Citadel (acre)
| Acre Citadel قَلْعَة عَکّا, DMG Qalʿat ʿAkkā מְצוּדַת עַכּוֹ, trlit. Mətzūdath ʿAkkō |
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 Citadel and, to the left behind it, the Old Seraglio (covered in red) from the air in front of Acco's old town, 2017 |
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| Alternative name (s): | ( as pars pro toto ) Johanniter- Coming Acre אוּלַמּוֹת הָאַבִּירִים Ūlammōth ha-'Abbīrīm ' Hall of Knights ' قاعات الفرسان Qāʿāt al-Fursān |
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| Creation time : | 12-18 century | |
| Conservation status: | in good condition in parts, partly heavily modified and overbuilt, mostly restored, but partly still buried | |
| Standing position : | Ordensburg | |
| Place: |
 Acre (عَکّا, DMG ʿAkkā ;עַכּוֹ ʿAkkō ), Israel
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| Geographical location | 32 ° 55 '24.5 " N , 35 ° 4' 9.6" E | |
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The Acre Citadel is a fortress complex in Acre in the Northern District of Israel . The building complex consists of medieval Kommende der Johanniter, Ottoman upper fortress ( Arabic قَلْعَة عَکّا, DMG Qalʿat ʿAkkā ; Hebrew מְצוּדַת עַכּוֹ, translit. Mətzūdath ʿAkkō ) with forecourt and old seraglio . The buildings belonging to the complex were built in separate phases between the 12th and 18th centuries. The builders were the Order of St. John (12th – 13th centuries), the Arab regional potentate Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar (1690–1775) and the Ottoman governors Ahmad 'al-Jazzār' Pascha (1722-1804) and Suleyman Pasha 'al-ʿĀdil' ( 1760s-1819).
Today the complex is divided into four usage areas that are separately accessible. These four areas are (1.) the preserved buildings of the northern part of the Kommende ( French Grand Manoir , Great Manor House , former administration of the order such as pilgrim and knight hospice) as the lowest level mostly below today's street level, they are a museum, (2.) south Adjacent to the southern part of the Kommende, the Old Seraglio, now a cultural and youth center, (3.) the Museum of Prisoners of the Underground in the Ottoman superstructure on preserved parts of the Kommende, where the Akkon prison and then a forensic psychiatry were previously housed and ( 4.) Finally the Diwan-Chan in the forecourt of the citadel, since 1980 an art museum.
| Old town of Accos | |
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UNESCO world heritage 
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| Aerial photo 2017: Citadel (center left) with arcades in the courtyard in front of the rest of the old town |
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| National territory: |
Israel
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| Type: | Culture |
| Criteria : | ii, iii and v |
| Surface: | 63.3 ha |
| Buffer zone: | 22.99 ha |
| Reference No .: | 1042 |
| UNESCO region : | Europe and North America |
| History of enrollment | |
| Enrollment: | 2001 (session 25) |
location
The citadel is located in Akkon on the northern edge of today's old town directly on the narrower Ottoman city wall, which only covers part of the area of the former Crusader city and is the work of Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar and his successor Ahmad al-Jazzār Pasha. On this old city wall, which ran between the new and old town from the establishment of the new town of Montmusard at the beginning of the 13th century until the destruction of Akko in 1291, the Johanniterkommende occupied the wall section between the second and third tower, which was built over by the Ottoman Empire, when viewed from the west are. The citadel consists of buildings from the Ottoman period and includes imposing remains of the Johanniterkommende below, which are located north and south on both sides of the Rechov Portzej ha-Mivtzar (רְחוֹב פּוֹרְצֵי הַמִּבְצָר 'Road the Burglars into the Fortress' ;شارع اللص في القلعة, DMG Šāriʿ al-Laṣi fī al-Qalʿa ). The system accordingly comprises blocks 18012 and, in part, 18013 of the UNESCO old town plan.
The alleys and streets around the citadel and the Altes Serail are now seven to eight meters above medieval street level, because when the ruins were re-opened in the 18th century, rubble and rubble from the once imposing upper floors were left in the alleys and contented with sand heaps to pave a new, higher street level. This makes this area the highest location in Acco's old town today. Correspondingly, building remnants were only used at this height or new buildings were built on preserved basement floors, which still stood out at the new level.
history
Akko is an ancient city on the Mediterranean , where the Via Maris trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia changed from sea to caravan transport and vice versa. Destroyed and rebuilt several times and fell from one lord to another even more often (Phoenicians, ancient Egyptians, Alexander the Great, Romans, Byzantines, to name just a few), Akko has belonged to the Egyptian Fatimid Empire since the 10th century . In 1104 the kingdom of Jerusalem besieged with its armed forces, supported by crusaders and the Genoese navy, the city of Akko, which had lost importance as a merchant city under the Fatimids.
The Acre surrendered with a promise of either free withdrawal with their movable belongings or of remaining as subjects of the King of Jerusalem , but Genoese attacked defenseless migrants, which then ended as a general slaughter of the besiegers of all residents and their plunder. Nevertheless, the city's population under the Crusaders soon grew again to 40 to 50 thousand, making the Crusader Acre an important medieval city. In addition to the predominant Christians of the Catholic, European Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches , Muslims and around 200 Jews also lived in Akko, as Benjamin von Tudela reported in 1170.
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In the days of the crusaders
After taking the city in 1104 by the Crusaders , the Hospitallers took over as her Coming of the great Friday Mosque an em southwest (at the time under construction / demolition for the new Holy Cross Cathedral ), which Ze'ev Goldmann as an Arab-Fatimid caravanserai of Identified 10th or 11th century. Today the complex of the Jazzar Pasha Mosque stands on the east adjoining substructure of the cathedral .
In 1110, Baldwin I of Jerusalem confirmed that the Johanniter owned other buildings donated to them north of the Holy Cross Cathedral of the Acre diocese of the Latin rite . In response to the donations, at the beginning of the 12th century the Johanniter began to expand their commons north of the original quarter, on the other side of an important shopping street. In the 1130s, when the new north portal of the Holy Cross Cathedral was added, neighboring Johanniterbauten had to give way, whereupon the religious order abandoned the location north of the cathedral and in the middle of the 12th century expanded its branch further west to include a new religious house, which is now the Grand Manoir in the substructure of today's citadel. The oldest record of this building comes from 1141 from the time of the Queen-Regent Melisende of Jerusalem.
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As the new north side of the hospital courtyard, south on the commercial street and now in the center of the Kommende, which extends on both sides of this street, the Johanniter built their church dedicated to John the Baptist , a little west of the cross cathedral. The oldest record of this Johanniskirche comes from the year 1149. The church included a now preserved crypt of six vaulted halls and, according to contemporary reports, was a very towering building. Said important shopping street, from the Johannistor in the new town of Montmusard in the north facing south, ran in the middle section along the east wing of the Grand Manoir , then swung west, after a short section in the middle of the Johanniterkommende complex between the north Grand Manoir and the south Johanniskirche to turn south towards the Genoese district.
As an important shopping street, the section that cut through the order complex over a length of about 50 meters was also open to the general public, but was partly bridged around the Grand Manoir , the order administration and the hospice for knight brothers and pilgrims, without crossing with the southern part of the Coming Johanniskirche and Johanniterhospital to connect. In times of need, the Order of St. John was able to block the street section between the northern and southern parts of the order complex , now located under the Rechov Portzej ha-Mivtzar , through a massive gate in order to prevent unwanted penetration by those coming. The Rhinelander Theodericus Monachus described the coming, which he had seen on his pilgrimage in 1172, as a fortified, impressive structure, with which the Knights Templar fortress in the southwest corner of the old town of Acco could possibly compete.
Lost in 1187 to Saladin's victories, the Ayyubids held Akko until the Crusaders, led by Richard the Lionheart, recaptured it in battles from 1189 to 1191 . Since the Crusaders were unable to regain Jerusalem at the time, Akko was given new responsibilities as the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . In addition to the Hospitallers, the Teutonic , Lazarus and Templar Knights had religious houses in Akko. The Order of St. John, which had lost its seat in Jerusalem, now expanded its regained commander in stages in order to also accommodate the central administration of the order and, from 1271, the Grand Master , which is why the commander in French sources of the 17th century also called it the palais du grand -maître (Grand Master's Palace). The predominantly French-speaking Johanniter also called their headquarters Grand Manoir (Great Manor).
The Jerusalem kings Guido of Lusignan (1192) and Henry I of Jerusalem (1193) successively made concessions to the Hospitallers, who, according to the order, were able to extend their commissions to the street along the old northern city wall of Acco. The expansion continued well into the 13th century and included new wings and additional floors on older parts. According to a map by Paulinus de Puteoli (Paolino Veneto, 1270–1344) from the early 14th century, the Johanniterkommende consisted of three parts, the northern religious house (hospitale), southern hospital (domus infirmorum) and St. John's Church (ecclesie) in between. In the oratory of the Johanniterspital, located south of the Johanniskirche, there was found the grave slab for Grand Master Petrus de Veteri Brivato , which names his death date with XV days before the calendar of October MCCXLII, i.e. 17th September 1242. The oratory probably served the order in Akko as Burial place.
The northern part of the Coming (nosocomial) served two essential purposes, he was living , exercise and whereabouts of the brother knights, religious authorities, hid a Rohrzuc kerfabrik , which contributed significantly to revenues of the Order and was pilgrim hospice . A dungeon was also part of it. Pilgrims were first welcomed here after they had reached Acre by sea or after the pilgrimage in the Holy Land , while waiting for their ship passage back. The north wing of the Coming House borders on the old crusader city wall that runs in an east-west direction.
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A new, today not preserved city wall of the crusaders ran further northeast from southeast to northwest diagonally to the old and was built after the expansion of the city at the beginning of the 13th century to the new town of Montmusard, which was built on the initiative of Louis IX. was included in the fortification of the city by two new walls between 1250 and 1254. For reasons of defense strategy, however, the old wall was retained. In addition, the Johanniter built buildings in the new town of Montmusard, where they were also responsible for protecting and defending the so-called Johanniterschanze ( C [us] todia Hospitalariorum in the map; a section of the new city wall) with Marientor.
The Christian crusader states and Little Armenia were in a constant, sometimes more or less hot, military conflict first with the Islamic empire of the Ayyubids, before the Mongol storm tied their forces, and then with the empire of the Islamic Mamluks (also Mamluks ). Parallel to these wars, the internal conflicts drained, while the Johanniter took part on the side of the Genoese in the First Venetian-Genoese War (allegedly around the Aconian Church of Saint-Sabas; 1256-1270) in civil war-like disputes with Venetians , for their part in alliance with the Teutonic Order and Knights Templar. The defeated Genoese were banished from Akko in 1257 and had to swear not to return until three years had passed, after which they stored their possessions in the Johanniterkommende. In 1263, Johanniter met in Akko for the general chapter and passed rules and statutes; The Johanniskirche was also mentioned in it with its fifth , three altars (main, Liebfrauen and Blasius altars), probably each placed in one of the three apses .
