Baby food

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Baby food or baby food is the generic term for all foods that are particularly suitable for feeding babies , the ingredients intended for them and the dishes prepared from them. The only natural starting formula is breast milk , which optimally meets the needs of the infant. The industrially produced baby food is divided into infant formula, follow-on formula and complementary food. Complementary food usually consists of suitable fruit or vegetable porridge, sometimes also of pureed meat, and you can make it yourself. At around twelve months old, toddlers can gradually become accustomed to adult food.

A baby is fed semolina porridge .

introduction

The daily energy requirement of infants is due to the growth with about 377  kJ (= 90  kcal ) per kilogram of body weight two to three times higher than that of adults. In order to meet this requirement, the fat content of the food must be 35 to 50 percent, the carbohydrate content only about 45 percent. The protein requirement is also higher in percentage terms than in adults and is 2.0 to 2.7 grams per kilogram of body weight daily up to the age of two months, then 1.1 to 1.5 grams (adults: 0.8 g) . The need for fluids is also greater because the kidneys are not yet fully developed and more fluid is lost through breathing and skin.

In the first months of life, digestion functions only to a limited extent; Newborns do not yet have an intestinal flora and the intestinal mucosa is not yet mature. Some of the enzymes necessary for food processing are also formed later by the body. For these reasons, babies should only be fed with breast milk or infant formula (infant formula) in the first phase of life . Follow-on formula (follow-on milk) should not be used in the first six months of life. If the infant or partially breastfed and infant milk is supplemental feeding, it is also called mixed feeding or zuschöppeln. From the fifth month at the earliest, and from the seventh month at the latest, breast milk alone no longer covers the infant's complete nutritional requirements.

According to legal requirements, baby food must not contain bacteria or harmful substances. It is subject to the diet regulation and must therefore contain defined maximum amounts of fat and carbohydrates and certain minimum amounts of minerals and vitamins . To meet the guidelines, many manufacturers also have to add their products, e.g. B. enrich with thiamine (vitamin B1).

Industrially produced complementary foods are available in different compositions, for example as porridge or puree in jars, as a powder to mix with baby food or as frozen food . In principle, complementary foods can also be produced in-house, adapted to the needs and digestive system of the infant.

From the seventh month of life and with the eruption of the teeth, the choice of food on offer is expanded, and foods with a solid consistency are added. From one year old, toddlers can gradually eat the same food as adults.

anthropology

Drinking vessel made from the horn of a cow

Until recently, infants only had a chance of survival in the first few months if they were breast-fed with breast milk, either from the birth mother or from a wet nurse , as no adequate substitute food was available. However, the use of animal milk as infant formula has been possible since the introduction of animal breeding in the Neolithic . This practice is documented by finds of drinking horns made of clay or the horns of sheep and goats in children's graves from around 4000 BC. In which milk residues could be found. The horns were closed on one side and had a suction flap on the other. However, it is not possible to reconstruct the age at which these drinking horns were used for small children.

Whether there is a biologically determined “natural breastfeeding duration” is scientifically disputed. The values ​​given in the literature for allegedly biologically determined breastfeeding periods range from nine months, analogous to the duration of pregnancy, up to 7 years when the dentition is completely present and one third of the adult weight is reached.

How long children received breast milk in prehistoric times can be roughly determined using skeletal remains. The isotope analyzes used for this, however, do not allow any statement to be made about the point in time from which small children also received other food. According to these findings, children were not completely weaned until they were five to seven years old. As an indication of the early duration of breastfeeding, the detectability of the enzyme lactase in children in lactose-intolerant cultures is interpreted, which is required for the digestion of lactose in breast milk. The enzyme production ends there mainly in the third year of life; the figures for different ethnic groups range from one year to four years. The reproductive rate provides another clue , since lactation in women usually suppresses ovulation and thus prevents a new pregnancy during breastfeeding . Statistically, women in the prehistoric phase of hunters and gatherers only got pregnant every four years, after settling in the Neolithic, however, every two years.

Anthropologists also use data from other primates as comparison values. Wild chimpanzees have offspring every five years on average, orangutans every seven years, whereby the lactation period plays an important role. Gorillas living in zoos breastfeed their offspring only half as long as their wild counterparts. It has also been found that higher-ranking female monkeys suckle less and become pregnant more quickly than lower-ranking female monkeys because of better food sources. From this it follows, according to Jonathan Wells, "that earlier weaning in a nutrient-rich environment is a general characteristic of the diet of primates." It is precisely the great flexibility of the lactation period that is characteristic of breast milk production in primates, the assumption of a genetically fixed lactation period, that is characteristic of breast milk production in primates therefore not plausible. "(...) the infant can be weaned earlier in a nutrient-rich environment, partly because alternative food is available and partly because the well-nourished mother can provide the infant with adequate milk without intensive suckling."

Since primates are the species with the longest suckling periods, their offspring grow the slowest and have a relatively long childhood , humans should theoretically have the longest nursing period of all primates. However, this was demonstrably not the case in the early stages of mankind. GE Kennedy assumes an average natural lactation period of two to three years on the basis of data from primitive peoples and explains the time of weaning with the fact that a toddler at the age of three can only be inadequately fed due to the high energy consumption of the human brain through breast milk; it only receives 50 to 80 percent of the required amount of protein. From this point on, further breastfeeding would be uneconomical. However, from the second half year of life onwards, the infant's nutritional needs can no longer be completely covered by breast milk alone.

The anthropologist Katherine Dettwyler assumes that the “natural weaning age” for children is 2.5 years at the earliest and seven years at the latest. This can be derived from comparisons with other primates and indigenous peoples. "Human children, like their non-human primate relatives, are constructed in such a way that they expect the benefits of breast milk and breastfeeding for at least 2.5 years." The phase of getting used to adult food takes around seven years in total for primitive peoples. The solid food that has been fed is pre-chewed by the mother for the small children. This practice was probably already common in the Stone Age.

