Mysia

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Location of Mysia

Mysia (Greek Μυσία Mysía ) is the name of a historical landscape in the north-west of ancient Asia Minor . Mysia was neither geographically nor economically, administratively or politically a unit.

In the north, Mysia borders the Hellespont and the Propontis ; in the east the river Rhyndakos and the mountain range of the Mysi-Bithynian Olympus ( Uludağ ) form the border against Bithynia . In the west, the Aisepos forms the border to the Troas , whereby this landscape is often still counted as part of Mysia. Furthermore, the Aegean Sea and the Gulf of Adramyttion form the west and south-west borders. The border in the south and southeast is more difficult to define, Mysia bordered here on Phrygia , Lydia and the Aiolis .

Characterization and meaning

As Mysien differing areas of northwestern Asia Minor have been identified since antiquity in its borders. One encounters the term in Greek mythology , during the Persian Empire , under Alexander the Great , during the Hellenistic and Roman times to late antiquity .

Strabon writes that the landscape boundaries with Phrygia in the east are difficult to draw. The reason lies in the fact that immigrants did not take firm possession of the land, but rather expelled others or were expelled again themselves. This characterization of indefinite boundaries and structures runs through the history of Mysia, which did not give any political or administrative structure its name, although a hypothetical kingdom of Mysia, ruled by the Mithridates , was assumed for the time of the Persian Empire. According to ancient perception, Mysia was a land of passage both in mythology and in historical times.

In the Argonaut legend, the heroes sailed to Kyzikos and Kios in search of the Golden Fleece. The Persian kings Darius I and Xerxes I marched through Mysia in the wars against the Greeks, and Xenophon led the “ procession of 10,000 ” through the countryside to the Mysian Pergamon . In Mysia, Alexander the Great defeated in 334 BC. His first battle against the Persian Empire at Granikos . Mithridates VI moved to Pergamon . his headquarters during the Mithridatic Wars . As a transit area, Mysia had important roads from the Persian period to late antiquity, which connected Europe with inner Anatolia and the Black Sea coast and found their counterpart in the Balkans.

geography

View from Phaistos to the Ida Mountains

Strabo divided Mysia into a "Mysia Olympene" and a "Mysia Pergamene" and Claudius Ptolemy spoke of a small and a large Mysia. The landscape was mountainous and wooded with water-rich plains and swamps that increased towards the sea.

The most famous mountain range in the region is the Ida Mountains , a "large and multi-armed" mountain range from which many rivers arise. It probably got its name from the Greek ἴδω (= ἒδω), which means to see and indicates its height. Another mountain is the Uludağ , which is equated with the mountain from which, according to Greek legend, the gods pursued the Trojan War . Another summit worth mentioning is the Alexandreia performed by Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy. The mountain is located above Antandros and was made famous by Paris , who chose the most beautiful of the goddesses there.

The area of Abarnia in the north of Mysia was sung about by Orpheus in the saga of the Argonauts , according to Greek mythology . It is mentioned in Xenophon and Stephanos of Byzantium . It is said to have got its name from an Abarnis , one of the founders of Lampsakos , and to have been inhabited by Phokers . Also in the north was Abrettene , mentioned by Strabo and Pliny the Elder . According to Stephanos of Byzantium, the area is said to have received its name from the nymph Brettia . Atarneus is a grain-rich stretch of land on the coast of Aeolia opposite Lesbos, handed down from Herodotus and Xenophon . The region is sometimes included in Lydia . Other well-known areas are Bebrykia , Teuthrania and Troas .

Rivers

Many rivers of Mysia were navigable for long stretches by ships and thus provided important traffic routes that underlined the character of the landscape as a transit and bridge land.