Soon afterwards, Mamluks under Baibars I conquered the eastern outposts of the Crusaders ( Nazareth and Tabor 1263, Caesareia Maritima 1265, Safed 1266, Antioch 1268, Crac des Chevaliers 1271) and launched two first attacks on Akko (1263 and 1267). With the Mamluk conquest of the Principality of Antioch , the Order of St. John lost lands with around 10,000 dependent peasants liable to pay taxes, which weakened it for the long term. Instead of defense, the Kingdom of Jerusalem was left with begging for peace, which Baibars granted for 10 years in 1268 in return for the surrender of large areas without a fight; the kingdom still comprised Akko with the surrounding area, ten villages up to the Deutschordensburg Montfort , Haifa with three villages and five villages in the hinterland of the castle Château Pèlerin in ʿAtlit . At the same time, aconian merchants themselves operated the downfall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem by handling the exports of the Italian arms industry to the Mamluk Empire.
In a letter to the Grand Prior of Saint-Gilles , Johanniter Grand Master Hugues de Revel (term of office 1258–1277, based in Akko from 1271) assumes that Akko will not be able to hold out in the event of another attack. In August 1290, Catholic Italian crusaders massacred Muslim Arab merchants in Akko. As a result, the Egyptian Sultan Qalāwūn from the Turkish-born Bahri dynasty of the Mamluks demanded the extradition of the perpetrators involved and compensation in the amount of 30,000 Venetian zecchins . Since Akko refused to do either, Qalāwūn decided to attack the city immediately, which prevented his sudden death in November 1290. His second eldest, Chalīl , followed him as sultan and set out in March 1291 to conquer the last remnants of the Crusader states in the Levant .
After 44 days of siege of Akko, Mamluks stormed the city on May 18, 1291 . After the city was taken, the Johanniterkommende, the Teutonic Order House and the Knights Templar fortress could hold out for a few more days. In the end, seven Knights of St. John and ten Knights Templar escaped across the sea, and orders of German and Lazarus had no survivors. Residents who had not fled were massacred many times, and surviving women and children were sold in harems or slavery . In August 1291, Chalīl finally conquered the remaining fortified crusader cities of Tire , Sidon , Haifa, Tartus and Beirut .
1300 to 1740 in the ruins of Acco
In 1291, Sultan Chalīl commissioned Emir ʿAlam al-Din Sanjar al-Shujai al-Mansuriعَلَمُ الدِّينِ سَنْجَرُ الشُّجَاعِيُّ المَنْصُورِيُّ, DMG ʿAlam ad-Dīn Sanǧar aš-Šuǧāʿī al-Manṣūrī ) to grind down churches and fortifications of Akko in order to erase Christian traces and to make it impossible for crusaders - after a possible reconquest - to use them again as a base. However, some of the massive buildings of the Johanniterkommende were preserved. Even after the Levant was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1516/1517, Akko remained a field of ruins. In the early 17th century, the Druze prince Fachr ad-Dīn II tried to prepare the soldiers for a military post in Akko. However, as the Franciscan friar Eugène Roger reported in the 1630s, he gave up the project because the High Porte called for construction to be halted in order to prevent foreign conquerors from creating a base to settle in. Laurent d'Arvieux (1635–1702), French envoy, did not find the ruins of the Coming House worth mentioning after his visit to Akko in 1658. Drawings by European travelers - Cornelis de Bruyn 1679, Étienne Gravier, Marquis d'Ortières (also d'Orcières) 1686 - which latter the mighty ruins of the Coming - as palais du grand maître (grand master's palace) - and its church - as église S t Jean (Johanniskirche) - inscribed, show the decay of the ruins of Akko and drifting with sand.
Only a few self-sufficient people, often Arab fishermen, settled down in the ruins and settled down. The fishermen in particular appreciated the advantages of the natural port of Akko in the Bay of Haifa, which is now named after the younger rival city . Acco's port was the only one in the Levant where cargo could be landed in any weather. The flourishing trade in Western Europe drove mainly French, but also Dutch merchants to the coasts of the Levant in search of business opportunities, the former enjoying some legal protection through the capitulations of the Ottoman Empire and a monopoly in Ottoman trade among Europeans.
European merchants also headed for the port of Accos. In 1691 there were already 13 French merchants living in Akko, who maintained trading posts in the former Venetian trading center near the port, which was renovated around 1700 in the midst of the rubble and is still used today in Arabic Chan al-Ifranǧ (خان الإفرنج'Frankish caravanserai') is called. The closed enclosure of the chan offered some protection against robbery by Bedouins or Maltese corsairs . The textile industry in France prospered, increasing its cotton imports tenfold between 1700 and 1750, and although producers increased supply, demand grew faster, which is why the price of cotton doubled in the same period.
In 1691, in search of cotton suppliers, Marseille merchants traveled through the Galilean hinterland to Safed . The few free farmers, but above all the many dependent peasant land tenants of the state Miri-Land in the Ottoman Tımar system recognized that cotton production could be sold at rising prices beyond their own needs. If tax farmer (ملتزم, DMG multazim ) came across the villages, mostly in order to rigorously collect the levy on Miri-Land, the often illiquid peasant tenants could only pay for it with the proceeds they obtained from quick sales of hectic and not fully grown cotton to European merchants at poor prices. Price, quantity and quality were unfavorable for producers and merchants, which is why French merchants established a futures market for cotton (later also for other futures goods such as olive oil and grain) by 1720 by paying producers the discounted sales proceeds before their harvests , which the tax collectors as comfortably as they could pay their dues, and only deliver the full yield when they had gathered the ripe harvest.
Without land ownership tenant farmers were often not possessing less collateral make that failing at actually lack or low harvests could have been sold to redeem money in this way in order to - in retrospect - to reimburse the merchants amount overpaid advances on a missed higher expected harvests . In the absence of collateral from the debtors, merchants had to write off their crop failures as losses, which they accepted because they were able to sell more cotton to Europe, usually with good margins. In 1729 the Hohe Pforte banned futures trading in agricultural products, but to no avail.
In enforcement of the ban, the authorities arrested Saʿd al-Zaydānī, eldest brother of Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar (1690–1775) in June 1730 , because he had mediated the sale of the harvests of three villages on an appointment to French merchants, who were also successful for his release used. Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar, himself a successful merchant in the trade between Galilee and Damascus , recognized an opportunity and agreed in 1731 with the merchant Jūsuf al-Qassīs, who was based in Akko (يوسف القسيس) to sell their goods abroad.
The rise and fall of Akkos from 1740 to 1840
Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar, whose Bedouin family, who immigrated to Galilee, had established themselves as merchants and tax tenants, took over the task of multasim (tax farmer) after the death of his father, whereby, from a commercial point of view, he relied on regular, continuous tax receipts instead of one-off maximum amounts that the Taxpayers ruined. His concept also included protecting land tenants from robbers.
Respected by merchants and valued peasant land tenants for consideration and protection, Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar began using negotiation and military skill in Galilee to build an order that offered protection against robbery and official exploitation and arbitrariness by establishing and enforcing general rules on which they were based the residents could leave. Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar rose to become an autonomist regional potentate, conscientiously paying the Ottoman tax authorities the required taxes and avoiding open conflict with the seldom present Sublime Porte , but seeking their recognition.
Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar recognized Ako's potential and began in the 1740s to expand the ruins of Akko into his fortified residence and administrative center. By the end of 1750, he had Akko's damaged walls repaired and expanded in order to have a safe place to defend himself against Bedouin gangs, Maltese corsairs or other invaders from the surrounding area who wanted to usurp his achievements and positions achieved on their own.
In September 1746, Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar, as the only middleman, enforced a monopoly in the cotton trade between local sellers and European, especially French, buyers in order to fiscally skim off a monopoly rent as a regional potentate. He took over the Grand Manoir and from the 1750s onwards he built the citadel, accommodations for soldiers , warehouses and workshops for weapons , a treasury, cells for prisoners, rooms for representation purposes, living and administration ( called seraglio in Levantine Linguistic usage) bot. The Persian-born Arabic word serail (سراي or سرايا, DMG Sarāy, Sarāyā ) denotes buildings for representation, residential purposes and administration from Ottoman times, because private rooms, including those for harem ladies, such as administrative rooms, were often under one roof.
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The heart of the complex is the Burǧ al-Chazna ( Arabic برج الخزنة 'Treasure Chamber Tower'), Acco's tallest building, which earned the Ottoman superstructure the name of a citadel. The Burǧ al-Chazna contains the gate tower Porta Domine Nostre from the times of the Crusaders. Neuenāhir al-ʿUmar had structures that yielded under new structures filled with rubble, but above all with sand, in order to stabilize them permanently for new loads. The lower storeys that have been preserved are now seven to eight meters below current street level. Giovanni Mariti (1736–1806) visited the citadel soon after it was completed and reported on Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar's living quarters, accommodations for soldiers and a marble fountain in the eastern forecourt.
In Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar's territory, protected from robbery, peasant producers were able to increase their production and, after tax and rent, kept more of their income for themselves than their equals in the territories of other masters. Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar took over the export of globally common crops to world markets. Growing domestic production and rising global prices brought those involved at all levels more in, while at the same time protecting them from arbitrariness and robbery, so that Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar's previously sparsely populated territory developed a pull on migrants from outside. Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar also brought other areas under his rule, which the local farmers of the conquered areas usually accepted benevolently. Soon, besides Galilee, other regions such as the Sharon Plain on the coast south of Haifa and the northern coastal strip up to and including Sidon belonged to his territory.
The re-fortified Akko was a hub for global trade, Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar's fortress and capital of his precarious regional rule. The growing production in the primary sector with security from violence and neglect of arbitrariness, ultimately further strengthened by the promotion of labor migration , required and allowed more employees in secondary processing and services (trade, transport, administration, planning, law enforcement and security organs) due to growing tax revenues tertiary economic sector , with which the number of acre people rose from 400 around 1730 to 15,000 within a few years and then 25,000 around 1770. The New Acre migrated from Aleppo , Damascus, the Greek islands , Malta and Nazareth. Most of them professed Christianity, especially the Greek Orthodoxy or the Greek-Catholic Union , whereby Christians formed the majority in the city from the middle of the 18th century. However, the heterogeneous population never developed aspirations for autonomy, as is typically the case with an urban society of merchants.