Cultural history

The ideas about which foods are suitable for babies are culturally influenced, not universally the same in all cultures, and also not a historical constant. The findings of modern medicine are only one factor that has only recently played an essential role in food selection in industrialized countries . In the early days of mankind, baby food consisted of pre-chewed suitable adult food in addition to breast milk. Suckling by wet nurses was also known thousands of years ago. Since the Middle Ages, flour porridge and bread soup have been considered optimal baby foods in Europe . Fruit, vegetables and meat were not considered suitable complementary foods until the 19th century. At this time, the first industrially produced baby food came onto the market.

Antiquity

From the Greek epoch in ancient Egypt there are contracts with wet nurses in which the breastfeeding period is set at six months and the start of teething ; then animal milk should be given for 18 months, from camels, goats, sheep or cows. During this time, eggs, fruit and vegetables were fed.

The bible mentions the employment of wet nurses, for example in Exodus , when the abandoned infant Moses is found. The Koran explicitly sets the duration of breastfeeding to be at least two years. According to the Talmud , babies should be suckled for 18 to 24 months. In ancient Rome , upper-class children were apparently weaned very early, which Soranos criticizes, who speaks of “premature mothers” who give the little ones cereal after 40 days because they feel breastfeeding is a burden. He recommended soaked bread as the first solid food, later spelled soup , a kind of porridge , and soft-boiled eggs. The ancient medic Galenus recommended that small children should not be completely weaned until they were three years old.

middle Ages

Diana of Poitiers after a painting by François Clouet , her wet nurse on the left , 1570
A woman feeds an infant with an animal horn (front), engraving after Pieter Brueghel , 1563

As in many cultures in Europe, for centuries, breast milk from the first days ( colostrum ), which is particularly valuable from a nutritional point of view, was considered bad and harmful to the baby. In the first few days he was therefore not breastfed by his mother, but received more mature milk from other women, very often as a substitute, but also sweetened wine, honey, syrup, butter or other substances. Vomiting of the infant at this stage was interpreted as a necessary cleaning process.

In the Middle Ages, children were breastfed for an average of one to two years and were given soft complementary food as soon as the first teeth came. In 1352 Konrad von Megenberg mentioned in his house book Ökonomik that toddlers are only breastfed for significantly longer than a year in poor families. Since the High Middle Ages , the employment of wet nurses in the upper class spread in Europe , especially in France and Italy, and less so in Germany and England, where, unlike France, wet nurses lived in the household. The consequence was a significant increase in infant mortality in all countries . Nevertheless, the urban bourgeoisie increasingly employed wet nurses in the early modern period . Sexual abstinence for breastfeeding mothers prescribed by the Church is seen as one reason ; it was feared that pregnancy would affect the quality of breast milk. “For the upper classes, a rivalry between sexuality or further offspring and child welfare is assumed during the breastfeeding phase. (...) In addition, breastfeeding was viewed as a lowly, more animalistic activity. "

Besides milk, the most common baby food for centuries consisted of gruel and bread soup . The first German-language book on infant care and pediatrics was written by the Augsburg doctor Bartholomäus Metlinger in 1473 (A Regiment of Young Children) , addressed to mothers and fathers. In it he advises not to let the mother breastfeed newborns for the first 14 days, as early breast milk is harmful to the child. From a very early age, babies should not only be suckled by a wet nurse or mother, but also given porridge , and even more porridge if there are breastfeeding problems. In 1493, the medical professor Bartholomäus Scherrenmüller translated a Latin treatise by Wilhelm von Saliceto from the 13th century into German. It recommends weaning between six and twelve months. Then the child is to be fed with dipped bread and some soft meat in addition to flour porridge.

Modern times

Nursing mother, painting by Mary Cassatt , 1890

Basically, baby food did not change until the 18th century. However, there were regions in Europe in which the infants had not been breastfed at all since the late Middle Ages and were given animal milk or porridge as newborns, and this was true for all sections of the population. There is evidence of this practice for Lower Bavaria , parts of Württemberg , Bohemia , parts of Switzerland , the Austrian Tyrol , northern Italy , Finland , Sweden , Russia and Iceland . Since the Enlightenment there have been numerous medical publications advising mothers to breastfeed, but they have been ineffective in these regions, although infant mortality rates were significantly higher in children who were not breastfed. In Lower Bavaria this tradition still existed around 1900 with three quarters of all mothers, as surveys at vaccination appointments showed, while in Upper Franconia 80 percent breastfeed. In Munich , the breastfeeding rate between 1861 and 1886 was below 20 percent. “South of the Danube, it is a general custom among the rural folk not to breastfeed their children, but rather in an artificial way. The peasant women reject suckling as an inconvenience, even as a business that is beneath their dignity. Instead of the mother's milk, the most unsuitable food is used, namely a milk porridge of the greatest possible thickness, which is taught to the child in large quantities and often in poor, sour quality, ”wrote a medical historian in 1865 about Württemberg. A Bavarian doctor described breastfeeding women as an exception in 1871; the infants were given flour porridge and sugar water instead. "Even the cow's milk is withdrawn in some areas of Swabia out of avarice in order to be able to sell it for cheese-making."

A mother feeding, painting by Leon Lhermitte (detail), 1881

One reason for the extensive renunciation of breastfeeding in entire regions is likely to have been the heavy use of women as workers. A south German pastor reported in 1868: “A mother is criticized as being excessively lazy if she makes up her mind and takes the time to breastfeed her child, and that's why in the end she prefers to do it like the others and lets it stay.” The same applied to Sweden. In 1749 the government carried out a nationwide survey due to the high infant mortality rate. It was particularly high in the far north, where around half of all children died in their first year of life. Here it has been customary for generations to feed babies with cow milk from day one, using a cow horn. If the baby was a little older, the filled horn was hung over the cradle so that the child could drink from it without help. The horns were rarely cleaned and contained bacteria , and the milk in them spoiled very quickly. The reason given by the mothers for this practice was that they had no time to breastfeed because of their work in agriculture.