Ancient name Today's name description
Aisepos Gönen Çayı Narrated by Homer , Hesiod , Strabo , Claudius Ptolemaeus , Appian and Pliny the Elder . Rises on Mount Kotylos in the Ida Mountains .
Astron According to Pliny the Elder, a river that rises on the Ida Mountains.
Euenos
Granikos Biga Çayı Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains. 334 BC The Battle of Granicus took place between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire .
Heptaporos Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Kaïkos Bakırçay Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Karesos Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Kebren A small river in the Troas, on which the cities of Kebren and Palaiskapsis lay. The river is narrated by Strabo, Herodian and Stephanos of Byzantium .
Keteios Kestel Çay According to Pliny the Elder, the name of a brook that flowed past the castle hill through Pergamon. Strabo calls it the indirect inflow of the Kaïko.
Makestos Simav Çayı Narrated by Strabo, Pliny the Elder and Polybius . Attalus I camped on the river north of the Pelekas Mountains with the Galatian Aigosages on his way to Achaios , where he was on January 1, 218 BC. Experienced a lunar eclipse.
Paisos
Pythicos Güzelhisar Çayı Located between Myrina and Aigai. On coins from the 4th century BC Chr. Tisnaios , on coins of the Roman Empire Titnaios called. Narrated by pseudo-Skylax .
Rhesos Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Rhodios Koca Çay Narrated by Homer as a river in the Troad . Strabo reports that it rises in the Ida Mountains and flows into the Hellespont between Abydos and Dardanos . He also tells that the two towns Gordos and Kleandreia were in the headwaters . Coins depicting the river god Rhodios date from the Roman period. A Scholion to Homer calls him Dardanos.
Rhyndakos Adırnaz Çayı Narrated by Pseudo-Skylax , Pliny the Elder, Pomponius Mela and Strabo. Mithridates VI. was on Rhyndakos 73 BC. Defeated by the Roman general Lucullus in the third Mithridatic war .
Satnio ice Tuzla Çayı The river valley served as an agricultural area and access to the interior. There is still a Roman bridge in the plain, which indicates that the river used to take a different course.
Scamandros Karamenderes Çayı Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Selinus Bergama Çay According to Pliny the Elder, the name of a brook that flowed past the castle hill through Pergamon.
Ice cream Listed by Homer. According to Strabo, a western tributary of the Rhodios.
Simoeis Narrated by Homer as a river from the Ida Mountains.
Tarsius Manyas Çayı According to Strabo, a tributary of the Makestos.

bridges

The landscape shows a number of Roman bridges that have been completely or partially preserved: the Aisepos Bridge , the Makestos Bridge , the White Bridge over the Granikos and the Constantine Bridge over the Rhyndakos.

Cities and towns

Tetradrachm from Abydos, 160–140 BC With standing eagle and ears of corn

Some of the cities and towns in Mysia are already listed in Greek mythology. Examples are Abydos , Arisbe, Chryse and Gargara . Excavations show that the settlement is partly much older than at Pitane . In some cases the founders of a city are given by the literary sources of various peoples, as in Antandros . Abydos, Achilleion , Apollonia on the Rhyndakos are examples of cities that were founded by Greek mother cities.

The city of Daskyleion has excavated a Persian Zoroastrian temple from the 5th century BC. BC brought to light, which is the most western evidence of Persian Zoroastrianism so far. Furthermore, numerous fragments of Phrygian inscriptions and graffiti were found .

During the Hellenistic period, the cities of Asia Minor prospered. In promoting the cities, the Seleucids oriented themselves to the old communication routes and connected Asia Minor with the regions further east. In the cities monuments, temples and sanctuaries were built under the patronage of the Hellenistic kings, the ruins of which can be seen to this day. The most famous example in Mysia is the capital of the Attalids , Pergamon , which experienced its heyday during this period.

During the Roman Empire , the two cities of Hadrianeia and Hadrianoi , as the name suggests, were founded by the Emperor Hadrian in Mysia .