In and on the ruins of the Crusader city, New Acre built a new city in the 18th century, the seraglio and the citadel with its eastern courtyard. Walls of damaged upper storeys from the days of the Crusaders rushed the builders into the alleys, streets and voids of the ruins they filled, and continued to destroy the ruins in order to recover building materials and components for reuse. On the preserved crypt and the preserved west facade of the otherwise badly damaged St. John's Church, Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar had his first structurally separate seraglio (today called the Old Seraglio ) built as an office building for his administration .
Usable parts from the ruins of the splendid St. John's Church were stored in the oratory and some of them were later used as spoilers in the Turkish hammam . After this seraglio was completed, the administration moved there and the citadel was then primarily used for the local garrison and as a prison .
After unsuccessful attempts to overthrow the independent Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar, who had risen from his own will and ability, the Sublime Porte finally submitted to the inevitable in 1768 and granted him the newly created rank of Sheikh of Akko and all of Galilee, reflecting the sphere of power he had gained from his own efforts . Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar, who stood by a friend who had fallen out of favor with Abdülhamid I ( ʿAlī Bey al-Kabīr ), was himself the target of Ottoman intervention in 1771, which ended in 1775 when he was shot on the run. The Sublime Porte appointed Ahmad al-Jazzār Pasha as the new sheikh from 1777 with the title of Wālī of Sidon, when he took his seat in Acre in 1779.
Ahmad 'al-Jazzār' Pasha, who was nicknamed 'the butcher' ('al-Jazzār') for violence, lacked economic expertise, friendly and, as a Bosniak, family relationships within his sphere of influence, and the ability to use local and regional potentates at odds with his power to win through concessions and agreements. Instead, he relied on force to eliminate alleged and actual opponents and to deter potential adversaries. This violence, excessive and brutal and also often hit the wrong people, frightened and incited many to resist, which in turn led Jazzār Pasha everywhere to suspect alleged conspirators and then to persecute them.
Therefore, Jazzār Pasha maintained a strong repression apparatus made up of expensive foreign mercenaries without ties to the local population who were stationed in the citadel. The citadel was now also a retreat from rebellions from the midst of the population. When Jazzār Pasha learned that some of his Egyptian Mamluk mercenaries had relationships with the ladies of his harem, he took a draconian approach against the suspects, which sparked a rebellion of these mercenaries, who holed up in the tower of Burǧ al-Chazna , where he heed them with the help of Bosniak mercenaries besieged in May 1789. The Mamluks turned the cannons on the tower towards the Altes Serail and threatened to destroy it, successfully extorting their free withdrawal.
Increasing expenditure required higher tax claims and revenues. B. should bring in a new government monopoly in the grain trade. The number of farmers fell, partly by fleeing reprisals or tax enforcement and finally as a result of death from the bubonic plague in 1786. Acre and Galileans emigrated and more and more agricultural land was fallow. Correspondingly, harvests, agricultural exports and the income from tariffs on them fell, while discontent among the remaining population increased.
In the 1750s, half of all French cotton imports in the Mediterranean region came from Akko, in 1789 imports from Smyrna and Thessalonike predominated , but these were already more than doubled by US deliveries. In the end, the US production of cotton rose faster than the steadily growing French demand for cotton, which slowed price developments and ultimately even reversed them.
Jazzār's attempt to prevent French buyers from buying directly from farmers in 1790, with which they wanted to avoid export taxes, caused them to move on to Beirut. Jazzār Pasha had the north-west tower of the citadel added a representative upper floor in the Ablaq style (walls alternating in light and dark stone), which happened around 1797, as construction researchers of the Technion found out at the beginning of the 2nd millennium. After surviving the 60-day siege by Napoléon in 1799 , Jazzār Pasha received the traveler and scholar Edward Clarke , as he described, in the new representative rooms in 1801 . In the east, Jazzār al-Pasha built in the forecourt, Thomas Philipp calls it Arsenal ( armory ), in the middle of which stood the marble fountain, an administrative building, the Diwan-Chan (خان الديوان). It consisted of three splendid rooms, one for the pasha, one for his vizier and one for general administrators. At that time the buildings around the eastern courtyard were called the seraglio.
Jazzār Pasha's successor, his adopted son Suleyman Pasha 'al-ʿĀdil' (term of office 1805–1819), met in the morning at the second hour after sunrise with his Chancellor of the Exchequer alAli Pasha Agha 'al-Chazindār' and his finance vizier Chaim Farchi 'al-Muʿallim' (حاييم فرحي; 1760-1820), which he had taken over from Jazzār Pasha, in the seraglio to advise the affairs of government. Around this time, probably since the end of the 18th century, the crypt of St. John's Church under the Old Seraglio served as a postal expedition , which is why it is popularly known as al-Būsṭa (البوسطة'Die Post') is called. The administration urged producers to switch to grain, which would absorb British demand, cut off from Prussian and Polish grain by the continental lock, at almost any price. Süleyman Pascha had the citadel extensively renovated in 1817/1818.
After Prussian grain returned to Britain in 1814, imports of this type from Galilee fell dramatically, whereupon the producers switched back to cotton, which they exported. The recovery in production in Europe that began in 1820 and British India's return to European trade created competition in grain and cotton in which Galilean producers could only keep up by investing in higher productivity, production renewal and / or the development of new products.
But Suleyman Pascha and his son and successor ʿAbdullah Pascha ibn ʿAlī (terms of office 1820–1822 and 1823–1832) tried to defend themselves against falling export tariff income as a result of falling Galilean exports by increasing taxes, arbitrary expropriations and coercion by state monopolies of certain export items . On top of that, ʿAbdullah Pasha had the proven financial vizier Farchi, who had been taken over from his father, murdered, who had bought him Wālī from the Sublime Porte for a baksheesh for 11 million piasters , because ʿAbdullah Pascha feared Farchi, who, as an Arab Jew, was actually dependent on his favor , could not only get his appointment but also his dismissal.
Suleyman Pasha and ʿAbdullah Pasha were the last Wālīs of Sidon to officiate from Akko. By 1830, ʿAbdullah Pasha built a new seraglio, which since its renovation between 1978 and 1983 by the architect Ridvánu'lláh Ashraf and the refurbishment by Rúhíyyih Chánum , widow of Shoghi Effendis , Palais des Paschas (אַרְמוֹן הַפָּאשָׁא Armon ha-Pāšā ) or house ʿAbdullah Paschas is called and has served the Bahá'í institutions ever since . After Jazzār Pasha had built a new seraglio, the old seraglio served as the official residence of low-ranking government officials.
Compared to Akkonian potentates, Ottoman governors in Beirut proved to be more knowledgeable, and the Levant trade shifted there. While Beirut rose to become the Paris of the Orient , Akko's population fell to 2,000 between 1820 and 1840. Egyptian shelling by Ibrahim Pascha (1831) and the British navy (1840, Orient crisis ) as well as the earthquake in 1837 contributed to the decline of Akko. Under Ibrahim Pasha's Egyptian occupation (1832-1840) the citadel served as a military hospital. On 3 November 1840 took Archduke Frederick of Austria a Burǧ the al-Chazna and hoisted the flags of the Allies, Ottoman Empire, Empire of Austria and the UK and Ireland . The Egyptian ammunition depot in the citadel blew up under Allied fire, whereupon the Egyptians withdrew defeated. The era of the citadel as a stronghold of national defense was over.
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Mid 19th to mid 20th century
After the decline due to failed economic policy, missed economic adjustment, epidemics, war and earthquakes, Akko, as a small town with 2,000 inhabitants, bobbed around in a great setting. The official seat of regional administrations had also been lost to other cities. The Ottomans had the damaged citadel renewed and built the Kışla (barracks) in the west and south of the courtyard .قشلة) called barracks, which was completed in the late 1840s or 1850s. The citadel was used again as a post for armed organs and cells for prisoners remained. The courtyard of the citadel served in Ottoman, British and Israeli initially also time to walk in the yard of the prisoners.
The explorer Victor Guérin was able to visit the prison in the citadel in 1863 and reported of overcrowding and torture of prisoners. The most famous prisoners in the last third of the 19th century were the Iranian Bahā'ullāh (1817-1892), founder of the Bahā'ītum , who was imprisoned here at the behest of the Sublime Porte from August 1868 to October 1870, at times together with up to 70 people Confidants and relatives of his family . Most of the prisoners became ill, three died because they were poorly nourished, extremely unsanitary and detained without medical care. Bahā'ullāh sat in a cell with a view of the lake in the north-west tower of the citadel, which was raised in 1797.
When the Ottoman Army strengthened its units in Akko in 1870, it occupied the entire citadel and the prisoners were relocated. At the end of 1884, the engineer Gottlieb Schumacher got to see the cells in the Kışla for his expert opinion on the state of construction and his suggestions for improvement, which he found unbearable. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 brought freedom to the last Baha'i prisoner in Akko. In 1912 the Ottoman authorities arrested Chaim Sturmann (חַיִּים שְׁטוּרְמַן; 1892–1938) and Zvi Nissanow (Нисанов,צְבִי נִיסָנוֹב; 1881–1966), members of the Ha-Shomer organization , in the citadel.
The British mandate expanded the education system and in 1921 set up a girls' school in the Old Seraglio , which was continued after 1948 by the Israeli Ministry of Education as an Arabic-speaking, then co-educational school. The neighboring citadel, which sits on top of the Grand Manoir , which had not been exposed at the time , completely transformed the mandate into a prison. The prison in the north of the country was the central prison of Mandate Palestine, where, in addition to apolitical criminals, there were also those who claimed political motives for their crimes and, depending on their point of view, are viewed as terrorists or freedom fighters, as well as those who investigate opponents of the British Held mandate power.
In the north wing, the hospital wing and rooms for administration, interrogation and criminal proceedings were on the first floor, and below were the execution site and death row. In Bur öst al-Chazna to the east in the northeast corner of the citadel were workshops where prisoners worked. The cells for Jewish and Arab prisoners were found in the east wing and the southern Kışla , supply facilities in the western Kışla and the area with the oldest cells in the north- west tower , now called the Jabotinsky wing.
The first prisoners in British times in these older cells were Vladimir Se'ev Jabotinsky , the commander of the Jewish self-defense (מָגִנֵּי הָעִיר יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Maginnej ha-ʿĪr Jerūschalajim ) in Jerusalem's old town against violent Arab perpetrators of the Nabi Musa riots in 1920, and 19 of his colleagues. During the attacks by Muslims against Jews in Acco's old town on August 29, 1929 with precursors in Hebron , Jerusalem and Safed , incited by Islamic dignitaries, the persecuted escaped to the citadel under the care of British security forces. Since the 1930s, Bahā'ullāh's cell in the north-west tower has been the Bahá'i's holy place of their religion, but as part of the prison was not open to the public. Between 1935 and 1940 Assistant Superintendent Robert Lewkenor Worsley (1893–1973) headed the prison in the service of the Palestinian police . Moshe Dajan and Moshe Karmel served sentences in Accos prison between 1939 and 1941.
