.8the1
Germanium Ge 32 72.640 1.2e2
arsenic As 33 74,922 6th.6the0
selenium Se 34 78.960 6th.7the1
bromine Br 35 79.904 1.4the1
krypton Kr 36 83.798 4th.7the1
Rubidium Rb 37 85.468 5.9e0
strontium Sr 38 87.620 2.7the1
yttrium Y 39 88.906 4th.8the0
Zirconium Zr 40 91.224 2.8the1
niobium Nb 41 92.906 1.4the0
molybdenum Mon 42 95.940 4th.0e0
Technetium Tc 43 98.906 0 not a stable isotope
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.070 1.9e0
Rhodium Rh 45 102.906 0.40e0
palladium Pd 46 106.420 1.3e0
silver Ag 47 107.868 0.45e0
cadmium CD 48 112.411 1.5e0
Indium In 49 114.818 0.19the0
tin Sn 50 118.710 3.6the0 has the most stable isotopes
antimony Sb 51 121.760 0.32e0
Tellurium Te 52 127,600 6th.4the0
Iodine I. 53 126.904 1.1e0
xenon Xe 54 131.293 5.4the0
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 0.39e0
barium Ba 56 137.327 4th.8the0
Lanthanum La 57 138.906 0.45e0
cerium Ce 58 140.116 1.2e0
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.908 0.15the0
Neodymium Nd 60 144.240 0.78e0
promethium Pm 61 146.915 0 not a stable isotope
Samarium Sm 62 150.360 0.23e0
Europium Eu 63 151.964 0.085
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.250 0.30the0
Terbium Tb 65 158.925 0.055
Dysprosium Dy 66 162,500 0.36e0
holmium Ho 67 164.930 0.079
Erbium He 68 167.259 0.23e0
Thulium Tm 69 168.934 0.034
ytterbium Yb 70 173.040 0.22nde0
lutetium Lu 71 174.967 0.036
hafnium Hf 72 178.490 0.21ste0
Tantalum Ta 73 180.948 0.021 rarest stable element
tungsten W. 74 186.840 0.16e0
rhenium re 75 186.207 0.053
osmium Os 76 190.230 0.75e0
iridium Ir 77 192.217 0.72e0
platinum Pt 78 195.078 1.4the0
gold Au 79 196.967 0.20the0
mercury Ed 80 200.590 0.40e0
Thallium Tl 81 204,383 0.19the0
lead Pb 82 207,200 4th.0e0 stable element with the highest atomic number, end point of several decay series
Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 0.14the0 unstable, not yet disintegrated due to the long half-life
Thorium Th 90 232.038 0.058 unstable, not yet disintegrated due to the long half-life
uranium U 92 238,029 0.026 unstable, not yet disintegrated due to the long half-life

Frequencies on earth

Frequencies of the elements in the continental crust

Mass fractions of the elements ...

Element
(94 pieces) 		sym
bol 		Properly
nungs-
number 		Frequency [ppmw] Remarks
overall
entire
earth 		Earth
envelope 		conti-
tale earth
crust 		Oceans
[mg / l]
hydrogen H 01 2.6the2 8th.8the3 1.40e3 1.08e5 mainly contained in water : groundwater, surface water, ice, troposphere
helium Hey 02 4th.0e-3 8th.0e-3 7th.0e-6th arises in the earth through α-decay , contained in natural gas , escapes continuously into space
lithium Li 03 2.3e0 6th.0e1 2.0e1 0.18the0 Found in minerals such as amblygonite and in salt lakes
beryllium Be 04th 4th.6the-2 5.3e0 2.8the0 5.6the-6th rare, minerals are ex. Beryl and bertrandite
boron B. 05 2.6the-1 1.6the1 1.0e1 4th.44e0 Occurrence in borate minerals such as borax and kernite
carbon C. 06th 1.70e3 8th.7the2 2.0e2 2.8the1 seldom also elementary as diamond and graphite , especially in carbonate minerals, also in biosphere , oil and coal deposits
nitrogen N 07th 1.27e0 3.0e2 1.9e1 5.0e-1 mainly contained as N 2 in the atmosphere, rarely bound in minerals such as Chile's nitrate
oxygen O 08th 3.24e5 4th.94e5 4th.61e5 8th.47e5 elemental as O 2 in the atmosphere, large number of oxide and silicate minerals