Ancient name Today's name description
Abydos Restricted military area The city was founded by Miletus and was the most important port city on the Hellespont . It has come down to us from Homer , Herodotus , Thucydides , Xenophon , Polybios , Strabo , Titus Livius , Pliny the Elder , Virgil , Stephanos of Byzantium , Athenaios and others. The coinage of the city is with electron - stater up to 600 BC. Chr. Attested and belongs to the oldest known coin alloys.
Achilleion Historical National Park of Troy The city was founded in the 6th century BC. Built by Mytilene as a base against the Athenian Sigeion . It has come down to us from Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Arrian and Cassius Dio .
Adramyttion Edremit The city was supposedly founded by Lydians . It has come down to us from Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Stephanos of Byzantium, Strabo, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum , Skylax , Appian , Cicero , Diodor , Titus Livius, Pliny the Elder, Hierocles , coins and inscriptions.
Aigai Nemrutkale The city lay east of Myrina inland on the Pythikos and has been handed down by Pseudo-Skylax , Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo, Polybius and Pliny the Elder. The city belonged to the Aeolian League . Tacitus says that the place was hit by a severe earthquake in 17 AD.
Alexandria Troas Excavation site The city has been handed down to the Itinerarium Antonini , the Acts of the Apostles Cicero and others by Strabo, Claudius Ptolemaeus , Stephanos of Byzantium, Titus Livius, Pliny the Elder . According to Suetonius , Gaius Iulius Caesar supposedly wanted to move the seat of the Roman Empire here, as did Constantine the Great later .
Antandros Excavation site The founding of the city is passed down in various ways. According to Strabo, it was founded by Lelegers according to Alcaios of Lesbos and by Cilicia according to Demetrius by Skepticism , after Herodotus by the Pelasgians and according to Thucydides by the Aiolians .
Apollonia According to Strabo, the city was east of Pergamon. The place is now settled near Yenice on Akçawlar Çayı. According to Xenophon, it was in Persian hands in his day. The city is mentioned by Pliny the Elder and Stephen of Byzantium.
Apollonia on the Rhyndacus Gölyazı The city may have been a Pergamene colony. It has been handed down by Strabo, Stephanos of Byzantium, Claudius Ptolemaeus, Pliny the Elder, and coins are also preserved that mention it together with the river Rhyndakos. The city was on the lake Apolloniatis , which the Rhyndakos flows through. The coinage is from 450 BC. Proven BC and lasted until the time of the Roman emperor Domitian . In the third Mithridatic War , 73/72 BC BC, is a battle near the city between the Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Mithridates VI. mentioned, which ended with the defeat of the Pontic king.
Arisbe The city is mentioned by Homer. According to Stephen of Byzantium, it was founded by residents of Mytilene . After Alexander the Great had crossed the Hellespont, according to the tradition of Arrian , he stationed his troops in the city.
Assos Behramkale The city was founded by Methymna from the neighboring island of Lesbos . It has come down to us from Claudius Ptolemaeus, Pausanias , Pseudo-Xenophon , Pliny the Elder, Strabo, a Scholion , the Greek anthology , inscriptions and coins.
Astyra (Troas) According to Strabo and Skylax, the city belonged to Antandros.
Astyra (Hellespont) According to Strabo, the place had once been a flourishing and independent city. In his time it was already in ruins and the area belonged to Abydos.
Atarneus ruins John Anthony Cramer suggested that there were two places with the name. One place was below Pitane in the Mysian Aeolis and the other was the neighbor of the island of Lesbos . The city, which lies opposite Lesbos, is handed down from Diodor, Herodot, Pausanias, Xenophon, Strabo and Pliny the Elder. There are also coins.
Attaleia The city is assigned to different areas in the traditions. Stephanos of Byzantium and Hierocles assign them to Lydia , Pliny the Elder to Aeolia and others to Mysia.