In the execution site, which can be seen in the prison museum, convicts were hanged , including 30 Palestinians who committed fatal acts of violence against Jewish residents of the Yishuv and during the Arab riots in 1929 (including in Hebron and Safed) or the Arab uprising (1936–1939) Representatives of the British mandate on the one hand and nine Jews of Arab , Caucasian , European and Persian descent who had committed acts of violence against Palestinians and the British authorities on behalf of Etzel and Lechi .
Those sentenced to death ʿAta Ahmad Al-Sir (عطا أحمد الزير; 1895–1930), Muhammad Chalil Jamdschum (محمد خليل جمجوم; 1902–1930), Fu'ad Hassan Hijazi (فؤاد حسن حجازي; 1904–1930), Schlomoh Ben-Josef (שְׁלֹמֹה בֵּן-יוֹסֵף; 1913–1938), Mordechai Schwarcz (מֹרְדְּכַי שְׁווַרְץ; 1914–1938), Mordechaī Alqachī (מֹרְדְּכַי אַלְקַחִי; 1925–1947), Jechiel Dresner (יְחִיאֵל דֹּב דְּרֵזְנֶר; 1922–1947), Dov Grüner (דֹּב גְּרֻוּנֶר; 1912–1947) and Eliʿeser Kaschani (אֱלִיעֶזֶר קַשׁאָנִי; 1923-1947).
A few weeks after the last of these executions , the Irgun forcibly freed prisoners on May 4, 1947, for which they were assisted by Rechov Portzej ha-Mivtzar (רְחוֹב פּוֹרְצֵי הַמִּבְצָר 'Road the Burglars into the Fortress' ;شارع اللص في القلعة, DMG Šāriʿ al-Laṣi fī al-Qalʿa ) called the walled former openings in the southern wall of the citadel blew up. 41 prisoners belonging to the Palestinian-Jewish underground were freed , and 214 more, mostly non-Jewish Arab prisoners, escaped. In the skirmish that developed outside the prison between intruders and Palestinian police and British army troops , three of the intruders and six of the escaping prisoners were killed. Thirteen were caught, three of them - Jaʿaqov Imre Weiss (יַעֲקֹב וַייְס; 1924–1947), Avschalōm Ḥabīb (אַבְשָׁלוֹם חָבִּיבּ; 1926–1947) and Me'īr Naqqar (מֵאִיר נַקָּר; 1926–1947) were indicted and executed here after their death sentences. Imprisoned Hagana supporters opposed the forcible release and remained in prison.
In 1942 the antiquities administration of Mandate Palestine began exploration winter to explore Acco's old town. It showed that the building stock of the old town was a unique structural combination of crusader buildings of the 12th / 13th centuries. Century with buildings from the Arab-Ottoman era (18th / 19th century), especially the city walls. As a result of this investigation, the British Mandate Government placed the old town of Acco under protection and issued a conservation statute.
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Since Israel was founded in 1948
Three days after the Yom ha-ʿAtzmaʿut , the Carmeli Brigade under Moshe Karmel's command took the city on May 17, 1948. The Israeli Military Police (חַמַ"ץ ChaMa "tZ ) used the British prison in the upper part of the citadel as a military prison until the end of the War of Independence in 1949 (בֵּית הַכֶּלֶא הַצְּבָאִי Bejt ha-Kele 'ha-Zva'ī ). Then the Israeli health system took over the facility and converted it into a psychiatric clinic called Bejt Chōlīm le-Chōlej Nefesch (בֵּית חוֹלִים לְחוֹלֵי נֶפֶשׁ 'Hospital for the Mentally Ill' ). In July 1981, after an agreement with the workers' committee , the 164 inpatients were transferred to other clinics outside of Acco on July 24, 1981. The former cell of Bahā'ullāh was made accessible for Baha'i pilgrimages .
The painter Avshalom ʿŌqaschī (אַבְשָׁלוֹם עוֹקָשִׁי; 1916–1980), son of Yemeni immigrants , moved into the Diwan-chan in 1948 to set up his studio in the high vaults. From the same year, Prof. Jehoschuʿa Prawer (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ פְּרָאווֶר; 1917–1990), pioneer of crusader research, a program of explorations to discover the legacies of crusaders, Catholic Levantines Latin rite (so-called Franks;الفرنجة, DMG al-Faranǧa ) and Pullanen to expose and research. After initial explorations, effective excavations began in 1954 in the buried Grand Manoir below the psychiatry.
From 1955, the Israel Antiquities Authority supervised the clearing of rubble and rubble from the lower vaults in the Grand Manoir , which the Ministry of Public Works operated as a job creation measure for unemployed ʿOlim for the first two years and then continued the Israeli authority for nature and gardens , this time financially supported by the US Embassy in Israel . Goldmann undertook further excavations from 1956 onwards from the Akko Municipal Museum and from 1960 onwards Se'ev Jejvin (זְאֵב יֶיְבִין; 1926–2015), head of the surveying department of the antiquities authority.
On behalf of the Nature and Gardens Authority , workers then undertook an excavation campaign in the area of the Grand Manoir from 1958 to 1963 , initially uncovering Halls 1 to 3 of the north wing, a diagonal passage through the pillar hall in the east wing and the presumed refectory in the south wing. The ruins of collapsed vaults were found in the pillar hall on layers of rubble and sand up to three meters high, which proves that sand drifts and debris entered the hall before vaults, probably in the 18th century, under the weight of new structural loads finally collapsed.
As a precaution , the round pillars in the refectory were secured with massive steel straps, and in many places the walls from the days of the crusaders have to be stabilized. The built Kurkar stone suffers from erosion, especially when water penetrates. While the Arabic-language school in the Old Seraglio, which has meanwhile been converted to co-education, was still in operation, the Nature and Gardens Authority, headed by Ze'ev Goldmann, had the crypt excavated from 1959 to 1962 and exposed six parallel halls in it, opening through large windows to the south adjoining courtyard and to the north in the former street of the market stalls, now below street level, were illuminated.
When new cracks appeared in the vaults of the pillar hall of the east wing in 1990 and soundings had begun to further uncover the hall, it was decided to take pressure off the vaults and remove the overlying backfill from rubble and rubble. For this purpose, the inner courtyard of the citadel, which was built above the rubble and supported as a substructure, was excavated. Financed by the Ministry of Tourism and the Society for the Development of the Old Battery (חֶבְרָה לְפִתּוּחַ עַכּוֹ הָעַתִּיקָה Chevrah le-Fittūach ʿAkkō ha-ʿAttīqah ; Founded in 1967) from 1992 to 1999, employees of the antiquities authority, headed by Miriam Avischar and Eliezer Stern, completely cleared the courtyard of the Coming and the area above the east wing of rubble and rubble.
Alex Kesten (אַלֶכְּס קֶשְׁטֶן; 1912–1994) created a systematic directory of the buildings in the old town by 1962, which records the astonishing interlocking of the buildings from the times of the Crusaders and the Arab-Ottoman era; Based on the Kesten directory, a conservation plan was adopted for the old town and gradually implemented, which ultimately led to UNESCO declaring Accos old town a World Heritage Site in 2001 .
Todays use
Today the citadel complex is divided into four separately accessible areas. On the one hand, the remains of the Grand Manoir as a knight's hall , on the other hand, the Altes Serail cultural and youth center on the southern part of the river, and on the other hand, the Museum of Prisoners of the Underground in the Ottoman superstructure. Finally, in 1980, the Okaschi Museum of Art opened on the eastern forecourt in Diwan-Chan.
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Knight halls
To distinguish it from other parts of the citadel, the Grand Manoir is named Ritterhallen (אוּלַמּוֹת הָאַבִּירִים Ūlammōth ha-Abbīrīm ;قاعات الفرسان, DMG Qāʿāt al-Fursān ). Visitors enter the publicly accessible halls and halls of the Coming from the east through a new entrance at Rechov Weizmann 1 (1רְחוֹב וַיצְמַן).
There are also cash registers and function rooms for visitors. Through a green area, ha-Gan ha-Qassūm (הַגַּן הַקָּסוּם 'Enchanted Garden' ), at the foot of Burǧ al-Chazna (برج الخزنة'Treasure Chamber Tower') in the Ottoman eastern forecourt past the Ottoman Diwan-Chan, visitors reach the building complex of the Johanniterkommende. Not all parts of the former Kommende are publicly accessible today, which is why the rooms and finds that were made in them are not presented here in the section on use, but in the chapter Building Description of the Coming .
Parts of the coming are occasionally used for closed events, or for public events, such as the Akko Festival for Alternative Israeli Theater (פֶסְטִיבָל עַכּוֹ לְתֵּיאַטְרוֹן יִשְׂרָאֵלִי אַחֵר Fesṭīval ʿAkkō le-Tej'aṭrōn jisra'elī acher ). Visitors can get an impression of the remains of the lower floors of the Johanniterkommende, as higher floors were destroyed by Muslim conquerors and the ravages of time. Parts of the Kommende, which have been uncovered and restored in the meantime, now house a permanent exhibition on its history and that of the Crusader period.
Culture and youth center Altes Serail
The Old Seraglio ( Arabic السرايا القديم or. السراي القديمة, DMG al-Sarāyā al-Qadīm / al-Sarāy al-Qadīma ; Hebrew הַסָּרָאיָה הַיְּשָׁנָה ha-Sarājah ha-Jschanah ) has housed the culture, youth and sports center MaTNa "S a-Sarājah (מֶרְכָּז תַּרְבּוּת, נוֹעַר וּסְפּוֹרְט [מָתְנָ"ס] אַ-סָּרָאיָה Merkaz Tarbūt, Nōʿar ūSpōrṭ [MaTNa "S] a-Sarājah ) מתנ"ס חדש עכו העתיקה in municipal ownership. After extensive renovation, the Alte Serail opened in 2009 as a community center for citizens of the old town.
In the MaTNa "S a-Sarāja , dedicated Arabic -speaking Akkoners offer cultural events, childcare, rooms for young people as well as for sports, ballet and theater groups. In its youth work, the center relies on the interaction of Christians, Jews and Muslims, respect for each other and overcoming Violence. The center also promotes the status of mothers and offers professional qualification courses for around 60 young women. As a partner of the center, the American Corner in Akko (ACA) opened on April 1, 2009 , a library with English-language media on American fiction and reference works on the government, history and culture of the United States.