fluorine F. 09 5.12e0 2.8the2 5.85e2 1.3e0 the most common minerals are fluorite and fluorapatite
neon No 10 5.0e-3 5.0e-3 1.2e-4th rare component of the earth's atmosphere
sodium N / A 11 1.87e3 2.64e4th 2.36e4th 1.08e4th common component of sea ​​water , many minerals such as halite
magnesium Mg 12 1.58e5 1.94e4th 2.33e4th 1.29e3 Found mainly in carbonates such as dolomite and silicates such as olivine , a more common component of seawater
aluminum Al 13 1.5e4th 7th.57e4th 8th.23e4th 2.0e-3 common, widely used in oxides, hydroxides and aluminosilicates such as feldspar
Silicon Si 14th 1.71e5 2.58e5 2.82e5 2.2e0 second most common constituent of the earth's crust , a large number of silicate minerals
phosphorus P 15th 6th.90e2 9.0e2 1.05e3 6th.0e-2 bound in phosphates , especially apatite
sulfur S. 16 4th.60e3 4th.8the2 3.5e2 9.05e2 also elemental, plus a variety of sulphide and sulphate minerals
chlorine Cl 17th 1.0e1 1.9e3 1.45e2 1.94e4th as chloride, large deposits of halite , more common in seawater
argon Ar 18th 3.6the0 3.5e0 0.45e0 most common noble gas on earth, part of the atmosphere
potassium K 19th 1.71e2 2.41e4th 2.09e4th 3.99e2 important potash salts are sylvine and carnallite
Calcium Approx 20th 1.62e4th 3.39e4th 4th.15the4th 4th.12e2 often found as carbonate ( calcite ), silicate, sulfate ( gypsum ), phosphate (apatite) and fluoride ( fluorite )
Scandium Sc 21st 1.0e1 5.1e0 2.2e1 6th.0e-7th rare, a scandium mineral is thortveitite
titanium Ti 22nd 7th.64e2 4th.1e3 5.65e3 1.0e-3 frequently, especially as rutile and ilmenite to find
Vanadium V 23 9.3e1 4th.1e2 1.20the2 2.5e-3 rare minerals are u. a. Vanadinite and patronite , especially as an admixture in other ores
chrome Cr 24 4th.2e3 1.9e2 1.02e2 3.0e-4th the most common mineral is chromite , individual finds of solid chromium are known
manganese Mn 25th 1.39e3 8th.5e2 9.5e2 2.0e-4th often in oxides such as brown stones and manganese nodules in the deep sea
iron Fe 26th 2.88e5 4th.7the4th 5.6the4th 2.0e-3 the earth's core consists largely of iron, in the earth's crust v. a. oxidic and sulfidic minerals, rarely also native
Cobalt Co 27 8th.00e2 3.7the1 2.5e1 2.0e-5 dignified in meteorites and the core of the earth, mainly bound in sulfide and arsenide minerals such as smaltite or cobaltite
nickel Ni 28 1.69e4th 1.5e2 8th.4the1 5.6the-4th dignified in meteorites and the core of the earth, mainly bound in sulphide and arsenide minerals such as millerite or nickeline
copper Cu 29 6th.5e1 1.0e2 6th.0e1 2.5e-4th also solid, sulfidic and oxidic minerals such as chalcopyrite and cuprite
zinc Zn 30th 2.4the1 1.2e2 7th.0e1 4th.9e-3 Occurrence mainly as sphalerite , wurtzite and smithsonite
gallium Ga 31 3.1e0 1.4the1 1.9e1 3.0e-5 rare, associated with zinc , aluminum or germanium
Germanium Ge 32 7th.3e0 5.6the0 1.50e0 5.0e-5 seldom, especially in sulfidic minerals
arsenic As 33 1.1e0 5.5e0 1.80e0 3.7the-3 rarely solid, bound in arsenides , arsenic chalcogenides such as realgar and arsenates
selenium Se 34 2.5e0 0.80e0 5.0e-2 2.0e-4th Selenides are rarely found in sulfidic ores
bromine Br 35 0.40e0 6th.0e0 2.4the0 6th.73e1 as bromide mostly together with chloride, also contained in sea water and salt lakes
krypton Kr 36 1.9e-5 1.0e-4th 2.1e-4th rare part of the atmosphere
Rubidium Rb 37 0.60e0 2.9e1 9.0e1 0.12e0 Contained in small quantities in other alkali metal ores
