History of prestressed concrete bridges
The history of prestressed concrete bridges began at the beginning of the 20th century with two names: Eugène Freyssinet and Franz Dischinger , who laid the foundations for the use of prestressed concrete in bridge construction. A high pre-tensioning of the concrete, which has sufficient pre-tensioning force even after its shortening due to creep and shrinkage, allowed smaller cross-sectional dimensions. The associated saving in dead weight made larger spans possible. After the destruction of World War II, the great demand for bridges that could be built quickly and inexpensively acted as a driving force for further development. The use of the cantilever for prestressed concrete bridges made it possible to dispense with expensive falsework . Soon prestressed concrete bridges were built with spans that were previously reserved for steel construction. The application of the incremental launching method in concrete construction, the development of the advancing scaffolding in Germany and the front scaffolding (poutre de lancement) in France brought significant cost savings in the construction of the increasingly frequent long bridges. Bridges with spans of 40–250 m are usually prestressed concrete bridges today.
Beginnings
The forerunner of a prestressed concrete bridge is the test arch that Freyssinet created in 1909 before executing the order for the Pont du Veurdre , the Pont Boutiron and the Pont de Châtel-de-Neuvre , in which, for reasons of cost, small abutments with a tension rod made of concrete with prestressed wires were connected. Findings about the creep and shrinkage of concrete and the resulting need for high steel and concrete strengths as well as high tension forces led him to apply for the basic patent for prestressed concrete with bond in the prestressed bed in 1928.
At around the same time, the Saale Bridge in Alsleben was built in 1928 according to plans by Franz Dischinger . It is considered the first prestressed reinforced concrete bridge with a subsequent bond.
The long-standing collaboration between Eugéne Freyssinet and Edme Campenon, the manager of Campenon Bernard , began in 1936 with the construction of a small bridge from prefabricated prestressed concrete girders and a factory for prestressed concrete pipes for an irrigation project near the Oued Fodda dam in Algeria.
Between 1935 and 1937, the company Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG built the Aue station bridge based on a design by Franz Dischinger , the first prestressed concrete bridge with external prestressing.
The Neue Baugesellschaft Wayss & Freytag acquired the prestressed concrete license for Germany from Freyssinet in 1936 through the mediation of its board member Karl Walter Mautner, who left in 1933 . After extensive tests, in 1938 they erected the first German prestressed concrete bridge with an immediate bond, the Weg Hesseler overpass on the A 2 between Beckum and Oelde . Freyssinet visited the construction site and examined the construction project. The T-beam bridge, made of four prefabricated beams, had a span of 33 m and has been a technical monument at the Vellern service station (south side, direction Hanover) since 2012. Another, larger motorway bridge was built in 1941 over the Glatzer Neisse near Löwen ( Lewin Brzeski in today's Poland) with 14 prefabricated beams and 42.3 m span.
Also in 1938, Ulrich Finsterwalder erected a 34.5 m wide girder bridge with a joint in the middle on the A2 near Wiedenbrück, the beam halves of which were initially elevated and tensioned the tie rods outside the webs by lowering them due to their own weight. The system did not prevail.
Freyssinet began in 1941 with the Pont de Luzancy over the Marne , which could not be completed until 1946 due to the war. Your girders were manufactured off site in the chip bed process, on barges transported the bridge and there with a specially made type cable crane lifted to the intended location. In the years 1947 to 1951, Freyssinet's 5 Marne bridges were built using the same procedure .
Karl Walter Mautner, who emigrated to Great Britain in 1938 , introduced the Freyssinet system there. The Adam Viaduct was built in 1946 as the first prestressed concrete bridge in the country from concrete beams produced during the war using the Freyssinet system .
During the war, Fritz Leonhardt had read Freyssinet's essay Und révolution dans l'art de bâtir: Les constructions précontraintes , discussed it with colleagues and then traveled to Freyssinet in France, while Willy Stöhr visited Gustave Magnel in Belgium at his request .
1945 to 1980
After the Second World War , the countless destroyed bridges had to be rebuilt. There was therefore great interest in a quick and inexpensive construction method. The reduction of the scarce reinforcing steel ensured the success of the prestressed concrete bridges.
The Maas Bridge Sclayn was rebuilt in 1949 as the first prestressed concrete bridge in Belgium and the first prestressed concrete bridge with a continuous girder using a system of external prestressing without a bond designed by Gustave Magnel . Magnel was then invited to plan the Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the first prestressed concrete bridge in the United States, inaugurated in 1950.