Museum of Prisoners of the Underground
The Museum of Prisoners of the Underground (מוּזֵיאוֹן אֲסִירֵי הַמַּחְתָּרוֹת Mūsej'ōn Assīrej ha-Machtarōt ;مُتحَف سجناء الحركات السرّيّة, DMG Mutḥaf Suǧanā 'al-Ḥarakāt al-Sirriyya ) in the upper structures of the citadel on the Grand Manoir , is a prison museum that has existed since 1963. Access is from the west in Rechov ha-Hagannah 10 (10רְחוֹב הַהֲגַנָּה). Above all, the exhibition shows the state of the prison, which is closer to the period of the mandate, with the sick wing, administration rooms on the first floor of the north wing and cells on the lower floor of the cells condemned to death. The museum is one of the museums and memorials sponsored by the Ministry of Defense . Initially, the museum only comprised the lower floor of the north-west tower, before the expansion of the museum opened its doors in 1984 after the psychiatry department moved out in 1981 and its rooms were renovated and redesigned.
In the south and east wing you can see cells in which once non-Jewish Arab or Jewish Arab and European prisoners were held. In the cells of the east wing, the history of underground organizations such as Hagannah , Irgun and LeCh "I and their work are explained. such as the endeavor to provide immigration opportunities for refugees of European anti-Semitism and Shoah survivors. Photographs, documents, text panels and screens with film sequences illustrate the content. The prisoners' workrooms, where workshops once were, can be seen downstairs in Burǧ al-Chazna in the northeast corner , on the upper floor in the projection room films on everyday prison life and events are shown (e.g. the prisoners ' liberation in 1947). The former prison yard had largely disappeared by 1999 when the Kommendenhof underneath was uncovered, but has been partially reconstructed on a light scaffolding above the pillar hall.
In the Jabotinsky wing in the north-west tower there is the gallows and memorial rooms for the hanged down below, and memorial rooms for other former prisoners such as Bahā'ullāh and Vladimir Se'ev Jabotinsky on the upper floor . Since the end of the 1990s, the Bahā'ī Universal Council , the prison museum and the preservation of monuments had been planning to restore the upper floor with the former cell of Bahā'ullāh and his fellow prisoners to the structural condition of 1920.
Photos from 1917, taken by the 1st Royal Bavarian Aviation Battalion , were finally found in the Bavarian War Archives of the original roof, which had been completely replaced in British times , so that it could be restored in the same form. The work, funded by the Bahá'í World Center, began in 2003 and ended in June 2004; then the upper floor was reopened in July. The memorial rooms for Bahā'ullāh and fellow prisoners have been the destination of Baha'i pilgrimages ever since .
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Okaschi Museum of Art
The Okaschi Museum of Art (מוּזֵיאוֹן עוֹקָשִׁי לְאָמָּנוּת Mūsej'ōn ʿŌqaschī le-Ōmmanūt ;مُتحَف عوكاشي للفنون, DMG Mutḥaf ʿŌkāschī lil-Funūn ) is an art museum in Akko that uses the vaults of the Ottoman divan chan, which is located on the eastern forecourt of the citadel to the Shāriʿ al-Jazzār (شارع الجزار) and is adjacent to the Knight's Hall to the east. It is named after Avshalom ʿŌqaschī (אַבְשָׁלוֹם עוֹקָשִׁי; 1916–1980), who maintained his studio in Diwan-Chan from 1948 until his death. ʿŌqaschī was one of the most original artists in the history of Israeli art and one of the pillars of the Ōfaqīm Hadaschīm (אוֹפָקִים חֳדָשִׁים 'New Horizons' ), which was founded in 1942. He was undoubtedly one of the most important Israeli painters and had a lasting influence on Israeli art. The artist spent most of his life in Akko. Here he lived, created and set up his painting studio, which after his death became the Okaschi Museum in order to convey his artistic legacy to future generations.
His works can be seen in the permanent exhibition in the museum named after him. In another part of the museum there are also temporary exhibitions showing works of contemporary Israeli art. Over the years, leading Israeli artists have shown their work here: Tali Amitai-Tabib (טַלִי אֲמִיתַּי-טַבִּיבּ; Born 1953), Nachum Gutman (נָחוּם גּוּטְמַן; 1898–1980), Menashe Kadishman , Shmuel Katz , Azriel Kaufman (עַזְרִיאֵל קַאוּפְמַן; 1929-2004), Ofer Lalouche (עוֹפֶר לַלוּשׁ; Born 1947), Yigal Ozeri (יִגְאָל עוֹזֵרִי; Born 1958), Yechiel Shemi (יְחִיאֵל שֵׁמִי; 1922–2003) and numerous other well-known artists. The museum maintains an ongoing dialogue with artists who continue Okaschi's path and with his students, and exhibits their work at every opportunity.
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Description in its parts
Johanniskirche crypt and old seraglio
The Johanniskirche (كنيسة القدّيس يُوحَنَّا, DMG Kanīsat al-Qiddīs Yūḥannā ,כְּנֵסִיַּת יוֹחָנָן הַמַּטְבִּיל הַקָּדוֹשׁ Knessijjat Jōchanan ha-Maṭbīl ha-Qadōsch ) was part of the Johanniterkommende. To the north who was Grand Manoir with medals hospice where brother knights and pilgrims under came south bordering Hospital of St. John of. The Johanniskirche was built on the north side of a four-sided complex with an inner courtyard, which the Crusaders left to the Johannites as a commander after taking the city in 1104.
Goldmann suspects that the crypt (قبو الكنيسة; מַרְתֵּף הַכְּנֵסִיָּה) of the Johanniskirche, six parallel vaulted halls under today's Old Seraglio, goes back to the north wing of an Arab-Fatimid caravanserai of the 10th or 11th century, because several features of the building, like a horseshoe arch in the southern part of the east wall in the last of the halls, suggest that. The two western halls are older, the four eastern, 5.5 meters high, more recent. As is typical of a caravanserai, the six halls of the crypt open to the former inner courtyard (in the south). In the “Vue de Saint-Jean d'Acre” from 1686, the light falling through the windows in the north wall of the crypt shimmers through the deep yokes to the arches at the front. The classification of this substructure of the old seraglio as the former crypt of the church is considered to have been secured after the antiquities authority Hana'a Abu-ʿUqsa (هناء أبو عقصة, DMG Hanā'a Abū-ʿUqṣa ) and Eliezer Stern examined the crypt and the old seraglio in detail between 1995 and 2003.
In addition to the crypt, which was preserved after the Mamluk destruction of Accos and later overbuilding in Ottoman times, there are other remains of the actual church. At the end of the 1950s, Goldmann found the western main entrance to the church, now walled up, in front of which he suspected two flights of stairs that led from medieval street level four meters up to the level of the main nave. The cornice, now partly below today's street level, which encircled the entire church on the outside, is interrupted in the area of the former main entrance, where pilasters on the outer masonry flank the now walled-up portal on the left and right.
Between 2004 and 2010, Abu-ʿUqṣa and Stern excavated the floor of the old seraglio in three places, under which they found the church floor in a buffering layer of rubble, the traces of the choir screens in the eastern seraglio wing in the area in front of the former triapsidial choir, which has not been preserved itself exhibited. The three apses that closed off the nave to the east can be seen in the "Vue de Saint-Jean d'Acre" through the destroyed south and main aisles , but later gave way to the western wing of the Riwaq around the Jazzar Pasha mosque . The old church floor consists of slabs of marble of three different colors, covered with shards of stained church windows . In addition, in the middle of the nave, today part under the courtyard of the Old Seraglio and the other part in its south wing, in the rubble layer, they found three fallen marble columns and colorful marble capitals, one of which has an orange cross on a black background. In the west wing of the old seraglio, in the area of the former narthex of the church, they discovered an omitted round depression in the middle of the floor slabs, where the fifth had probably been .
At the walled-up western main entrance to the church, the excavators discovered the gray marble doorstep. This 2.7 meter long threshold at the walled main entrance of St. Johannis, which leaves gaps of 35 cm at both ends up to the wall, fits in perfectly with the Gothic church portal with its columns and archivolts set in the garment , which Sanjar al-Schuschaʿi as booty from Akko to Cairo , where it was built between 1296 and 1303. The church portal now closes the corridor from an-Nasir Muhammad's mausoleum to the Madrasse of his name . Therefore Vardit Shotten-Hallel (וַרְדִּית שׁוֹטֶּן-הַלֵּל) that this church portal comes from the Johanniterkirche rather than - as others suspect - from the Holy Cross Cathedral (Jim Antoniou), St. Andrew's or St. George's Church (Alexander Papadopoulos).
Above the now walled-up entrance, the west facade of the church rises to a height of 13 meters above the current street level, continued around the northwest corner of the building in part of the north church facade, now both included in the outer wall of the west wing of the Old Seraglio. In the window openings of these façade parts, which can also be seen in the "Vue de Saint-Jean d'Acre" as three-pass windows, there are younger windows, but the tracery is missing today , fragments of which were discovered when the church floor was excavated in the east wing of the Old Seraglio . Unlike in France, where Gothic tracery is usually an integral part of the rest of the masonry, tracery used in crusader constructions predominated, which can easily be removed in the course of destruction or new use. The found fragments of tracery allow it to be reconstructed as a three-pass arch, as Shotten-Hallel showed in 2010.
Shotten-Hallel translated the perspective “Vue de Saint-Jean d'Acre” published by Étienne Gravier, Marquis d'Ortières , in 1686, but probably drawn by his engineer Plantier, in the format 12 by 156 centimeters, the precision of which is much praised from computer technology into corrected elevations and floor plans and compared the dimensions determined with measurement data from the construction survey of existing buildings. The comparison showed that the dimensions of the Grand Manoir calculated from Plantier's Panorama only differ by two to three centimeters from the measurements taken in situ, which means that Plantier's Panorama does indeed have the quality of photographic images. Using this method, Shotten-Hallel also uses Plantier's drawing to determine the dimensions of other components of the St. John's Church that were still preserved at the time, but have now disappeared, and produces reconstructive drawings of the St. John's Church based on the building findings of the crypt, the spolia finds and older drawings of the ruins.
To the south of the four eastern halls of the crypt under the Old Seraglio there is a free-standing, multiple-overmolded building, which is covered by two pointed barrel vaults placed one above the other , the upper one largely not preserved, which is why a groin vault was built over it in Ottoman times. This building resembles Islamic places of prayer or mosques, as they are typical in the middle of the caravanserai area, and was probably adopted by the Johannites as an oratory . The east side of the caravanserai is probably not preserved. The western part of the Turkish Bazaar from the end of the 18th century, which Alex Kesten excavated in 1960/1961, breaks through the square of the former Johanniter Hospital. To the south of it, Eliezer Stern identified a large hall that had been partially destroyed by the bazaar as formerly belonging to the Johanniter Hospital, but further excavations in the area of the hospital have been inactive since the early 1990s.