strontium Sr 38 1.37e1 1.4the2 3.7the2 7th.9e0 to be found as sulfate ( Celestine ) and carbonate ( Strontianite )
yttrium Y 39 2.4the0 2.6the1 3.30the1 1.3e-5 associated with the heavier lanthanides, e.g. in gadolinite
Zirconium Zr 40 6th.8the0 2.1e2 1.65e2 3.0e-5 the most common mineral is zircon , more rarely baddeleyite
niobium Nb 41 0.47e0 1.9e1 2.0e1 1.0e-5 associated with tantalum especially in minerals of the columbite and tapiolite series
molybdenum Mon 42 1.66e0 1.4the1 1.2e0 1.0e-2 most frequent occurrence as molybdenite , less often than wulfenite or powellite
Technetium Tc 43 1.2e-15th extremely rare as a short-lived fission product of uranium
Ruthenium Ru 44 1.18the0 2.0e-2 1.0e-3 7th.0e-7th rare, occurs dignified, associated with other platinum metals
Rhodium Rh 45 0.23e0 1.0e-3 1.0e-3 rare, occurs dignified, associated with other platinum metals
palladium Pd 46 0.88e0 1.1e-2 1.5e-2 dignified, bound in sulphides, associated with the other platinum metals
silver Ag 47 4th.6the-2 0.12e0 7th.5e-2 4th.0e-5 solid, in sulfidic ores such as argentite , rarely also as halide ( chlorogyrite )
cadmium CD 48 0.18the0 0.30the0 0.15the0 1.1e-4th associated with zinc ores as Greenockit and Otavit
Indium In 49 9.4the-3 0.10e0 0.25the0 2.0e-2 rare, associated with zinc
tin Sn 50 0.39e0 3.5e1 2.3e0 4th.0e-6th rarely genuine, the most common mineral is cassiterite
antimony Sb 51 4th.0e-2 0.65e0 0.20the0 2.4the-4th rarely dignified, bound in Antimonides and Antimonchalcogeniden as stibnite
Tellurium Te 52 0.31e0 1.0e-2 1.0e-3 rarely, also elementary, otherwise as telluride
Iodine I. 53 4th.0e-2 6th.0e-2 0.45e0 6th.0e-2 as iodide and iodate , etc. a. as Lautarit in Chile's nitrate
xenon Xe 54 9.0e-6th 3.0e-5 5.0e-5 rare part of the atmosphere
Cesium Cs 55 4th.1e-2 6th.5e0 3.0e0 3.0e-4th Contained in small quantities in other alkali metal ores
barium Ba 56 4th.06e0 2.6the2 4th.25the2 1.3e-2 The most common mineral is the sulfate barite , also known as carbonate ( witherite )
Lanthanum La 57 0.42e0 1.7the1 3.90e1 3.4the-6th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
cerium Ce 58 1.1e0 4th.3e1 6th.55e1 1.2e-6th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
Praseodymium Pr 59 0.17the0 5.2e0 9.2e0 6th.4the-7th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
Neodymium Nd 60 8th.1e-1 2.2e1 4th.15the1 2.8the-6th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
promethium Pm 61 1.5e-15th extremely rare as a short-lived fission product
Samarium Sm 62 0.26the0 6th.0e0 7th.5e0 4th.5e-7th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
Europium Eu 63 9.8the-2 9.9e-2 2.0e0 1.3e-7th associated with the other light lanthanoids in cerite earths such as monazite
Gadolinium Gd 64 0.35e0 5.9e0 6th.2e0 7th.0e-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
Terbium Tb 65 6th.7the-2 0.85e0 1.2e0 1.4the-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
Dysprosium Dy 66 0.42e0 4th.3e0 5.2e0 9.1e-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
holmium Ho 67 9.6the-2 1.1e0 1.30the0 2.2e-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
Erbium He 68 0.28e0 2.3e0 3.5e0 8th.7the-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
Thulium Tm 69 4th.2e-2 0.19the0 0.52e0 1.7the-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
ytterbium Yb 70 0.28e0 2.5e0 3.2e0 8th.2e-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