Aureliane The place has been handed down on the basis of inscriptions and is located on the Euenos.
Blue dots ruins The city was in the Abrettene region and has been handed down from Strabo and Hierocles.
Chryse Gülpınar A distinction is made between an older and a younger city. The older one has been handed down from Homer in many places. The city is considered his birthplace. Strabo also mentions them and gives their location on the Adramytten Gulf. The older city was destroyed early. The temple of Apollon Smintheus from the younger city can now be seen as a ruin.
Dadaleis The place was in the border line between Mysia, Lydia and Phrygia. The area is called Maionia. The place is narrated from Claudius Ptolemaeus.
Daskyleion Hisartepe Stephanos of Byzantium handed down five cities in Asia Minor that bore the name Daskyleion. The place in Mysia is passed down from Xenophon, the Hellenika Oxyrhynchia and Strabo.
Eleutherion The city has been handed down as a small city by Stephanos of Byzantium and could have been in the 4th century BC. Minted coins.
Gargara The city has been handed down from Homer, Pliny the Elder, Strabo, the Etymologicum magnum and Stephanos of Byzantium.
Germe The city is narrated from Claudius Ptolemaeus and Stephanos of Byzantium.
Hadrianeia The city was founded by Hadrian in the 2nd century and was located in the northwest of the Roman province of Asia .
Hadrianoi The city was founded by Hadrian in the 2nd century and was located in the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus .
Hamaxitos Babakale It is believed that the city was founded by Achaeans . It is passed down from Strabo.
Helicores İznik An original colony was founded by Antigonus I. Monophthalmos . Lysimachus left the city around 301 BC. It was rebuilt and named after his first wife Nikaia . Nikaia is now counted as part of Bithynia . The original name Helikore is passed down from a scholion .
Kebren ruins The city was founded as a colony by Kyme . It is passed down by Xenophon, Pseudo-Skylax, Demosthenes , Ephoros of Kyme , Stephanos of Byzantium, Strabo, Diodorus and Pliny the Elder. The city was very well fortified. 399 BC It was besieged by Derkylidas . Antigonus I. Monophthalmos forced the inhabitants to leave their city and move to Alexandria Troas . Kebren then ceased to exist.
Kyzikos Excavation site The city is considered the oldest colony of the Mileter in the Propontis and has been handed down from Strabo, Pliny the Elder Eusebius and coins.
Lamponeia Kozlu Dağ The city was on the south coast of the Troas on a ridge with a city wall 7 m wide and 7 m high.
Lampsakos Lapseki According to Strabo, the city was founded by Miletus or the Phocaeans .
Limantepe Urla The place is also called Larisa.
Marpessos
Myrina Excavation site The city is narrated from Herodotus. Xenophon reports that Artaxerxes II gave Myrina to the Eretrian Gongylus as a gift. Titus Livius and Polybios tell that Philip V of Macedon conquered the city but was driven out by the Romans . The city is mentioned by Strabo and in the letters by Cicero . Tacitus tells of an earthquake that struck the city, and Pliny the Elder suggested that the city would later be called Sebastopolis.
Parion Titular archbishopric The place was probably founded by Parians and is documented by inscriptions, coins and archaeological finds.
Pergamon Excavation site The city was one of the most important centers in Asia Minor and flourished in the Hellenistic period. The sources for this period range from various literary sources, archeology and numismatics to epigraphy . The city is first mentioned in the literary sources by Xenophon in the Anabasis .
Pitane Excavation site The city already existed in the late Geometric period and had two ports. It is narrated by Herodotus and Strabo.
skepticism ruins The city appears for the first time in Greek mythology . Strabo, who had never traveled to Troas, obtained his information from the lost work of Demetrios von Skeptis , who wrote the story of Troas in 30 books in the 2nd century BC. Had written.
Sigeion Yenişehir In the 7th century BC Founded by Mytilene and long ruled by Athens . The city controlled the south entrance of the Hellespont.
Thebe
Troy UNESCO world heritage