In general, more small children died in the harvest months than in winter. "Up until the end of the 19th century, phases of high labor intensity in agriculture were associated with increased infant mortality in most European countries." The Prussian general land law of 1794 stipulated: "A healthy mother is obliged to nurse her child herself (...) How long it should hold the child's breast depends on the father's determination. "

Since the 18th century, medical professionals have called breastfeeding a “natural duty” of the mother and have criticized the use of wet nurses. The previously common flour porridge was now also considered harmful to the stomach and intestines of the babies. The child should only get milk for the first six months, afterwards a bread soup made with milk or a beer soup with butter and sugar. “Sweet whey ” are also suitable , for which fresh milk and whisked eggs should be boiled; the top layer was then skimmed off. “When the child is out of the first week, you can gradually cook this whey with breadcrumbs or rice, and so the children can be raised with it alone. (...) If a child has only survived the first quarter of a year, it can get used to other soups, even thin meat soups. "The babies were fed with a spoon or used so-called" lollipops "or some other kind Drinking straw with a sponge or cloth as a teat.

19th century

Baby with a historical feeding bottle from 1900

In the middle of the 19th century, children in Germany were gradually weaned as soon as they got teeth. “If you want to proceed naturally, you only give the child the breast until the 6th month of life, then you give a saucer full of thin milk or (...) beef soup (...) or for a change once a day, after a few weeks twice (...) Water soup with semolina , rice , sago . ”Since the German population statistics also contained information on infant nutrition, it has been proven that the breastfeeding rate in the cities fell significantly as a result of the industrial revolution , in Berlin by 27 percent between 1885 and 1910; the duration of breastfeeding there fell from 8.5 to two months on average.

At the end of the 19th century, newborns who were not breastfed in Germany were fed boiled cow's milk that was diluted with water, fennel tea or gruel and mixed with milk sugar , and sometimes with baking soda . In the meantime, there was a special cooking device on the market with which the milk rations in small bottles could be sterilized . Since the fresh milk was often adulterated in the cities, doctors recommended diluted condensed milk as an alternative , and there was also canned milk.

When feeding newborns without breast milk, a measure known as artificial feeding in the event of complications, the infant mortality rate in Germany around 1890 was up to 47% compared to 8% for newborns who were fed with breast milk. The artificial feeding of newborns with starchy foods such as soups made from cereal or child flour has been criticized.

20th century to the present

At the beginning of the 20th century, milk banks for breast milk were established in hospitals. The concept was to accept donated milk from breastfeeding women with excess milk and to feed malnourished or sick infants with it. What is probably the world's first so-called human milk collection point (FMS) was opened in Vienna in 1909 . In 1919 collection points followed in Boston and Magdeburg by the pediatrician Marie Elise Kayser (1885–1950). In Magdeburg was pumped milk collected twice daily for the donors and boiled in the hospital. In the first year there was a total of 424 liters, a year later double that amount. However, the collection point was abandoned in 1922. Kayser founded another FMS in Erfurt in 1925 , other cities followed suit. The GDR institutionalized the system and ordered the establishment of breast milk collection points in all cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants. These milk banks existed in the GDR until 1989, some still exist today, and the last West German collection points were closed in the 1970s. In 1989, according to official information, a total of over 200,000 liters of breast milk were donated in the GDR, 10,000 liters by 93 women in Leipzig alone . In the year 2000 only 1,800 liters were accepted from 44 donors. There are breast milk banks in Sweden, Denmark and the USA, among others.

Manufactured baby food

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Development of convenience foods

Parents with a bottle-necked child around 1900

Justus von Liebig developed the first ready-made food for babies in 1865, initially in liquid form as “soup for babies”. Some time later, he launched a powdered ready-to-eat formula commonly known as baby meal . Both products were sold in several European countries from 1866 onwards, with Liebig's reputation contributing to the sales success. Liebig's products were initially sold in pharmacies and, because of the complicated preparation, some of them were already finished there. In Munich, two pharmacists offered freshly prepared Liebig soup in individual portions. In 1866/67 one of them sold 30,000 servings within eleven months. The trained pharmacist's assistant Henri Nestlé added Liebig's recipe for condensed milk and, after an experiment on two infants, brought the powder onto the market as Henri Nestle's children's meal in 1868. In 1874 670,000 rifles were sold in 18 countries. Children's meals were considered unsuitable for feeding children in the first months of life.

Philipp Biedert has been analyzing the chemical composition of breast milk and cow's milk since 1869 and, based on this knowledge, developed a preparation that was sold in pharmacies as Biedert's cream mixture . Biedert's infant food in cans followed in 1874 as an instant version , the contents of which, with a butter-like consistency, only had to be mixed with water or milk.

From the 1880s, a so-called peptonized milk came on the market under the name Voltmer's milk , to which digestive enzymes of the pancreas were added in order to artificially “ pre- digest ” the milk.

In 1928, the American food manufacturer Gerber was the first company in the world to offer canned pureed fruits and vegetables as baby food. The first products were peas, carrots, spinach and plums.

In 1929 the first ready-made preparation based on soy flour instead of milk powder came onto the market in the USA . However, due to the high fiber content, the babies developed diarrhea . Soy baby food has been made from isolated soy proteins since the mid-1960s .

In 1932 the Milupa company started producing baby food with Pauly's nutritional food , which consisted of rusk flour dissolved in milk . In 1934, the Munich pediatrician Günther Malyoth developed a "baby food sugar " under the name Alete . In Germany it was common to feed milk with oatmeal . In the 1950s, so-called melt flakes came onto the market. In the post-war period, attempts were made to adapt milk preparations more and more to the composition of breast milk and to sell them as "humanized" or "adapted". The first canned vegetable porridges for babies came onto the market in the mid-1950s, and they have been bottled in jars since 1959. In 1959 Milupa produced semolina porridge, and in 1964 the company developed the first synthetic milk called Milumil .