The first prestressed concrete bridge in Brazil , the Ponte do Galeão , was built in 1949 in Rio de Janeiro using the Freyssinet system .
Fritz Leonhardt and Willi Baur developed their Baur – Leonhardt method from 1949 , in which strands were anchored and tensioned in pairs in loops at the ends of the superstructure. The Elzbrücke Emmendingen (1949), the Böckinger Brücke (with Willy Stöhr) and the railway bridge over the Neckar Canal (1950) in Heilbronn as the first large railway bridge made of prestressed concrete were early examples.
From 1949 Ulrich Finsterwalder developed the Dywidag tensioning method with individual rods that are laid in a duct and their threads can be extended or directly anchored using socket connections and thus used to produce prestressed concrete with a subsequent bond. Unlike Freyssinet, Finsterwalder chose the limited preload , which over time became established worldwide. In 1953 it was officially approved in Germany.
The first structure to be built according to this system was the 21 m-wide Würm Bridge in Percha near Starnberg , which no longer exists today . The Gänstorbrücke in Ulm followed a year later . They quickly realized that the tightening process was likely to bridges cantilever produce in sections of about 4 m in length.
The Lahn Bridge in Balduinstein , built in 1951 based on a design by Finsterwalder, was the first prestressed concrete bridge to be built using cantilever. It was followed by the Neckar bridge in Neckarrems-Neckargröningen (now Remseck ), the Nibelungen Bridge Worms and now Europe bridge called Mosel bridge in Koblenz . The Horremer Bridge , also designed by Finsterwalder and built in the course of the north-south coal railway over the demolished Königsdorf tunnel , was one of the first prestressed concrete bridges in the form of a frame bridge designed as a truss . The Konrad-Adenauer-Brücke in Ulm, the Caprivibrücke in Berlin and Fritz Leonhardt's Schwedenbrücke in Vienna were further frame bridges.
Leonhardt's railway bridge over the Kocher in Kochendorf (1952), the Rosenstein Bridge (1952) and the Donautal Bridge Untermarchtal (1953) were examples of multi-span bridges made according to the Baur – Leonhardt method .
In 1953 Fritz Leonhardt's treatise Prestressed Concrete for Practice was published , which became extremely important in the non-French-speaking countries.
From 1952 to 1955, the La Voulte railway bridge over the Rhône was built according to plans by Nicolas Esquillan , the first French railway bridge made of prestressed concrete. His Viaduc de Moret-sur-Loing (1956) was probably the first prestressed concrete bridge built consistently from prefabricated parts .
In the USA , the first bridge of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway was built from pre-stressed concrete, at that time the longest bridge in the world. Jean Muller , who was head of Eugène Freyssinet's New York office at the time, was involved in the planning . In Australia was the Narrows Bridge in (1959) Perth the then largest continuous from precast segments manufactured prestressed concrete bridge built in the world. In 1959, the Taufīqī Canal Bridge , the first prestressed concrete bridge in Africa, was built in the Nile Delta .
With the Weinland Bridge, opened in 1958, the BBRV clamping system developed by Max Birkenmaier , Antonio Brandestini and Mirko Roš since 1948 and 1950 with the metallurgist Kurt Vogt in Switzerland and marketed by the Stahlton company achieved the breakthrough.
The Horb am Neckar railway bridge (1959) was one of the first curved railway bridges made of prestressed concrete.
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During the construction of the Pont de Savines (1960), which leads over a not yet filled reservoir , Finsterwalder's idea of constructing the superstructure in the form of a balance beam symmetrically on both sides of the pillar using a cantilever was first carried out on a series of 12 piers.
With the Mangfall Bridge (1960), Finsterwalder showed that a half-timbered box girder bridge in prestressed concrete can also be erected in cantilevered form.
In Brazil, Sergio Marqués de Souza built the Ponte Rodoviária do Estreito (1960) in the tradition of the Ponte Emílio Baumgart cantilevered over the Rio Tocantins . With 140 m it had the largest span in the world until the opening of the Bendorfer Rhine Bridge .
Numerous cantilever bridges were built using the Dywidag post-tensioning system , including abroad, starting with the Oesterdalälvenbron in Sweden. The Werksbrücke Mitte (Höchst) (1960) is one example, another is the first of the Medway Viaducts , the first cantilevered prestressed concrete bridge in Great Britain.