economy

Baths in Alexandria Troas

As in the rest of Asia Minor, the cities on the coast of Mysia were the economic, political, and cultural centers. They showed the wealth of the society of that time and the sphere of influence of the respective rulers. Since Mysia had the character of a landscape that one traversed, one could expect approaches to an infrastructure in the interior that would make such a journey possible. The infrastructure for this finds a traditional expression only during the rule of the Roman Empire in Roman roads and bridges. From Pergamon to Nicomedia and Ephesus , from Nicomedia to Ankyra and along the southern coast of the Black Sea to Sinope , Mysia was the gateway from Europe to Asia and vice versa. There are very rudimentary traditions about other structures in the interior, such as organization, economy and culture.

Asia Minor has abundant metal deposits that were already exploited in ancient times . The most important copper deposits were to the east and northeast of the Halys . Copper sites are also known from Mysia, which are classified as neither rich nor poor. They were sufficient for limited regional metallurgy . There is evidence of four sites in what is now Çanakkale Province , but the period during which they were exploited is unclear. Six other mining areas for copper, lead and zinc are suspected.

Silver-bearing ore was found in the area of ​​today's villages Korudere, Bergaz Köyü and Balya , even if these could not keep up with the rich deposits in the Taurus Mountains . It is possible that gold was also found in Çanakkale Province.

history

It is believed that Mysia got its name from the Thracian tribe of the Mysoi , who lived in the 12th century BC. Immigrated to the area. Their origin is not clear. Herodotus speaks of an army of the Mysians and Teukrers who crossed the Bosporus “before the Trojan War” . Strabo reports that Phrygians and Mysians ruled the area with unclear borders.

Relief of the Heroon from Gjölbaschi – Trysa, 4th century BC Field battle between the ship camp and Troy

In the late Bronze Age , Mysia was probably part of the Arzawa Empire, although the boundaries are unclear in this as well as the rest of the time. In the late phase of the rewriting of Greek mythologies , the Greeks supposedly held the Mysia landscape for the area around Troy after their arrival and began to plunder it. Telephus , the heir to the Mysian king Teuthras and later ancestor of the Pergamese royal family, opposed them, but was put to flight by Achilles . But all this is a late invention of Pergamene appropriation and reinterpretation of myths.

During the reign of Croesus , Mysia belonged to the Lydian Empire until it fell in 546 BC. Was integrated into the Persian Empire by Cyrus II . According to the traditions of Herodotus, Thucydides and Persian sources, the northwestern area of ​​Mysia was under the Achaemenids until 330 BC. The satrapy Daskylium , called Hellespontic Phrygia by the Greeks . The boundaries are unclear, but probably extended as far as the southern Troas and east into the area of ​​the later Bithynia . Some satraps controlled both sides of the Hellespont. The territory contained estates, fortifications, towns and villages. Inscriptions suggest that there was a local administration with different ethnic groups.

The Spartan king Agesilaus II broke in 395 BC. He entered Mysia with the intention of winning over the Mysians for his campaign to liberate the Greek cities against the Persians. Part of the population joined him, while another part fought against him and was severely punished by him for it.

Mysia, like all of Asia Minor, got caught up in the vortex of the Diadoch Wars, as the example of the city of Helikore shows, which was founded by Antigonus I Monophthalmos and was given a new name by Lysimachos. During the late 3rd or early 2nd century BC The landscape became part of the kingdom of Pergamon and from that point on shared its history.