In the last few decades, hypoallergenic products (HA) in particular have been developed in the field of infant formula. In Germany, frozen organic complementary foods have also been offered since 2010.

Infant formula

Bottle feeding 1989

Under food law, all foods and products that are specifically intended for nutrition in the first six months of life and should contain all the nutrients that the infant needs are referred to as infant formula. The natural starting formula is breast milk. To prepare the finished products from powder, water is added. Industrially produced infant formula is suitable for feeding from birth and for the entire first year of life. With regard to finished products, a distinction is made in Germany between pre-food (previously adapted baby milk food ), which largely corresponds to the composition of breast milk and contains lactose as the only carbohydrate , and 1-food (previously partially adapted baby milk food ), which also contains other carbohydrates such as sucrose . For immature premature babies there are special ready-made products with a higher carbohydrate content and less lactose. At 80 kcal / dl (335 kJ / dl), the energy content of such special foods is 10-20 kcal / dl higher than that of normal infant formula.

Follow-on formula

Follow-on milk ( 2-food ) can be fed to infants from the age of at least six months together with complementary food and, as a liquid part, can supplement the mixed diet. According to the recommendation of the German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, follow-on formula should be introduced at the earliest when complementary foods are started. Even after the introduction of complementary foods, infants should continue to be breastfed.

Special food

Children of allergy sufferers have an increased hereditary tendency towards allergies . Since the intestinal mucosa in babies is still permeable and foreign protein, for example from cow's milk, can trigger a food allergy, there is so-called hypoallergenic baby food, also called hydrolyzate formula or HA food , in which the protein contained is split or broken down by hydrolysis has been denatured . The HA foods are recommended for allergy prevention in allergy-prone infants. Australian researchers, however, question the benefits of HA baby formula. In a 2011 study of 620 infants with a high allergy risk, they compared the effect of baby food made from cow's milk and hypoallergenic food.

In contrast, special foods made from severely split hydrolyzate or a mixture of amino acids are used to treat a detected protein allergy. However, when the casein in cow's milk is broken down, bitter peptides are released so that these products taste bitter . Particularly strongly hydrolyzed formula products are also known as semi-elemental foods . In terms of food law, this is "medicinal food" that is used therapeutically for diseases such as diarrhea and dyspepsia .

Since breastfed babies mainly contain bifidus bacteria in the intestinal flora , which ensure a pH value that inhibits the reproduction of putrefactive bacteria and significantly reduces the risk of intestinal infections and diarrhea, manufacturers of some finished products are now using so-called probiotics or prebiotics (special fiber ) which should also lead to the formation of these bacteria in the intestine. The prevention of diarrhea, constipation and atopic eczema are stated as positive effects of this probiotic baby food . The desired change in the intestinal flora through probiotics has been proven in studies, the corresponding study results on the effect are still pending. Studies with certain prebiotics show both the development of a bifidus-dominant intestinal flora and a clear allergy-preventive effect. In addition, it has been shown in clinical studies that these prebiotics can make a significant contribution to reducing the risk of infection. A positive immunomodulatory effect thus seems to exist. A special diet is also necessary if the very rare maple syrup disease is diagnosed .

Complementary foods

In Germany, complementary foods are classified under the regulation on dietetic foods as "foods other than milk that meet the special nutritional requirements of healthy infants and young children and are intended for feeding infants during the weaning period and for feeding infants and young children during the gradual changeover to normal food “( BGBl. I p. 1161 ). The regulation on dietetic foods describes baby food as dietary food , even if it is intended for healthy infants or young children, as baby food is a special diet. Complementary foods may only be produced and sold commercially if their composition meets certain requirements and restrictions. At European level, this specifies Directive 2006/125 / EC on processed cereal-based foods and other complementary foods for babies and young children .

Principles of the preparation of finished products

Baby bottles

Ready-made preparations must be prepared with hygienically safe drinking water .

The nitrate content must not be too high, otherwise there is a risk of methaemoglobinemia . The Brockhaus Encyclopedia Nutrition states a limit value of 10 mg / liter; the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment considers 50 mg / liter (the limit value according to the Drinking Water Ordinance ) to be acceptable if the finished product contains less than 100 mg / kg nitrate (calculated after preparation). Water from lead pipes should not be used any more than water from water filters. In the case of copper pipes, the standing water must first run off until the fresh water becomes noticeably colder before it can be used to prepare ready-to-eat food.

In 1990, the nutrition commission of the German Society for Child and Adolescent Medicine (DGKJ, at that time still the “German Society for Paediatrics”) recommended that baby food “ should always be prepared with boiled drinking water. If, in exceptional cases, this is not available in the required quality, then “packaged water” (mineral, spring or table water) with the note “suitable for the preparation of baby food” should be used. ” Such packaged water should be used Water, which is also called “baby water”, has to comply with limit values ​​that are far lower than for adults, since infants have a far higher fluid turnover based on their body weight and pollutants can have a far greater impact on them than on adults. The maximum values ​​are 20 mg / l sodium, 10 mg / l nitrate, 0.02 mg / l nitrite, 0.7 mg / l fluoride, 240 mg / l sulfate, 0.05 mg / l manganese and 0.005 mg / l Arsenic; In December 2006, a limit value of 0.002 mg / l was also set for uranium.

According to the recommendations of the Nutrition Commission of the DGKJ from 2004 and 2014 and the recommendations for action by the Young Family Network, drinking water for baby food does not have to be boiled if it is hygienic.