But soon every well-known bridge construction company had developed its own tensioning system.
The Unkelstein Bridge (1957) was the first of countless long elevated roads . The Kettiger slope bridge , built by Strabag between 1959 and 1961 , was the first to have a long prestressed concrete bridge with an advancing arm, in which, as in cantilevered construction, short sections did not have to be concreted, but an entire field could be concreted and pre-tensioned and the advance always in one direction and could walk unhindered over the pillars and supports. In the not far away Krahnenberg Bridge , planned by Hans Wittfoht and Polensky & Zöllner from 1961 to 1964 , the construction was further developed into a single-phase telescopic scaffold without special front girders, which served as a model for numerous other variants.
The 2.6 km long, prefabricated ramp bridges of the Pont Champlain (1962) over the Saint Lawrence River in Montreal were the first prestressed concrete bridges in Canada . The General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge (1962) planned by Riccardo Morandi across Lake Maracaibo was the first cable-stayed bridge made of concrete with a girder made of prestressed concrete hollow boxes.
In Toulouse , a trapezoidal frame bridge was built according to Freyssinet's design, the Pont Saint-Michel (1962). On the small Pont de Lacroix-Falgarde planned by STUP, the joint between the cantilever arms that had been common up to that point was omitted for the first time in the cantilever structure and the cantilever arms were connected to form a continuous beam, which soon became generally accepted.
The Gladesville Bridge (1964) in Sydney , the largest concrete arch bridge at the time, was assembled from hollow pre-stressed concrete blocks.
The 142 m high and 1042 m long Alnöbron (1964) in the province of Västernorrlands län was the longest bridge in Sweden .
The bridge over the Río Caroní (1964) in Venezuela designed by Fritz Leonhardt was the first prestressed concrete bridge to be built using the incremental launching method . The advanced method was first used in Europe for the Wildbichler Bridge (1969) over the Inn and for the Taubertal Bridge (1973).
In 1965, the Bendorfer Rhine Bridge, a prestressed concrete girder bridge with a span of 208 m in cantilever construction, was the largest in the world at the time.
In Russia , precast concrete bridges began to be built in the early 1960s. Bridges made of prestressed concrete framework in large parts weighing up to 5000 t were prefabricated on land and then floated to their destination . The Saratov Bridge (1965) on the Volga was a short time the longest bridge in Europe, km long until the 5, also made of prefabricated elements built Dutch Zeelandbrug , surpassed (1965 originally called Oosterscheldebrug).
The Shambat Bridge (1965) near Omdurman over the Nile was the first prestressed concrete bridge built abroad by an Italian company. With the Sori Viaduct (1966) and other viaducts (Viadotto Veilino, Bisagno and Nervi) on the Autostrada A12 ( Autostrada Azzurra ) east of Genoa , Silvano Zorzi introduced the Dywidag system in Italy. They were followed in 1969 by the viaducts on the Autostrada A10 ( Autostrada dei Fiori ) (Viadotto Borghetto, Sasso and San Lorenzo).
Jean Muller and the Campenon Bernard company developed precast construction further. With the Pont de Choisy (1965), they built a prestressed hollow box girder bridge over the Seine for the first time using a cantilevered cantilever made of prefabricated segments that were manufactured and bonded using the contact method . The process was further developed and in the following year the Viaduc d'Oléron (1966) with a large front scaffolding ( poutre de lancement ) was built. This laid the foundation for a long development in the construction of prestressed concrete bridges in cantilever construction with prefabricated segments. The Chillon Viaduct (1969) was built a little later using a similar method. The Pont de Noirmoutier (1971), the Rio-Niterói Bridge (1974) and the Pont de l'île de Ré (1988) built a few years later are other well-known examples. The Brotonne Bridge (1977), also consisting of bonded segments, was the first cable-stayed bridge with a continuous prestressed concrete box girder.
The 539 m long Danube bridge Pfaffenstein (1967) on the A 93 has two superstructures with continuous girders . The Elztalbrücke (1967) designed by Ulrich Finsterwalder and Herbert Schambeck has an expansion joint over the middle of the valley, while the two sections of the carriageway slab are monolithically connected with the mushroom-shaped pillars and the abutments. The Elztal Bridge is seen as the forerunner of the semi-integral bridges. The Dyckerhoff Bridge (1967) is a 96 m spanning pedestrian bridge made for the first time in lightweight concrete .