The old seraglio, which was built by Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar around 1750, sits directly on the crypt. The old seraglio forms a two-storey three-wing complex around a courtyard with an arcade on the upper floor. On the north side of the street, the main courtyard is closed off by a high wall that can be passed through a high gate. The archway was built in Ablaq style in alternating light and dark stone and originally belonged to a madrassa that Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar had built. The inscription on the gate does mention the Islamic year 1270 (Gregorian: 1853/1854), possibly the date on which the gate was moved to its current location, because both said madrassa and the old seraglio were founded a few decades earlier.
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Johanniter coming
The former Johanniterkommende ( Hebrew מֶרְכָּז הַמִּסְדָּר הָהוֹסְפִּיטַלֶרִי Merkaz ha-Misdar ha-Hōspīṭalerī ; Arabic القلعة الإسْبِتَارِيَّةُ, DMG al-Qalʿa al-Isbitāriyya ) today, in the remainder of the final expansion from 1291, covers an area of 4,500 to 5,000 square meters (about three-fifths of a football field for international games). “The Hospitaller Coming from Acre is one of the main monuments of the medieval city of Acre; ... The excavations, which have been carried out for over half a century, led to a completely new knowledge of this first-class monument ensemble, which consisted of halls, kitchens, latrines , dormitories and reception rooms for pilgrims. ”This facility also has underground areas - cisterns and a sewage system .
The Grand Manoir north of Rechov Portzej ha-Mivtzar comprises a roughly rectangular building complex with two to three preserved floors (each seven to ten meters high), which extends lengthways in a north-south direction, but slightly shifted from the north-south axis from the northeast is oriented to the southwest. Most of the building parts of the Grand Manoir are oriented in the same way, with the exception of halls 7/8, which are exactly in the north-south axis.
There are two heavily fortified gates from the time of construction, one in the north and one in the south. At the north gate in room 9 there are approaches to a bridge that formerly spanned the moat of the old city wall. Today visitors enter the Kommende from the east at Rechov Weizmann 1 (1רְחוֹב וַיצְמַן) through ha-Gan ha-Qassum in the Ottoman forecourt.
The Grand Manoir is divided into four preserved wings around an inner courtyard with arcades extending in north-south direction, which - after the rubble had been excavated until 1999 - is open to the sky and has a floor area of 1,200 m². On the east side of the courtyard, a staircase ramp leads up to the upper floors, where the buildings of the Arab-Ottoman citadel are now being built. At the north end of the courtyard there is a well shaft that is sunk to a depth of 4.5 meters. Next to the well, the remains of two water-resistant plastered 40 cm deep basins were found, which drained through drains below the courtyard paving to the central sewer. They may have served as potions and for laundry. At the southern end of the courtyard a second well was found with a 1.5 meter deep, water-resistant plastered basin, which may have served as a bath .
- West wing
The west wing has not yet been excavated and exposed. Eliezer Stern suspects, however, that it has also been preserved with two floors on which the west wing of the Ottoman Kışla rests. Two large, now walled-up arches formed the entrance from the courtyard to the west wing of the Coming House. In front of the west wing, the excavators uncovered components of the upper floors of the west wing of the Coming from the rubble of the excavated inner courtyard, such as basket capitals and Gothic ornaments depicting human figures. These finds show that the west wing is a Gothic building that presumably served the Knights of St. John as a residence and residence.
- North wing
The north wing borders on the crusader wall, which was strengthened and expanded under Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar and Ahmad 'al-Jazzār' Pasha, which today borders the old town in the north. Nevertheless, the outer walls of the approach to the city wall are particularly thick at 3.5 meters, even though they are located within the city, which was heavily fortified during the times of the Crusaders and today. The north wing is bounded in the east by the Burǧ al-Chazna (برج الخزنة 'Treasury Tower'; מִגְדָּל הָאוֹצָר Migdal ha-'Ōtzar ) from the 18th century. Its substructure has not yet been excavated. It was part of the renewed city fortifications of Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar and is located in the place of the third tower of the old city wall from the times of the Crusaders when viewed from the west. This tower forms the northeast corner of the citadel and, at 40 meters, is the highest part of the building.
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In the north wing, to the west of the Burǧ al-Chazna tower, there are ten halls, of which the three eastern ones were uncovered by 1967. At that time, however, these three could only be entered individually with the permission of the psychiatric management within the scope of an inspection from the hospital; they were only accessible to the public at occasional concerts in these halls. These three halls and the next three to the west form a structural unit as halls 1-6, all parallel and barrel vaulted , which also show repairs from the time after the crusaders. Halls 1–6 are ten meters high and connected to one another by an archway and probably served as storage facilities. Halls 1–6 close to the west as if an extension in this direction was not planned. Presumably these halls were built before the 1130s, before the Johanniter decided to abandon their buildings north of the Cross Cathedral and instead expand the building to the west.
To the north, hall 2 has an exit later broken into the north wall, which leads to a forecourt where the remains of a bridge can be found that once spanned the moat of the old city wall into the new town of Montmusard, perhaps around the Knights of St. John a quick access to the St. John's Tower Marientor in the Johanniterschanze (the eastern section of the city wall around the new town of Montmusard assigned to them for defense).
In a later construction phase, mentioned for the first time in 1141, the adjoining rooms 7 and 8 to the west were added, which, unlike the rest of the Grand Manoir, lie exactly in the north-south axis. Halls 7 and 8 actually designate six rooms with the same floor plan, two each spread over three floors. The two on the bottom floor are 7.5 meter high cross-vaulted rainwater cisterns with a floor area of 5 by 13 meters, which were plastered waterproof from floor to ceiling, with the plaster largely preserved. Both halls are connected by a wide archway and together have a capacity of around 1,000 cubic meters. The inlet, which once came from the roof, is located to the north in the vault of room 8 on the lowest level, an opening for water extraction is located to the south in the vault of room 7 on the lowest level.
On the floor above there are two cross-vaulted halls of the same shape, 7 meters high, the barrel-vaulted ceiling of which has partially collapsed. They were, among which are up to three meters high fully debris and down fallen wall parts in Hall 7 of the middle level on the eastern wall in situ slipped neatly into each other, finely lined up neatly and buffered in straw hundreds conical clay pot found, poured through the upper opening molasses was used to make sugar loafs, as well as preserved sugar loafs themselves. In another part of room 7 dozens of small molasses cans were found on the floor.
From the neighboring hall 8 on the middle level a staircase leads upwards on the south side to the upper hall 8, which, like the neighboring upper hall 7, has collapsed but has since been exposed. Its walls are plastered and painted in a Gothic style in black, yellow and red, a large round keystone recovered from the rubble of the vault is lavishly decorated with a rosette of acanthus leaves. To the west, on the lowest level, is Hall 9, which is also cross-vaulted, the passage to the north gate that connected the courtyard of the Coming with the moat in front of the old city wall, above which a massive tower rises. Halls 6–9 form the north side of the inner courtyard.
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The latrine wing of room 10 is located in the north-west corner, but can be entered from the passage of the north gate, and is also over three floors. In room 10 on the lowest level, dozens of sewer pipes embedded in the walls flow from the actual latrine room above. The latrine room measures five by ten meters with toilets in four rows of eight and is ventilated through three windows in the massive north wall. Pipes embedded in the walls carried rainwater from the roof into and through the latrines on the middle level from higher floors in order to achieve a cleaning flush in the lowest room with its floor made of smooth stone slabs, which is steeply inclined to five drains, with the torrent of water that sets in when it rains. The five outflows of the lowest level flow into the main sewer below, the course of which has been explored from north to south.
It measures 1 meter in width and 1.80 meters in height and crosses under the Coming with further inlets and the rest of the old town with its up to the former Pisan harbor in the south, where it once poured. Room 10 on the upper level is a Crusader building with its floor, but the walls and ceiling are from the Ottoman era. An examination of the floor showed that there are fixtures and drains for further toilets under the current pavement, which means that the entire system of latrines over two floors can only be compared with a few surviving Johanniterkommers from the 13th and 14th centuries in England and Wales .
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- East wing
To the south, across from halls 1–5 in the north wing, are the pillar hall and the dungeon in the east wing , separated by a deeply cut corridor running east-west . This corridor is bridged by a four-meter-wide closed passageway from the pillar hall to Hall 2 of the north wing at a sufficiently clear height, so that an upright passage remains below it. This passage from the east to the north wing was probably used for direct marching through, then further through hall 2 and out through its northern exit, so that the Knights of St. John could get to the Johanniterschanze quickly if necessary.
The large pillar hall probably served as a dormitory . It counts 24 five meter high bays over 15 pillars with a square floor plan in the Romanesque style . The hall measures 30 meters in width and 45 meters in length, i.e. around 1,300 square meters, with vaults up to eight meters high. Parts of the vaults and pillars collapsed under massive new structures in the 18th century and have been repaired and unstable structures stabilized in recent years. The hall probably formed the substructure of the once four-story main building of the coming, as drawings from the 17th century show.
In front of the east wing to the east is the former dungeon, a wall made of five meter high cross vaults without any window but with partly torn iron rings in the masonry where prisoners were chained. The floor of the dungeon was knocked out of the bedrock, making it a total of 2.5 meters lower than that of neighboring rooms. Originally access was only possible from the south by stairs to the higher main street with the market stalls, here in an east-west direction. In the south-east corner south of the pillar hall and east of the kitchen, what is now known as the beautiful hall was discovered in the early 1960s, so named because of the finely carved and set stones. The hall was accessible from the street and, as a reception hall, was probably the first point of contact and access for outside visitors.
- South wing
In the south wing, across the entire width of the inner courtyard, there is the most impressive hall of the Coming, the refectory built in the middle of the 12th century and uncovered in 1960 . It resembles refectories or chapter rooms in monasteries of the Middle Ages. It is occasionally called the crypt ('St. John's Crypt'), but this is an erroneous name because it creates misconceptions about what the hall, which is now open to visitors, was once used for. In addition, there is the crypt of the former St. John's Church , the substructure of today's Old Seraglio , in the complex of the Coming House.
The refectory is 22.16 meters wide and 44 meters long. With its two naves and four entrances, the refectory forms the main room in the south wing of the Grand Manoir . The ten-meter-high ribbed vaults form eight bays that rest in the middle on three massive round pillars three meters in diameter, which are now reinforced with steel sleeves . The girdle ribs of the yokes are ogival , which is why the hall is a good example of the early Gothic , “in which the heavy round Romanesque pillars form the basis for the crossed rib vaults. When comparing the style with other buildings of the transition style, it can be concluded that this hall was built around the middle of the 12th century. ”The hall was evidently planned in the Romanesque style, i. H. without cross vaults, but the plans changed during the construction, so that later consoles had to be inserted for the cross ribs except on the west wall, which was apparently built for the Gothic vault. Perhaps the west wall was rebuilt or later, after the Johanniter decided to expand the coming west.