Advertising guidelines

Old advertising poster for Nestlé children's meal, around 1900

Within the EU there are directives for the advertising of ready-to-use infant formula that prohibit all advertising measures aimed at preventing mothers from breastfeeding . Directive 91/321 / EEC and Directive 2006/141 / EC refer to the International Code for the Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes . The guidelines are implemented in each country by national laws, in Germany since 2005 by the Diet Ordinance . According to this, it is forbidden to present finished products as being completely equivalent to or superior to breast milk. Only scientifically confirmed factual statements about the products are permitted. The terms “humanized” and “maternized” may no longer be used; there are precise guidelines for the term “adapted”. An idealized representation of bottle feeding with text or images is prohibited. Manufacturers must use brochures etc. Ä. always point out the benefits of breast milk. The distribution of free or discounted product samples is also not permitted.

In more general terms, the European Directives 2006/82 / EC, 1999/21 / EC, 96/4 / EC and 91/321 / EEC also contain regulations for infant formula.

Marketing of baby food in developing countries

The marketing of powdered milk and infant formula in developing countries and the supply of such products as food aid has been controversial since the 1970s. The public discussion in Europe and the USA was triggered primarily by the manufacturer Nestlé , which had come under fire for massive advertising campaigns in African countries. Nestlé was accused of not only advertising its ready-made milk in mass media and suggesting to mothers that their products are better for infants than breast milk, but also of direct marketing by distributing free samples and using so-called “milk nurses” in hospitals to support the mothers of newborns offered Nestlé products. These advertising strategies were successful and led to falling breastfeeding rates in developing countries. Since the drinking water in these countries is often contaminated and not boiled before use, the improper preparation of bottle- fed food has increased infant mortality . Many mothers could not read the instructions on the packaging because they were illiterate . Often the expensive preparations were diluted too much with water, so that the children's nutrient supply was insufficient.

The physician Derrick Jelliffe coined the term “commercial malnutrition” in this context. In 1970, the massive advertising of baby food manufacturers in developing countries was the first topic of a UN advisory commission . In 1974 the English organization War on Want published a critical report on several companies entitled The Baby Killer , the word "killer" referring to the baby bottle . The Swiss Working Group Third World Bern published a slightly modified German translation of the publication with the title Nestlé kills babies . Nestlé then sued for defamation . In 1976 the action group was fined 300 francs for the title. The verdict said that the other allegations made in the publication about marketing had been sufficiently substantiated.

One consequence of the public discussion and the Nestlé process was the legal regulation of manufacturer advertising for instant baby food.

The delivery of milk powder to countries in the so-called Third World also had economic reasons, because in several European countries such as Switzerland and Germany there was an overproduction of milk production ( milk lake ). In Switzerland, state-subsidized deliveries of milk powder began in the early 1960s. The Swiss Milk Association started a collection campaign called Milk Donation UNICEF - Milk for underdeveloped mothers and children . In 1962, Swiss food aid consisted exclusively of milk powder, in 1975 only 54%, in 1980 68%.

Sales and market shares of baby food manufacturers in Germany

In 2012, retail sales for baby food in Germany totaled 650 million euros.

rank Companies Brands Sales 2012 ( EVP ) Market share
1 SwitzerlandSwitzerland Hipp Hipp, Bebivita 330 million euros 50.8%
2 FranceFrance Danone Aptamil, Milumil, Milupa 132 million euros 20.3%
3 SwitzerlandSwitzerland Nestlé Alete 116 million euros 17.8%
4th GermanyGermany Alnatura Alnatura, Biomio 27 million euros 4.1%
5 GermanyGermany German milk office Humana 16 million euros 2.5%
Others 29 million euros 4.5%

Source: Nielsen / company information / LZnet

Allergy potential of baby food

Since the immune system of infants is not yet developed, there is an increased susceptibility to allergies, especially in children of atopic people . Because babies usually come into contact with cow's milk products and thus foreign protein after weaning, allergic reactions to products containing cow's milk are the most common allergies in infancy. Breastfeeding has a preventive effect. Above all, babies who are not breastfed but fed with infant formula made from cow's milk are more at risk. A cow's milk allergy occurs in babies with 2 to 3 percent. Common symptoms are colic , diarrhea and atopic eczema in the form of its first manifestation as cradle cap . In 90% of children, however, the protein allergy disappears in toddler age (up to the age of 3).

Breast milk does not contain any foreign protein and is therefore considered hypoallergenic. “However, it does not provide absolute protection against the manifestation of the atopic predisposition, among other things because, under certain conditions, traces of allergenic food components can be found in breast milk.” In the case of allergic reactions, doctors recommend switching to special hydrolyzate food.

Ready-made products based on goat's milk are also available on the market, which the manufacturer recommends as an alternative diet for those with cow's milk allergy. Allergic reactions to sheep and goat milk have rarely been described. According to EU directives and the scientific opinions of EFSA, baby milk based on goat milk has recently been approved as a protein source for special baby foods and is just as valuable a source of protein as baby food made from cow's milk. There are recognized, controlled scientific studies on the tolerance of goat's milk in infants. It is true that the allergy potential of baby milk based on goat's milk is lower than that of baby milk based on cow's milk; However, according to the “Netzwerk Gesund ins Leben”, baby foods based on soy protein, goat's, mare's or other animal milk are not suitable for general allergy prevention.

Soy-based preparations , which are often viewed as an alternative to cow's milk products, are also approved for infants . Nutritionists, however, point out that soy also has allergenic potential. 30 to 50 percent of all infants with a cow's milk allergy also react to soy protein. The high content of phytate , aluminum from impurities and phytoestrogens is also rated critically . In premature babies , negative influences on weight gain and protein metabolism were found. The indications for soy food are therefore only a rare congenital lactose intolerance and galactosemia , but not a cow's milk allergy. The Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) declared in May 2007: “The long-term effects of an increased intake of isoflavones in infants has not been conclusively clarified. For precautionary reasons, as long as no further data are available, the BfR follows the recommendation of the Nutrition Commission of the German Society for Child and Adolescent Medicine. According to this, baby foods made from soy protein are no substitute for cow's milk products. Infants who are not or not fully breastfed should only have them regularly in justified exceptional cases and after a doctor's recommendation. Soy formula for infants is not intended for the nutrition of healthy infants. "

Complementary food should only be introduced after the age of four months. In order to determine possible intolerances, a new food should be fed for at least three to four days before another is introduced into the child's diet. According to the latest recommendations, the use of foods with a high allergen potential such as eggs, fish, cow's milk or nuts should no longer be avoided in the first year of life. On the contrary, there are indications that fish consumption has a protective influence on the development of allergies.