The Grein Danube Bridge (1967) was the first prestressed concrete bridge in Austria to be cantilevered across the Danube. In 1968 the Luegbrücke , the Obernberg valley crossing and the identically constructed Felperbrücke were opened in the upper section of the Brenner Autobahn .
In Spain, the double-decker bridges Puente de Tajo and Puente Almonte (1968) were built according to a design by Finsterwalder, which at that time held the record for railway bridges made of prestressed concrete with spans of 85 m . The Siegtalbrücke (1969) was the highest motorway viaduct at almost 106 m . The Carolabrücke (1971) in Dresden was the prestressed concrete bridge with the largest span in the GDR . In 1972 the A22 autostrada was completed, the Italian part of the Brenner motorway with 30 km of bridges to Modena , including the Gossensaß viaduct .
The Öland Bridge (1972) was in Europe and is still Sweden's longest bridge. Japan had already started in 1958 to build prestressed concrete bridges using the Dywidag method. The Urado Bridge (1972) with a span of 230 m and the Hamana Bridge (1976 ) with a span of 240 m are examples of large Japanese prestressed concrete box girder bridges. The Beška Bridge was built in Serbia (1975), at that time the longest of the Danube bridges , which leads the Autoput A1 over the Danube and which was doubled in 2011 by a second bridge. The first prestressed concrete bridge in the USA was the Pine Valley Creek Bridge (1975) in California.
The Gennevilliers motorway bridge (1976) near Paris was the largest cantilevered concrete bridge in France at the time. The Brotonne Bridge (1977) was the first cable-stayed bridge with a prestressed concrete deck.
The 1521 m long Ahr valley bridge (1976) of the A 61 has continuous beams with 11 spans each and an expansion joint on a separating pillar in the middle of the valley.
The Ponte Punta Penna Pizzone (1977) in Taranto is Italy's longest prestressed concrete bridge at 1909 m.
The Koror – Babeldaob Bridge (1978) in Palau in the South Pacific was the largest prestressed concrete bridge in the world. In 1996 it collapsed for reasons that were not clear.
The 185 m high Kochertal bridge (1979) of the A 6 is the highest valley bridge in Germany; its 178 m high bridge piers were the highest in the world until they were replaced by the Viaduc de Millau in 2004 .
The time from 1980
By Christian Menn designed Ganter (1980) on the Simplon road is considered the first Extradosed bridge . The Beckenried Lehnen Viaduct on Lake Lucerne , which opened in the same year, was the longest viaduct in Switzerland until the Viaduc d'Yverdon was opened in 1984 . The Biaschina Viaduct (1983) in Ticino is the highest bridge on Autobahn 2 .
In India, the 5.6 km long Mahatma Gandhi Setu over the Ganges was completed in 1982 after ten years of construction . The Sam Houston Ship Channel Bridge was opened in Texas (1982). In 1985 the Puente Internacional Tancredo Neves between Brazil and Argentina went into operation.
The two parallel girder bridges of the Aichtalbrücke (1983) were the longest clocked bridges in the world at that time. The bridges on the high-speed line Hanover – Würzburg built in the mid-1980s have a total length of 30 km. Among them, the Maintalbrücke Gemünden (1984) was considered the most long- span prestressed concrete railway bridge in the world when it opened and still has the largest span of a prestressed concrete girder bridge for railway overpasses in Germany. The highest bridge at 95 m is the Rombachtalbrücke (1986). At the Maintalbrücke Veitshöchheim (1987) a new world record was set for a one-sided incremental launching process with a pushed length of 1262.8 m.
The Pont d'Arbois (1985) was one of the first French bridges to look for ways to reduce the weight of the girder by means of bridges on trusses. Similar solutions were implemented with the Viaduc de Maupré (1987) and the Viaduc de Sylans (1989).
The Gateway Bridge (1986) near Brisbane , Australia was the largest of its kind for over 15 years with a span of 260 m.
The Schottwien valley crossing (1989) became an important part of the new Semmering expressway .
In Porto , Edgar Cardoso created the Ponte de São João railway bridge (1991), a prestressed concrete frame bridge that has also received much architectural attention due to its clear lines. In Norway, the Nye Varoddbrua (1994) set the record for the Gateway Bridge with a span of 260 m. The Skye Bridge has been connecting an island in the Inner Hebrides with the Scottish mainland since 1995 .