The Mysians were welcomed as mercenaries in ancient times because of their strength in armies . Under the rule of the Romans , however, like the Asians in general, they had a bad reputation, so that Cicero used the winged word “ultimus Mysorum”, the last of the Mysians, as a term for despicable people.

literature

Overview representations

Investigations

  • Prentiss S. De Jesus: Metal Resources in Ancient Anatolia. Anatolian Studies, Journal of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara, Vol. XXVIII, 1978.
  • Elmar Schwertheim (Ed.): Mysische Studien (= Asia Minor Studies 1). Habelt, Bonn 1990, ISBN 3-7749-2485-6

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ Strabo 12.4.
  2. ^ A. Brian Bosworth, Pat V. Wheatley: The origins of the Pontic House. In: The Journal of Hellenic Studies . Volume 118, 1998, pp. 155-164, here p. 156.
  3. ↑ a b Karl Friedrich Merleker: Historical-political geography or general country and ethnology. In 4 volumes. Darmstadt 1841. Vol. 4, p. 306.
  4. ↑ Strabon 13,606.
  5. ↑ Claudius Ptolemy, 5,2,5.
  6. ^ Gustav Hirschfeld : Alexandreia 21 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, column 1396.
  7. ↑ Orpheus, Argonautika 489.
  8. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 2, 2, 29.
  9. ↑ Gustav Hirschfeld : Abarnias . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 17.
  10. ↑ Strabo 12,574. 576.
  11. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,123.
  12. ↑ Gustav Hirschfeld : Abrettene . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, column 110.
  13. ↑ Herodotus 6.28.
  14. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenica 3,2,11.
  15. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Atarneus 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume II, 2, Stuttgart 1896, Sp. 1896 f.
  16. ^ A b c Edwin Schwertheim: Mysia. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 8, Metzler, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-476-01478-9 , Sp. 608-610.
  17. ↑ Homer , Iliad 2,825; 4.91; 12.21.
  18. ↑ Hesiod . Theogony 342.
  19. ↑ Strabo 12,564, 583, 585, 595.
  20. ↑ Claudius Ptolemaeus 5,2,2.
  21. ↑ Appian Mithr. 76.
  22. ↑ Pliny the Elder , Naturalis historia 5,141.
  23. ^ Gustav Hirschfeld : Aisepos 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 1085.
  24. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,122.
  25. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Astron 2 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume II, 2, Stuttgart 1896, Sp. 1828.
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g Homer , Iliad 12:21
  27. ↑ Strabon 13,606.
  28. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Kebren 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XI, 1, Stuttgart 1921, column 105.
  29. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,126.
  30. ↑ Strabo 13,616.
  31. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Keteios 1. In: Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen antiquity science (RE). Volume XI, 1, Stuttgart 1921, Col. 360 f. River valley of Ketios in the Arachne archaeological database
  32. ↑ Elmar Schwertheim : Makestos. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 7, Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01477-0 , column 757 f.
  33. ^ Friedrich Imhoof-Blumer : River and sea gods on Greek and Roman coins: personifications of the waters. In: Swiss Numismatic Review . Volume 23, 1923, pp. 173–421, here p. 225 f. ( Digitized version ).
  34. ↑ Pseudo-Skylax 37.
  35. ^ Gustav Hirschfeld : Aigai 5 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 944 f.
  36. ↑ Homer, Iliad 12:20
  37. ↑ Strabo 13: 1, 28.
  38. ↑ Strabo 13,1,44.
  39. ^ National Museum of Denmark , Troas, No. 310.
  40. ↑ Elmar Schwertheim : Rhodios. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0 , Sp. 995 ..
  41. ↑ Scholion to Homer, Iliad 12:20; see. Ludwig Bürchner : Dardanos 2 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume IV, 2, Stuttgart 1901, Col. 2164.
  42. ↑ Pseudo-Skylax 35.
  43. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5.40.
  44. ↑ Pomponius Mela 1.19.
  45. ↑ Strabo 12,576.
  46. ^ William Smith: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3 Vols. Little, Brown & Co, Boston 1867. Retrieved September 19, 2019 .