Baby food hazards

Spores of some bacteria can be ingested by bees and survive in honey. The pathogen Clostridium botulinum , which releases the botulinum toxin , which can lead to botulism (symptoms of paralysis), is particularly dangerous . Clostridia and botulinum toxin are responsible for 15 to 30% of sudden infant death syndrome.

In a study in Germany, baby food and honey from Germany and Vietnam were examined. “Eight (including 6 baby food and 2 honey samples) out of 46 samples bought in Germany contained C. botulinum spores. All infant milk powder samples were negative, while 4 of the 9 cereal food samples, one of 8 potato puree and one of 7 vegetable food samples were positive for type B. "(See also honey )

In order to avoid botulism in babies, prepared or opened baby food should not be stored too long at room temperature, stored in the refrigerator for a maximum of one day, and neither honey nor (corn) corn syrup , maple syrup or other sweet (fruit) syrups or juice of raw carrots or raw beets can be used for preparation or sweetening. Likewise, the nipples or pacifiers should not be smeared with honey in order to overcome suction inhibitions. Since clostridia also occur in the earth, all foods from near-ground origin (strawberries, fallen fruit, root vegetables, tea herbs) and insufficiently heated preparations made from them are at risk (e.g. tea preparations with dried, dust-contaminated herbs with warm water without subsequent heating).

The appearance of the clostridia or the toxin is not associated with a putrid smell; contamination can also be present in food with a perfect taste. Clostridia multiply in the absence of air, especially at room temperatures. A large proportion of the reported cases of botulism can be traced back to home- cooked canned goods (which also include vacuum packaging , “preserves” , jams and cold-set or once-heated syrups). Proliferation of clostridia leads to bloated cans, packages and low over pressure when opening (which also by fermentation may be caused). A "pop" sound upon opening of a baby food vial is in most cases on the existing therein under due pressure (the vials are zugedeckelt in the manufacture of warm, heated and cooled, the associated thermal contraction in volume leads to the negative pressure).

Cool storage in accordance with the recommended storage conditions will reduce reproduction. Heating to 100 ° C kills the active pathogens and the toxin, a second heating also inactivates the spores , whereby heating also serves to prevent other infectious diseases such as listeriosis and is effective against salmonella .

Regular feeding of bottle food can trigger tooth decay, the so-called nursing bottle syndrome .

Sometimes tap water and mineral water that is used to prepare baby food can also contain too much nitrates , but in a study initiated by the journal Öko-Test , pesticide breakdown products or increased bacterial counts and increased amounts of heavy metals (such as Uranium ) found in individual mineral waters.

The chemical bisphenol A can be released from containers made of polycarbonate when boiling baby food in baby bottles, when sterilizing the bottle or from teats and pacifiers and is then ingested by babies, stored but also excreted again. According to the statements of the European Food Authority (EFSA) , the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BFR), the “Advisory Commission of the Society for Toxicology” and the Bavarian State Office for Health and Food Safety , the quantities are in the safe range. Nevertheless, the use of polycarbonates made from the raw material bisphenol A as a material for baby bottles is prohibited in the EU. The release of physiologically harmful bisphenol A polycarbonate can also be made from other produced therefrom household appliances, which are to prepare baby food use, especially from kettles , blender containers in the production of warm soup or porridge, measuring cups and disposable tableware , even in hot programs in the dishwasher with Redistribution to other dishes.

Like rice, rice-based children's foods such as rice flakes are also contaminated with arsenic , the majority between 100 and 350 micrograms per kg (for comparison: the maximum value for drinking water in the EU is 10 micrograms per liter). In small children, arsenic intake through food containing rice is 2 to 3 times higher than in adults, based on body weight, so the Bavarian LGL recommends no more than a maximum of 20 grams of rice cakes per week for children up to three years of age.

Nutritional classification

Breast milk is the species-specific starting formula for humans, which makes it unique and, due to its complex composition, superior to industrially produced foods (formula foods). It not only ensures optimal growth, but also protects against numerous infections and possibly other risks, including sudden infant death syndrome , diabetes mellitus type I and II, obesity, hypercholesterolemia and asthma . In addition to the health-promoting effects, positive influences of breast milk on the gross and fine motor and cognitive development of the children, but not on the intelligence. These positive effects are attributed to various ingredients in breast milk that are not contained in formula foods, or at least not in the same amount. In addition to intact cells of the immune system and immunoglobulins, these include the amino acids taurine and glutamine , polyunsaturated fatty acids , polyamines , nucleotides , lactoferrin , lysozyme , oligosaccharides , inositol , carnitine and antioxidants .

Detected residues of poorly degradable, easily fat-soluble organochlorine compounds such as hexachlorocyclohexane , DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls in breast milk have at times led to a reluctance to breastfeed because it was feared that the infant at the end of the food chain could accumulate these pollutants in too high quantities in the body. In the meantime, studies have shown that the level of these foreign substances in breast milk is falling again. Scientists assume that possible disadvantages due to the ingested amount are more than outweighed by the advantages of breast milk if it is no longer the main source of nutrition from the age of two - as recommended -.

If a mother does not want to or cannot breastfeed, so-called formula foods are available for bottle feeding. These are ideally completely adapted (adapted) to breast milk in terms of their protein, fat and carbohydrate composition. Marketing interests have also led to the development of infant formula and follow-on milk, which, according to medical professionals, correspond more to the suggested needs of a “stronger diet” for an older infant than the real nutritional needs of the infant. However, they are a little cheaper. "Modern formula milk products have statistical disadvantages at best, the individual outcome of the children is optimal in almost all cases with regard to their physical development."