The comparatively small Pont de Saint-Rémy-de-Maurienne (1996) was France's first extradosed bridge.
The 12.9 km long Confederation Bridge (1997) between Prince Edward Island and the Canadian mainland was completely prefabricated on land and floated in with a floating crane. The 6.6 km long western part of the Storebæltsbroen (Bridge over the Great Belt) (1997/1998) also consists of prefabricated parts that were lifted onto the piers by a floating crane.
The 4.8 km long Bangabandhu Bridge (1998) was founded with 83 m long steel pipes in the bed of the Jamuna in Bangladesh .
With the Sunniberg Bridge (1998), Christian Menn and Dialma Jakob Bänziger created a highly regarded extradosed bridge.
In 1998, the use of external tendons was declared a standard construction method in Germany. The Ruhrtalbrücke Rumbeck was the first bridge built according to this rule.
The Raftsundbrua (1998) between two Lofoten Islands and the Sundøybrua (2003) are examples of the extensive construction of bridges and roads in Norway . With spans of 298 m, they occupy the second place of all prestressed concrete bridges worldwide. Only the Stolmabrua (1998) is a little further with 301 m span. Your box girder has a 184 m long middle section made of lightweight concrete . The second Shibanpo-Yangtze Bridge (2006) currently has the largest span with 330 m, but its box girder contains a 108 m long steel middle section.
In 2002, the Pierre-Pflimlin Bridge was opened over the Rhine near Strasbourg, the second new Rhine bridge on the German-French border, which was built for national road traffic after the Second World War and had no predecessor. The Pont du Bras de la Plaine (2002) built on the island of La Réunion is an idiosyncratic composite construction.
The third Benicia – Martinez Bridge (2007) in the San Francisco Bay Area is an example of the US prestressed concrete bridges that are still rare. The Puente San Marcos (2013) with the second highest pillar in the world is an example of the numerous Mexican prestressed concrete bridges. The Bjellandsvad bru (2009) in Norway is another example of semi-integral bridges.
The vast majority of prestressed concrete and many other large bridges were built in China at the beginning of this century . The longest bridge in the world, the Danyang – Kunshan Great Bridge , built between 2010 and 2011 on the Beijing – Shanghai high-speed line, is just one example.
The Arrah – Chhapra Bridge over the Ganges , opened in 2017, is the longest extradosed bridge in the world.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Reinhard Maurer: Prestressed concrete bridges . In: Tiefbau , 10th year 2005
- ↑ Bernard Marrey: Les Ponts Modern; 20 e siècle. Picard éditeur, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-7084-0484-9 , p. 50
- ↑ Patent application from 1928 for prestressed concrete
- ↑ Saalebrücke, Alsleben, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, 1928 on great-engineers.de on the website of the Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus - Senftenberg
- ↑ Leonardo Fernández Troyano: Bridge Engineering. A global perspective. Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puentes, Thomas Telford 2003, ISBN 0-7277-3215-3 , p. 414
- ^ Gerhard Mehlhorn, Manfred Curbach (Ed.): Handbook bridges . 3rd edition, Springer-Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03339-2 , p. 408 ( limited preview in the Google book search)
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt: Prestressed concrete for practice. 3rd edition, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1973, ISBN 3-433-00541-9 , p. 630
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt: Prestressed concrete for practice. 3rd edition, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1973, ISBN 3-433-00541-9 , p. 629
- ^ Eugène Freyssinet en quelques ouvrages: Le pont de Luzancy 1941–1946 on the website of the Association Eugène Freyssinet
- ↑ History of Prestressed Concrete in UK on archive.org
- ^ Eugéne Freyssinet: And révolution dans l'art de bâtir: Les constructions précontraintes. In: Le Génie Civil , 61st year, 68th volume, issue 25–26 from 20. – 27. December 1941, pp. 261-266
- ↑ Klaus Stiglat: civil engineers and their work . Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-433-01665-8 , pp. 62 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ↑ Günter Rombach: Prestressed concrete construction . 2nd Edition. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-433-02911-4 , pp. 16 .