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In the refectory, when clearing the rubble, a lot of earthenware was recovered. In particular, simple bowls, mostly broken, were found by excavators in large numbers. These unglazed flat bowls certainly formed the usual dishes for the diners at the time. In addition to the many simple bowls, the excavators also found fragments of a more elaborately designed specimen, which under their glaze show olive-colored St. John's crosses in the pale yellow background. It is therefore one of the earliest artifacts showing the order cross in the straight style of the 12th century.
In the northeast and southeast corners of the refectory, the excavators discovered two consoles showing the coat of arms of the kings of France, the stylized fleur de lys lily . Louis VII chose this symbol for his coat of arms during the Second Crusade (1147–1149). The oldest surviving representations in Europe date from 1180, so that those in the refectory could be traced back to Louis VII's stay in Akko in 1148. In the eastern narrow wall of the refectory there are three chimneys, one embedded in the wall and two subsequently attached to the wall. The room adjoining to the east presumably contained the kitchen, which has not yet been exposed.
Citadel in the Ottoman superstructure
All parts of the citadel building from the Ottoman period were used by the British mandate as a prison with associated facilities such as the administrative wing and cells in the north and east wings and the Kışla with cells in the south and supply rooms in the west wing. Today the Museum of Prisoners of the Underground occupies the Ottoman superstructure of the citadel. On the occasion of its expansion, the rooms that had served as a mental hospital from 1949 to 1981 were brought closer to the state of 1947 between 1981 and 1984. Signs, restored and recreated interiors remind of the functions of the rooms, of active and imprisoned people, of the underground movements involved and of what happened in the prison.
The facility is divided into four wings that stand directly on the crusader building of the Grand Manoir . The north wing is two-story and today shows offices, rooms for interrogation and criminal proceedings (№ 1 in the plan on the right) and the sick wing (№ 2). On the floor below there are memorial rooms for the hanged and the gallows (№ 3), which were a museum between 1963 and 1984. The treasury tower Burǧ al-Chazna (№ 9) in the northeast corner of the complex shows workshops and workrooms for the prisoners on its upper two floors and a room for film screenings above. In the east and south wing you can see the former cells for Jewish (№ 8) and Arab prisoners (№ 7). In the south wing (Kışla), the location of the detonation in the south wall during the liberation of the prisoners on May 4, 1947 is shown. Furthermore, the Kışla in the south wing also shows relics from hospital use.
The west wing (№ 6), part of the Kışla that once served utilities, is not accessible, but only indicated as a dummy. The citadel courtyard (№ 5) was excavated down to the vaulted ceiling of the pillar hall or the base until 1999 in order to relieve the pillar hall and expose the courtyard (№ 13) of the Grand Manoir . Only above the pillar hall in the east wing of the Kommende was a part of the citadel courtyard, level with the four wings of the Ottoman superstructure, modeled in light scaffolding and equipped with the sculpture courtyard corridor. In front of the north wing in the citadel courtyard, the visitor bars were reconstructed (№ 4), the inner one, where the prisoners had to stand and separated by a corridor for supervisory staff, the outer, higher one, where the visitors stood to speak to the inmates.
The Jabotinsky wing in the north-west tower, built in 1797, had its appearance approximated to the state of 1920 by 2004. The beautiful structural details such as wooden ceilings and Ablaq walling indicate that this wing once fulfilled representative tasks as the residence of the Paschas.
See also
- Old Seraglio (Akkon)
- Johanniterkirche St. Johannis (Akkon)
- Museum of Prisoners of the Underground (Akkon)
- Knight's Halls (Akkon)
- Turkish Ḥammām (Akkon)
literature
- Adrian Boas, Crusader archeology: The material culture of the Latin East , London and New York: Routledge, 2 2017, ISBN 978-1-138-90025-7
- Joseph Daoust, Le couvent des Hospitaliers à Acre: les forteresses des croisés , Paris: Bayard, 1974, (= Bible et Terre Sainte; vol. 160)
- Bernhard Poet (בֶּרְנְהַרְד דִּיכְטֶר; 1911–1991) with Salman cotton (זַלְמָן בַּאוּמְווֹל; Arr.), Alex Carmel (arr.) And Ejal Jakob Eisler (אֱיָל יַעֲקֹב אַיְזְלֶר; Edit .), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000.
- Jaʿel Fuhrmann-Naʿaman (יָעֵל פוּרְמַן-נַעֲמָן) and Raʿanan Kislew (רַעֲנָן כִּסְלֵו), "אוּלַמּוֹת הָאַבִּירִים", שִׁמּוּר מֶרְכָּז הַמִּסְדָּר הָהוֹסְפִּיטַלֶרִי , Jerusalem:הוצאת רשות העתיקות, 2010.
- Ze'ev Goldmann , "The buildings of the Order of St. John in Akkon", in: The Order of St. John - The Order of Malta: The knightly order of St. John of the Hospital in Jerusalem - His tasks, his history , Adam Wienand (ed.) With Carl Wolfgang Graf von Ballestrem and Christoph Freiherr von Imhoff, Cologne: Wienand, 1977, pp. 108–115.
- Ze'ev Goldmann, "Le couvent des Hospitaliers à Saint-Jean d'Acre", in: Bible et Terre Sainte , vol. 160 (April 1974), pp. 8-18.
- Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko”, in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, p 199-206.
- Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, ISBN 3-530-49171-3
- Andrew Petersen, A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine , Council for British Research in the Levant (Ed.), (= British Academy monographs in archeology; No. 12), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-19 -727011-0 .
- Thomas Philipp, Acre: the rise and fall of a Palestinian city, 1730-1831 , New York and Chichester: Columbia University Press, 2001, (= History and society of the modern Middle East series; Vol. 6), ISBN 0-231 -12327-2
- Abraham Rabinovich, Akko - St. Jean d'Acre , Herzliya:פַּלְפוֹט, 1980, (= Palphot's pictorial Guide & Souvenir).
- Vardit Shotten-Hallel (וַרְדִּית שׁוֹטֶּן-הַלֵּל), “Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687”, in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), pp. 185-198.
- Eliezer Star (אֱלִיעֶזֶר שְׁטֶרְן), “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 entitled 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), p. 53 -60.
- Eliezer Star, "מֶרְכָּז הַמִּסְדָּר הָהוֹסְפִּיטַלֶרִי בְּעַכּוֹ”, In: קַדְמוֹנִיּוּת: כְּתָב-עֵת לְעַתִּיקוֹת אֶרֶץ-יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאֲרָצוֹת הַמִּקְרָא , Vol. לג (No. 1, 2000), pp. 4–12.
- Thomas Veser, "Holy Cross Church under the Harem" , in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung , December 24, 2003
- Adam Wienand, "Die Johanniter und die Kreuzzüge", in: Der Johanniter-Orden - The Malteser-Orden: The knightly order of St. John of the hospital in Jerusalem - His tasks, his story , Adam Wienand (ed.) With Carl Wolfgang Graf von Ballestrem and Christoph Freiherr von Imhoff, Cologne: Wienand, 1977, pp. 32–108.
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Erhard Gorys, The Holy Land: Historical and religious sites of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the 10,000 year old cultural land between the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Jordan , Cologne: DuMont, 2 1984, (= DuMont art travel guide), P. 368. ISBN 3-7701-1474-4 .
- ↑ Jack Bocar, “Quartier Templiers emplacement des structures” , in: L'Orient Latin: La Terre Sainte à l'époque Romane - L'Orient au Temps des Francs , accessed on February 25, 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u “Hospitaller Fortress” , on: The secrets of the unearthly and subterranean city of Akko , accessed on February 26, 2019.
- ↑ a b Avraham Lewensohn, travel guide Israel with maps and city maps [Israel Tour Guide, 1979; dt.], Miriam Magal (ex.), Tel Aviv-Yapho: Tourguide, 1982, p. 45.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko”, in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, pp. 199-206, here p. 200.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Jack Bocar, "La Commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre" , in: L'Orient Latin: La Terre Sainte à l'époque Romane - L ' Orient au Temps des Francs , accessed February 25, 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj Thomas Philipp, Acre: the rise and fall of a Palestinian city, 1730–1831 , New York and Chichester: Columbia University Press, 2001, (= History and society of the modern Middle East series; Vol. 6), page number as indicated after the footnote number. ISBN 0-231-12327-2 .
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199–206, here p. 199.
- ^ Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 250. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ^ Israel , Theodor Friedrich Meysels (1899–1963) et al., (= Nagels Encyclopedia Travel Guide. German Series), verb. Ed., Revised. by SFG Nathan, Geneva: Nagel, 2 1967, p. 218.
- ↑ Peter Milger, The Crusades: War in the Name of God , Munich: Bertelsmann, 1988, p. 162. ISBN 3-570-07356-4 .
- ↑ Benjamin Ben-Jōnā from Tudela, Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela [מַסָּעוֹת שֶׁל רַבִּי בִּנְיָמִין (Massaʿōt schel Rabbī Binjamīn) , after 1170; Engl.], Marcus Nathan Adler (ed., transl. and commentator), London: Frowde, 1907, p. 21. No ISBN.
- ↑ Denys Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. A Corpus : 4 vol. S, Cambridge, Engl .: Cambridge University Press, 2009, vol. 4 'The Cities of Acre and Tire with Addenda and Corrigenda to Volumes I-III', p. 83. ISBN 978-0-521-10983-3 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko”, in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, pp. 199-206, here p. 202.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Ze'ev Goldmann, "The buildings of the Order of St. John in Akkon", in: The Order of St. John - The Order of Malta: The knightly order of St. John of the Hospital in Jerusalem - Its tasks, its history , Adam Wienand (ed.) With Carl Wolfgang Graf von Ballestrem and Christoph Freiherr von Imhoff, Cologne: Wienand, 1977, pp. 108–115, here page number as given after the footnote number.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Thomas Veser, "Heiligkreuzkirche under the Harem" , in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung , December 24, 2003, accessed on February 22, 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 54.
- ↑ a b c d e Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53-60, here p. 53.
- ↑ a b c d e Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 59.
- ↑ See Christine Sauer, “Theoderichs‹ Libellus de locis sanctis ›(approx. 1169–1174). Architectural descriptions of a pilgrim ”, in: Hagiography of Art: Holy Cult in Writing, Image and Architecture , Gottfried Kerscher (Ed.), Berlin: Reimer, 1993, pp. 213–239. ISBN 978-3-496-01107-1 .
- ^ A b Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 251. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199-206, here pp. 204ff.