With regular consumption of nicotine , alcohol and other drugs or the intake of medication by the mother, it is preferable to feed the child with finished products due to the pollution caused by medical reasons. In addition, infection with HIV or tuberculosis from infected mothers can be excluded with finished preparations. Another possible advantage is the adequate supply of minerals and vitamins even if the mother is malnourished or malnourished.

The increasing need for iron and calcium in the second half of life can no longer be covered by breast milk alone, which is why complementary foods should be introduced at this time.

Self-made milk substitutes for the first phase of life are viewed very critically by doctors and nutritionists and mostly rejected. In a statement by the DGE it says: “According to the German Society for Nutrition e. V. (DGE) feeding infants with fresh grain milk , with the grain drink Kokkoh for macrobiotics or with a purely plant-based rice milk pose health risks for the child, because raw milk and grain soaked overnight can contain pathogenic germs. These products also put a strain on the baby's stomach and intestines, as starch digestion only develops gradually during the first year of life. "

Taste imprint

The taste system develops in the fetus at an early stage of pregnancy . The tongue with the taste buds arises in the second month of pregnancy. From the third month the unborn child perceives the taste of the amniotic fluid ; it drinks between 200 and 760 ml of it daily. Even before the 28th week it has been shown to react positively to sweet taste stimuli and negatively to bitter foods. Reactions to odors have been observed from week 28. During breastfeeding , it has been shown that the child's taste preferences are influenced by the mother's diet, as the aromas of the food pass into the breast milk. Familiar tastes of foods are more readily accepted after weaning.

In contrast to breast milk, the taste of ready-made food from at least the same manufacturer is always the same, but it can also have a flavor-shaping effect. Vanillin used to be added to finished milk in Germany . In a study today, 30 to 40 year old test persons were asked to rate two types of ketchup in terms of taste. One of them was flavored with vanillin, in the same concentration as baby food back then. Two thirds of the test subjects who had previously received this diet preferred the ketchup with added vanilla, but only 30 percent of the former breastfeeding children. If infants receive hypoallergenic substitute milk, which tastes relatively bitter, at an early stage, they tolerate the bitter taste to a significantly higher degree than their peers even years later. From the 5th month of life, babies refuse bitter milk if they have not been fed it beforehand.

Other cultures

Toddler in Tibet , painting by Arnold Landor

Infant nutrition is part of the eating culture of a social group and, like these, is influenced not only by scientific and medical views, but above all by cultural and social factors. "And like any other eating behavior, variants of breastfeeding behavior have assigned meanings and values ​​that are in accordance with other aspects of the (respective, supplementary) culture (...)". In a cultural and social context, the decision on how to feed an infant and whether and for how long it is breastfed is not a purely individual decision of the mother, but is always influenced by what is considered the norm in her society.

While the breastfeeding rate in traditional cultures is very high in the first year of life, exclusive breastfeeding is not widespread. In most countries, babies receive additional sweetened water, animal milk or other food as early as a few weeks or shortly after birth.

Both breast milk and other foods are often given symbolic meanings. In several cultures, for example, there is the idea that the children suckled by a wet nurse are connected to each other through the milk they have consumed and that a form of kinship arises, for example in Islam , which forbids marriages between “milk siblings”. The Maasai supposedly let children of previously hostile tribes breastfeed by their own wet nurses in order to symbolize the peace agreement. It is customary for the Murik of Papua New Guinea to give babies a porridge called "the ancestral bones" in the second week; thus the child is accepted into the community.

Asia

Old Vedic texts from around 1000 BC Chr. Recommend that Indian children breastfeed exclusively for one year, then supplement their breast milk with animal milk and solid foods and gradually wean from the age of two. There is also the widespread superstition that the first breast milk after birth, that colostrum is harmful. Instead, the newborn was given a mixture of honey , ghee , sap , and gold dust. Feeding special baby foods has long been uncommon in India. Most mothers exclusively breastfeed for at least six months and then give them animal milk. At around the age of one, the children receive their first solid food, which consists of lentils (dhal) , rice and vegetables. In Kerala and among the Chamar in northern India, it is customary to celebrate the infant's first rice meal with a festive ceremony. In Sri Lanka , children are also given solid food when they are six (boys) and seven months (girls); In a temple there is a ceremonial feeding of sweet rice, which is supposed to ensure the welfare of the child.

In Malaysia , babies are fed a porridge made from boiled bananas or boiled rice with sugar as early as the first week , because these foods are considered invigorating and breast milk alone is not nutritious enough. As soon as the child can chew, they slowly get used to the adult diet, which in the countryside consists mainly of rice with sauce and fish, as well as fruit.

In rural areas in Vietnam , Cambodia and Laos , most children are breastfed for more than a year, and convenience foods are either unavailable or too expensive. Here, too, infants are given pre-chewed rice or rice porridge in addition to breast milk at an early age. At about six months, soup made from water and rice flour (bot) and cereal porridge are added. Vietnamese women who work in the city sometimes employ a wet nurse as soon as they return to work.

Breastfeeding Indian woman, painting by Raja Ravi Varma († 1906)

Traditional Korean culture expects mothers to breastfeed their children for three years. Few women do that today. The breastfeeding rate has fallen sharply since the 1970s, and breastfeeding is considered old-fashioned and backward, especially in cities. The position of women in society has also changed. Today, only around 17% of women breastfeed exclusively, 67% use bottle-fed formula and 14% do both.

In Japan , nursing mothers were traditionally held in high regard and until a few decades ago it was common to nurse for a long time. Even today, some kindergarten children are still partially breastfed; on the other hand, only about half of the infants still receive breast milk at three months and only a third at six months.