- ^ Eugen Brühwiler, Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . 3. Edition. Springer-Verlag Wien, Vienna 2003, ISBN 978-3-7091-7261-2 , pp. 32 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ↑ G. Steinmann: The Baur – Leonhard method and the execution of bridges in prestressed concrete. In: Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Volume 72, No. 44 of October 30, 1954, pp. 639–644
- ↑ a b c d Ulrich Finsterwalder, Herbert Schambeck: From the Lahn bridge Balduinstein to the Rhine bridge Bendorf. In: Der Bauingenieur, 40th year, issue 3 from March 1965, pp. 85–91
- ↑ Cengiz Dicleli: Ulrich Finsterwalder (1897-1988) - Doyen of bridge. In: 26th Dresden Bridge Construction Symposium - planning, construction, repair and upgrading of bridges - 14./15. March 2016 , proceedings 26th Dresden Bridge Construction Symposium, p. 119
- ↑ a b c Eugen Brühwiler, Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . 3. Edition. Springer-Verlag Wien, Vienna 2003, ISBN 978-3-7091-7261-2 , pp. 25 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ^ Neckar bridges part 4 - bridges from Aldingen to Heilbronn on Karl Gotsch's website
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt: Prestressed concrete for practice. 3rd edition, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1973, ISBN 3-433-00541-9
- ↑ Bernard Marrey: Les Ponts Modern; 20 e siècle. Picard éditeur, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-7084-0484-9 , p. 190
- ↑ Marcel Prade: Les grands ponts du monde . Deuxième partie, Hors d'Europe. Brissaud à Poitiers, ISBN 2-902170-68-8 , p. 27
- ↑ The Weinland Bridge near Andelfingen. In: WERK, Swiss monthly for architecture, art, arts and crafts, volume 47, issue 2: Buildings of traffic, February 1960, doi : 10.5169 / seals-36702
- ↑ Leonardo Fernández Troyano: Bridge Engineering. A global perspective. Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puentes, Thomas Telford 2003, ISBN 0-7277-3215-3 , p. 412
- ↑ A list of the 86 bridges started up to 1964 can be found in Table 1 of the article by Ulrich Finsterwalder, Herbert Schambeck: From the Lahn Bridge Balduinstein to the Rhine Bridge Bendorf.
- ↑ Erwin Beyer, H. Thul: Hochstraßen. Planning, execution, examples . 2nd Edition. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1967. The work contains in table 1 on pages 20-27 a compilation of the generally approved tensioning systems
- ↑ Erwin Beyer, H. Thul: Hochstraßen. Planning, execution, examples . 2nd Edition. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1967, p. 33 .
- ^ Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . Springer-Verlag, Vienna, New York 1986, ISBN 3-211-81936-3 , p. 36
- ↑ Marcel Prade: Les grands ponts du monde . Deuxième partie, Hors d'Europe. Brissaud à Poitiers, ISBN 2-902170-68-8 , p. 184
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt, Willi Baur: Bridge over the Rio Caroni, Venezuela. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau , Volume 61, Issue 2, February 1966, pp. 25–38
- ↑ EE Gibschmann, GK Jewgrafow, GI Singorenko, EIKriltzow, MS Rudenko: assembly methods for reinforced concrete bridges from prefabricated parts in the USSR. In: IABSE congress report = Rapport du congrès AIPC = IVBH Congress Report Volume 7, 1964: Seventh Congress (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), p. 823 ( doi : 10.5169 / seals-7891 )
- ^ Gianluca Capurso, Francesca Martire: Cantieri nel vuoto; viadotti in cerca d'autore . In: Tullia Iori, Sergio Poretti (eds.): Storia dell'ingegneria strutturale in Italia - SIXXI 4: Twentieth Century Structural Engineering: The Italian Contribution . Gangemi Editore, Rome, ISBN 978-88-492-4934-7 , pp. 103 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ^ Gerhard Mehlhorn: Beam bridges . In: Gerhard Mehlhorn (Ed.): Handbook bridges. P. 250, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2007. ISBN 978-3-540-29659-1 , p. 414
- ↑ Richard Heinen: Design-construction considerations for alternate systems; competitive bid encouragement . Pine Valley Creek Bridge. In: Walter Podolny, Jr. (Ed.): Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges . Structural Engineering Series No. 9. US Department of Transportation; Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC Aug 1979, pp. 139; Pine Valley Creek Bridge p. 142 ( full text in Google book search).
- ↑ Man-Chung Tang: The Story of the Koror Bridge . International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2014, ISBN 978-3-85748-136-9 ( iabse.org [PDF; 8.4 MB ]).
- ↑ The photo album China 2013 High Bridge Trip gives an impression of the countless modern Chinese bridges.