  47. ↑ Gebhard Bieg: Archeology and History of a Landscape - The Troas from the Greek colonization to the Byzantine period. In: Manfred O. Korfmann (Ed.): Troia. Archeology of a settlement mound and its landscape. Mainz am Rhein 2006. ISBN 3-8053-3509-1 , ISBN 978-3-8053-3509-6 . Pp. 364-365.
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  49. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Selinus 4 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume II A, 2, Stuttgart 1923, Sp. 1265.
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  51. ↑ Strabo 13,590.
  52. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Selleeis 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume II A, 2, Stuttgart 1923, column 1320.
  53. ↑ Strabo 13,587.
  54. ↑ a b Ekrem Akurgal :  DASKYLEION Turkey . In: Richard Stillwell et al. a. (Ed.): The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1976, ISBN 0-691-03542-3 .
  55. ^ Susan M. Sherwin-White: Asia Minor . In: The Cambridge Ancient History, Plates to Volume VII Part 1. Roger Ling (Ed.), Cambridge 1984. ISBN 0-521-24354-8 . P. 33.
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  57. ↑ Herodotus, Histories 7:34. 43f.
  58. ↑ Thucydides 8.61.
  59. ↑ Xenophon Hellenika 4.8. 35f.
  60. ↑ Polybios, Historiae 16: 29ff.
  61. ↑ Strabo 13,583. 13,585-591. 14,680.
  62. ↑ Titus Livius, Ab urbe condita 31,17ff. 33.30.
  63. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 4.49. 5.141.
  64. ↑ Virgil, Georgica 1.207.
  65. ↑ Athenaios 12.524. 14.641.
  66. ↑ Gustav Hirschfeld : Abydos 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 129 f.
  67. ↑ Herodotus, Histories 5.94.
  68. ↑ Strabo 7.310. 13,595f. 600. 604.
  69. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,125.
  70. ^ Arrian, de expeditione Alexandri 1,11,12.
  71. ↑ Cassius Dio 77:16.
  72. ↑ Gustav Hirschfeld : Achilleion 1 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 220.
  73. ↑ Herodotus 7:42.
  74. ↑ Thucydides, historiae 2,441. 5.1. 8.108.
  75. ↑ Xenophon, Anabasis 7,8,8.
  76. ↑ Strabon 13,606. 613, 614, 14.606.
  77. ↑ Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum 2,163,191. 3.397. 65.
  78. ↑ Skylax 89.
  79. ↑ Appian, Mithridates 23 Mar.
  80. ↑ Cicero, per L. Valerio Flacco 68. Brutus 316.
  81. ↑ Diodorus, 12.73. 20.107.
  82. ↑ Titus Livius, Ab urbe condita 37:19.
  83. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,123. 13.5.
  84. ↑ Hierocles 665.
  85. ^ Gustav Hirschfeld : Adramytteion . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 1, Stuttgart 1893, Col. 404.
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  87. ↑ Herodotus, Historien 1,77,149.
  88. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenika 4,8,5.
  89. ↑ Strabo 13,621.
  90. ↑ Polybios, Historiae 5.77. 33.13.
  91. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5,121.
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  121. ↑ Arrian 1:12.
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  127. ↑ Strabo 15.735.
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  157. ↑ Hellenika Oxyrhynchia 17.3.
  158. ↑ Strabo 12.575.
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  172. ↑ Pseudo-Skylax 96.
  173. ↑ Demosthenes 23.00.
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  178. ↑ Ludwig Bürchner : Kebren 2 . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XI, 1, Stuttgart 1921, column 105.
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  188. ↑ Liv. 33.30.
  189. ↑ Polybios 18,27,4.
  190. ↑ Strabo 13,622.
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  193. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia 5:32.
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  198. ↑ Strabo 13,1,2,51,67.
  199. ↑ Elmar Schwertheim : Pitane. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 9, Metzler, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-476-01479-7 , Sp. 1051.
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  206. ↑ Strabo 12,4,4.
  207. ^ A b Trevor R. Bryce : The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge, London 2009. p. 491.
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  209. ↑ Thucydides, 1,129,1.
  210. ↑ Old Persian language tayaiy drayahyā; Behistun inscription 1.15.
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