While most children are breastfed for a relatively long time in the rural regions of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan , bottle- fed food dominates in the cities and in Hong Kong today. In a study in the 1980s, 75% of six-month-old infants were breastfed in the countryside and 49% in the cities. In rural areas only 2% received the bottle only, in the city it was 15%. Some of the other children were still breastfed. A 1993 study found that only 18% of newborns in Hong Kong were breastfed, with all the rest given finished products. In the 1930s, two thirds of children were breastfed for more than a year.

In pre-communist China, it was customary within the upper class to employ wet nurses who had the status of maids. There were servant agencies in the cities that also placed rural women as wet nurses for households. These mothers left their own children with their families when they were about two months old. Feeding is traditionally very early, often in the first few days in parallel with breast milk. A thin gruel or paste made from rice flour is considered particularly suitable. A little later, soft sugared rice, soup, eggs, pastries and fruit are added. Vegetables and meat are pre-chewed for older babies. In the countryside, on the other hand, infants are often only given watery rice and cereal porridge, and now and then some vegetables.

In China, neither animal milk nor soy milk has traditionally been considered suitable food for babies. Mothers who could neither breastfeed adequately nor afford a wet nurse used a paste made from crushed walnuts , which was mixed with boiled water and fed.

Islamic countries

The Koran stipulates a two-year breastfeeding period, but most women in Islamic countries no longer adhere to this rule . In Pakistan , around half of children aged just under two receive breast milk, in Sudan 44%, in the United Arab Emirates and Tunisia a quarter and in Jordan 13%. It is widespread to give infants sugar water or tea in the first few days after birth and to start feeding them with finished products after 40 days, because these are considered to be particularly nutritious. In a 1999 study in the United Arab Emirates, 76 percent of babies received additional formula in addition to breast milk in the first month of life: almost 30% a finished product, 26% whole milk (cow or goat milk), 14% skimmed milk and 5% condensed milk .

In Egypt , children in the first year of life are given vegetable soup, cooked legumes , milk pudding and sweetened cereal porridge ; At the age of two, other starchy foods are added. In Saudi Arabia , complementary foods are introduced at the age of five to seven months and initially consist of rice, bread and vegetable soup. In the Arab Emirates, solid food is only given at the end of the first year of life and consists primarily of rice and bread. In general, baby food in this region is very low in protein. One reason is the widespread belief that animal products cannot be digested by small children and lead to putrefaction in the intestines .

Africa

Indian family in Brazil , painting by Jean-Baptiste Debret

In Africa it is customary to feed infants other than breast milk very early, even before commercial products are introduced. In the case of the Luo in Kenya , feeding is traditionally often given at around two to three weeks, and by three months at the latest, cereal porridge makes up half of baby food. From six months, a porridge made from millet and soured milk is the main food. The Akamba give the children boiled cow's milk for one to two months and a thin gruel of corn flour (uji) in the third month . In the second half of the year, a thick porridge (ugali) and vegetable stew are added.

In Nigeria , babies are given herbal tea shortly after birth and corn porridge when they are two months old. At six to nine months, they are also fed pre-chewed yams . In Zaire , herb mixtures, mashed bananas or a porridge made from cassava are fed early on . While only 13% of Nigerian mothers used instant milk in the 1950s, the number has increased sharply since the 1960s. In the 1980s, 77% of three-month-old infants in the cities and 40% in the countryside were given convenience foods as well as porridge. The duration of breastfeeding was at least six months in the cities and at least twelve months in the country.

As soon as a child can chew, in West Africa they also receive some of the usual adult diet. Corn or millet porridge, yams and legumes are the staple foods for toddlers, who usually hardly get any animal products.

The diet of the shepherd peoples in Africa differs significantly from that of the sedentary population groups, mainly due to the high proportion of dairy products and animal fats. This also applies to baby food. With the Turkana in Kenya, for example, the children are breastfed for an average of 21 months, but are given a little butterfat as newborns and then regularly for the first six months. At around four months there is the milk of camels and goats , with around ten months lard and fatty meat, a little later corn and with 15 months blood , a staple food of many nomadic peoples . After weaning, milk and dairy products provide 75% of food energy in young children. It is similar with the Maasai . Here the baby is traditionally given a few teaspoons of butter or cream shortly after birth before it is placed on the breast. If the infant does not drink enough breast milk, butter and cow's milk are fed in or replace breastfeeding entirely. Until the child starts walking around eight months of age, it is given a cup of fat a day, then only about every three weeks. The Masai women breastfeed for about two years.

North America

In the USA, cow's milk was mostly not boiled until the 1920s because it was mistakenly believed to be a cause of vitamin deficiency and scurvy . The death rate of non-breastfed infants was therefore significantly higher than in Europe. It was only when babies were given fruit juice, which reduced the risk of scurvy, that cow's milk became popular as a breast milk substitute. Fruits and vegetables have long been considered unsuitable for babies. Up until the 1920s, infants in the USA were only given vegetable soup when they were around one year old, and potatoes when they were 18 months old, and other vegetables only from the age of two. It was not until the 1930s that pureed fruit and vegetables were recommended from six months of age. In the 1960s, it was common practice after just a few weeks. Until the 1950s, American mothers made their own bottle- fed formula by mixing milk or condensed milk, water, and corn syrup .

Latin America

In Latin America , mothers traditionally assume that their diet and their health and mental state have a direct influence on breast milk. According to this view, strong excitement or stress lead to “leche agitada” (“excited milk”), which is harmful to the infant. In countries like Cuba and Puerto Rico , mothers therefore prefer to wean babies when they are nervous and stressful and to feed them with ready-made products. In general, infants in this region are only breastfed for a few months in all walks of life. Ready-made food is introduced early, followed by cow's milk. Before the sixth week, the children receive cereal porridge and pureed fruit. Corn syrup is often added to bottled milk . After weaning, infants are given sopa de frijol (the broth of boiled beans), mashed potatoes made from sweet potatoes and agua de panela (sugar water).

literature

Web links

Wiktionary: Baby food  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wikibooks: Baby book: Complementary food  - learning and teaching materials

Individual evidence

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This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on September 8, 2008 .