lutetium Lu 71 4th.3e-2 0.70e0 0.80e0 1.5e-7th associated with the other heavy lanthanoids in ytter earths such as gadolinite
hafnium Hf 72 0.20the0 4th.2e0 3.0e0 7th.0e-6th practically only as a component of zirconium to find -Mineralen, only known exception is the hafnium silicate hafnon
Tantalum Ta 73 2.8the-2 8th.0e0 2.0e0 2.0e-6th associated with niobium , especially in minerals of the columbite and tapiolite series
tungsten W. 74 0.17the0 6th.4the1 1.25the0 1.0e-4th predominantly as tungstate or oxide, ex. as wolframite or scheelite
rhenium re 75 6th.3e-2 1.0e-3 7th.0e-4th 4th.0e-6th rarely, mainly in molybdenum ores
osmium Os 76 0.82e0 1.0e-2 1.5e-3 rare, occurs dignified, associated with other platinum metals
iridium Ir 77 0.77e0 1.0e-3 1.0e-3 rare, occurs dignified, associated with other platinum metals
platinum Pt 78 1.56e0 5.0e-3 5.0e-3 most common platinum metal, associated with the other platinum metals
gold Au 79 0.10e0 5.0e-3 4th.0e-3 4th.0e-6th predominantly solid, rarely also as telluride
mercury Ed 80 2.0e-2 0.40e0 8th.5e-2 3.0e-5 mainly as sulphide in cinnabar , more rarely also dignified in the form of droplets
Thallium Tl 81 4th.0e-3 0.29e0 0.85e0 1.9e-5 in minerals such as avicennite, associated with lead, rubidium, zinc or iron
lead Pb 82 0.67e0 1.8the1 1.4the1 3.0e-5 rarely genuine, the most common mineral is galena
Bismuth Bi 83 1.6the-2 0.20the0 8th.5e-3 2.0e-5 elemental, in oxides like bismite and sulfides like bismuthine
polonium Po 84 2.1e-11 2.0e-10 1.5e-14th very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
Astatine At 85 3.0e-21st very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
radon Marg 86 6th.1e-11 4th.0e-13 6th.0e-16 very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
Francium Fr. 87 1.3e-18th very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
radium Ra 88 9.5e-11 9.0e-7th 8th.9e-11 very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
Actinium Ac 89 6th.1e-14th 5.5e-9 very rare intermediate product of several series of decays
Thorium Th 90 5.1e-2 1.1e1 9.6the0 1.0e-6th radioactive, associated with the lanthanides , especially in Monazite
Protactinium Pa 91 9.0e-8th 1.4the-6th 5.0e-11 very rare intermediate product in the decay of uranium
uranium U 92 1.4the-2 3.2e0 2.7the0 3.2e-3 radioactive, the most important mineral is uraninite
neptunium Np 93 4th.0e-14th very rare intermediate product in the decay of uranium
plutonium Pooh 94 2.0e-16 Small amounts of the longest-lived isotope 244 Pu are found in some uranium ores

Composition of the human body (70 kg)

Element
(36 pieces) 		sym
bol 		Properly
nungs-
number 		Mass
in g 		Mass in% Identification of the
amount
in mol 		eat-
tially? 		Remarks
oxygen O 8th 43000 approx. 61.4th 270e1 Yes mainly bound as water . Part of many organic compounds
carbon C. 6th 16000 approx. 22.9 130e1 Yes Basis of all organic compounds in the body
hydrogen H 1 7000 approx. 10 690e1 Yes Most common element, mainly bound as water. Part of many organic compounds
nitrogen N 7th 1800 approx. 2.6th 130e0 Yes Part of many organic compounds
Calcium Approx 20th 1200 approx. 1.7th 30the0 Yes Bone formation and modification of synapse activity
phosphorus P 15th 780 approx. 1.1 25the0 Yes as phosphate ; Part of the DNA , energy metabolism , as a bone former, hydroxyapatite
sulfur S. 16 140 approx. 0.20th 4th.4the0 Yes in the amino acids cysteine and methionine contain
potassium K 19th 125 approx. 0.18th 3.2e0 Yes important for the membrane potential inside and outside the cells
sodium N / A 11 100 approx. 0.14th 4th.3e0 Yes important for the membrane potential inside and outside the cells and impulse transmission in nerve fibers
chlorine Cl 17th 95 approx. 0.13 2.7the0 Yes As a chloride component of stomach acid and regulation of the water balance
magnesium Mg 12 25th approx. 0.036 1.0e0 Yes Part of various enzymes
fluorine F. 9 5 approx. 0.007 2.6the-1 No as fluorapatite in tooth enamel and bone contain
iron Fe 26th 4th - 7th.2e-2 Yes Part of many enzymes and hemoglobin
zinc Zn 30th 2.3 - 3.5e-2 Yes Part of many enzymes
Silicon Si 14th 1 - 3.6the-2 Yes in traces as silicate in bones
titanium Ti 22nd 0.70 - 1.5e-2 No no known biological functions
Rubidium Rb 37 0.68 - 8th.0e-3 not clear contained in the body because of its similarity to potassium
strontium Sr 38 0.32 - 3.7the-3 No contained in the body because of its similarity to calcium
bromine Br 35 0.26 - 3.3e-3 No The body contains bromide because of its similarity to chloride
lead Pb 82 0.12 - 5.8the-4th not clear toxic, can be stored in bones when calcium is displaced
copper Cu 29 0.07 - 1.1e-3 Yes Component of various enzymes, v. a. Oxidases , similar to iron
aluminum Al 13 0.06 - 2.2e-3 No No known biological function
cerium Ce 58 0.04 - 2.9e-4th No no known biological functions
tin Sn 50 0.03 - 2.5e-4th not clear no exact function known
barium Ba 56 0.02 - 1.5e-4th No contained in the body because of its similarity to calcium
cadmium CD 48 0.02 - 1.8the-4th not clear can partially displace zinc
boron B. 5 0.018 - 1.7the-3 not clear essential element for some plants
nickel Ni 28 0.015 - 2.6the-4th Yes Part of enzymes
Iodine I. 53 0.015 - 1.2e-4th Yes in thyroid hormones contained
selenium Se 34 0.014 - 1.8the-4th Yes in the amino acid selenocysteine contain
manganese Mn 25th 0.012 - 2.2e-4th Yes Part of various enzymes, important for photosynthesis in plants
arsenic As 33 0.007 - 9.3e-5 not clear Biological significance of small amounts of arsenic not precisely known, toxic in higher doses
lithium Li 3 0.007 - 1.0e-3 No contained in the body because of its similarity to sodium
molybdenum Mon 42 0.005 - 5.2e-5 Yes Part of enzymes such as xanthine oxidase
chrome Cr 24 0.002 - 2.8the-5 Yes as trivalent chromium possibly involved in lipid metabolism
Cobalt Co 27 0.002 - 3.4the-5 Yes in vitamin B12 include

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ^ AGW Cameron: Abundances of the elements in the solar system. In: Space Science Reviews. 15, 1973, pp. 121-146.
  2. ^ Claude Allègre, Gérard Manhès, Éric Lewin: Chemical composition of the Earth and the volatility control on planetary genetics. In: Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 185, 2001, pp. 49-69.
  3. ^ Harry H. Binder: Lexicon of the chemical elements. S. Hirzel Verlag 1999, ISBN 3-7776-0736-3 .
  4. ↑ a b David R. Lide (Ed.): CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics . 85th edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2005. Section 14, Geophysics, Astronomy, and Acoustics; Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust and in the Sea.
  5. ↑ Wolfgang Kaim , Brigitte Schwederski: Bioinorganische Chemie. 4th edition. Teubner, 2005, ISBN 3-519-33505-0 .
This version was included in the selection of informative lists and portals on June 7, 2009 .