- ↑ a b Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis') , Pp. 53–60, here p. 55ff.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko”, in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y Crowell Co., 1967, pp. 199-206, here p. 201.
- ^ "Conquête d'Acre par Baudouin Ier" , in: L'Orient Latin: La Terre Sainte à l'époque Romane - L'Orient au Temps des Francs , accessed on February 22, 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Adam Wienand, "Die Johanniter und die Kreuzzüge", in: Der Johanniter-Orden - Der Malteser-Orden: The knightly order of St. John from the hospital in Jerusalem - His tasks, his story , Adam Wienand (eds.) with Carl Wolfgang Graf von Ballestrem and Christoph Freiherr von Imhoff, Cologne: Wienand, 1977, pp. 32–108, here the page number as indicated after the footnote number.
- ^ Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 253ff. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ^ Edwin James King, The Rule, Statutes and Customs of the Hospitallers, 1099-1310 , London: Methuen, 1934, p. 67.
- ↑ a b c d e Vardit Shotten-Hallel, “Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685–1687”, in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), p 185–198, here p. 195.
- ^ A b Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 254. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ^ Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 255. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ↑ a b c d e f Bernhard Dichter with Salman cotton (arrangement), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, p. 52.
- ↑ a b Israel , Theodor Friedrich Meysels (1899–1963) et al., (= Nagels Encyclopedia Travel Guide. German Series), verb. Ed., Revised. by SFG Nathan, Geneva: Nagel, 2 1967, p. 219.
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199–206, here p. 206.
- ^ Eugène Roger, La Terre Sainte, Ou Description Topographique très-particulière des saints Lieux, & de la Terre de Promission , Paris: A. Bertier, 1664, p. 52ff. Here after Bernhard Dichter with Salman Coton (arrangement ), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גֹוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, pp. 52 and 54, footnote 1.
- ↑ Laurent d'Arvieux, Des Herr von Arwieux ... left strange news, in which he describes both his trip to Constantinople, in Asia ... as well as the nature of these countries ... exactly and correctly: Edited in French by Herr [Jean-Baptiste] Labat , and now translated into German : 6 parts. [Mémoires du Chevalier d'Arvieux,…: contenant Ses Voyages à Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Syrie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, la Barbarie, la description de ces Païs, les Religions, les mœurs, les Coûtumes, le Négoce de ces Peuples, leurs Gouvernemens, l'Histoire naturelle et les événemens les plus considerables / recüeillis de ses Mémoires origineaux, et mis en ordre avec des réfléxions par le Jean-Baptiste Labat, 1735 ; dt.], Vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 251-258.
- ↑ a b c Cf. Étienne Gravier's “Vue de Saint-Jean d'Acre” , on: {BnF Gallica , accessed on March 29, 2019.
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199–206, here p. 205.
- ↑ Franke (إفرنجي, DMG Ifranǧī ) is a synonym for Europeans in Levantine Arabic .
- ↑ Andrew Petersen, A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine , Council for British Research in the Levant (Ed.), (= British Academy monographs in archeology; No. 12), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 73. ISBN 978-0-19-727011-0 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j "Museum of Heroism" , on: The secrets of the unearthly and underground city of Akko , accessed on February 24, 2019.
- ↑ There are various examples of this in the former Ottoman Empire, for example the government building in Beirut is called the Grand Sérail (السراي الكبير'Great Seraglio'), similar to al-Sarāyā al-Hamrā (السرايا الحمراء'Red Seraglio') in Tripoli, Ak Saray (White Seraglio) in Ankara, Grand Sérail in Aleppo, or Topkapı Sarayı ( Cannon Gate Seraglio) in Istanbul.
- ↑ Assad ibn Ǧibrā'īl Rustum (أسد إبن جبرائيل رستم; 1897–1965), Notes on Akka and its Defenses under Ibrahim Pasha , Beirut: o. V., 1926, p. 10ff.
- ↑ Karin Lucke, Israel with Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and West Bank , Nuremberg: BW-Verlag, 1994, (= Edition Erde Travel Guide), p. 205. ISBN 3-8214-6533-6 .
- ^ Giovanni Mariti, Journey from Jerusalem through Syria: Translated from the Italian , Johann Christoph Maier (transl.), Strasbourg in Alsace: Verlag der Akademischen Buchhandlung, 1789, p. 73ff.
- ↑ Abraham Rabinovich, Akko - St. Jean d'Acre , Herzliah:פַּלְפוֹט, 1980, (= Palphot's pictorial Guide & Souvenir), p. 11.
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199–206, here p. 204.
- ↑ a b c d e f g “Holy place restored and open to pilgrims” (November 24, 2004), in: Bahá'í World News Service: The official news source of the worldwide Bahá'í community , accessed on June 12 2018.
- ^ Edward Daniel Clarke, Travels in various countries of Europe, Asia and Africa. Part 2nd, section 1st, Greece, Egypt and the Holy Land , London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1812, pp. 362-382. Here after Bernhard Dichter with Salman Coton (arrangement ), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גֹוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, pp. 52 and 54, footnote 7.
- ↑ Uriel Hans Heydt (אוּרִיאֵל הֵד; 1913–1968), דָּאהֶר-אַלְעֹמֶר: שָׁלִיט הַגָּלִיל בַּמֵּאָה הַי״ח - פָּרָשַׁת חָיָיו וּפְעוּלוֹתָיו (Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar: Schalīṭ ha-Galīl ba-me'ah ha-18 - paraschat chajʿaw: Jerusalemר 'מַס, 1942, pp. 93ff.
- ↑ a b c d e Bernhard Dichter with Salman cotton (arrangement), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גֹוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, p. 53.
- ↑ This would have required free real estate in order to have it loaned as security so that the credits obtained in this way are available to producers for investment.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h “Acre's Old Saray: Acre, Israel” , in Archnet , accessed February 26, 2019.
- ^ “The House of` Abdu'lláh Páshá ” , in: Bahá'í World , Vol. 18 (1979-1983), pp. 77-80, here p. 77, accessed on February 27, 2019.
- ^ “The House of` Abdu'lláh Páshá ” , in: Bahá'í World , Vol. 18 (1979-1983), pp. 77-80, here pp. 78 and 80, accessed on February 27, 2019.
- ↑ Mordechai Gichon (מֹרְדְּכַי גּיחוֹן; 1922–2016), "סְגָן כֹּהֵן וחַבְרָיו כּוֹבְשִׁים אֶת עַכּוֹ בְּעָרְמָה”, In: עֵת־מוֹל: עִתּוֹן לְתּוֹלָדוֹת אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל וְעַם יִשְׂרָאֵל No. 5/3 (January 1976), pp. 3–10, here p. 8seqq. Here after Bernhard Dichter with Salman Coton (arrangement ), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عكا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גֹוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, pp. 53 and 54, footnote 12.
- ↑ Mordechai Gichon, "כִּיבּוּשׁ עַכּוֹ בְּשְׁנַת⁻1840”, In: שְׁנָתוֹן: מוּזֵיאוֹן הָאָרֶץ , No. 12 (1970), pp. 40-46. Here after Bernhard Dichter with Salman Coton (arrangement ), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عَکّا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גֹוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, pp. 53 and 54, footnote 13.
- ↑ Bernhard Dichter with Salman cotton (arrangement), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عَکّا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, footnote 15 on p. 54.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Eunice Braun, Crown of Carmel: The Bahá'í Religion and the Holy Land [A Crown of Beauty, Oxford: George Ronald, 1982; dt.], Oxford: George Ronald, 1983, page number as indicated after the footnote number. ISBN 3-900443-04-1 .
- ^ Victor Guérin, La Terre Sainte, son histoire, ses sites, ses monuments : 2 vol., Paris: Plon & Cie., 1882–1884, vol. 2, p. 503.
- ↑ Palestine Chronicle 1883 to 1914: German newspaper reports from the 1st wave of Jewish immigration up to the First World War , Alex Carmel (compilation and ed.), Ulm: Vaas, 1983, pp. 53–56. ISBN 3-88360-041-5 .
- ↑ a b c d e f "עַכּוֹ" , in: מַפָּה , accessed on June 11, 2018.
- ↑ a b c d e Bernhard Dichter with Salman cotton (arrangement), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عَکّا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, p. 54.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j "מוּזֵיאוֹן אֲסִירֵי הַמַּחְתָּרוֹת בְּעַכּוֹ” , In: מִשְׂרַד הַבִּיטָּחוֹן , accessed June 13, 2018.
- ↑ “Jerusalem quiet, but Assaults continue in other Parts of Palestine”, in: Jewish Daily Bulletin , August 29, 1929, Vol. VI, No. 1453, pp. 1 and 7seq., Here p. 7 .
- ↑ David Grant, “Robert Lewkenor Worsley,” in The Auxiliary Division of the Royal Irish Constabulary , accessed March 27, 2019.
- ↑ Issam Nassar and Salim Tamari, The Storyteller of Jerualem. The life and Times of Wasif Jawhariyyeh, 1904-1948 , Northampton, MA: Olive Branch Press, 2014, pp. 202 and 291. ISBN 978-1-56656-925-5 .
- ↑ a b Avraham Lewensohn, travel guide Israel with maps and city maps [Israel Tour Guide, 1979; German], Miriam Magal (ex.), Tel Aviv-Yapho: Tourguide, 1982, p. 47.
- ↑ Avraham Lewensohn, Travel Guide Israel with road maps and city maps [Israel Tourguide, 1979; Ger.], Miriam Magal (ex.), Tel Aviv-Yapho: Tourguide, 1982, p. 48.
- ↑ "הֶסְכֵּם עַל סְגִירַת בֵּית הָחוֹלִים בְּעַכּוֹ” (Agreement to close the hospital in Akko), in: דָּבָר (Davar), July 15, 1981; accessed on June 16, 2018.
- ↑ "פּוֹנֶה בֵּית הָחוֹלִים לְחוֹלֵי נֶפֶשׁ בְּעַכּוֹ” (German: Akko mental hospital is relocated), in: דָּבָר (Davar), July 19, 1981; accessed on June 16, 2018.
- ↑ a b "מוּזֵיאוֹן עוֹקָשִׁי לְאָמָּנוּת - עַכּוֹ הָעַתִּיקָה” , In: מוזיאונים כסביבות למידעת חקר וגילוי , accessed April 4, 2019.
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199-206, here p. 200seq.
- ↑ Jaʿel Fuhrmann-Naʿaman (יָעֵל פוּרְמַן-נַעֲמָן) and Raʿanan Kislew (רַעֲנָן כִּסְלֵו), ""אוּלַמּוֹת הָאַבִּירִים", שִׁמּוּר מֶרְכָּז הַמִּסְדָּר הָהוֹסְפִּיטַלֶרִי” (2009), in: מִנְהָל שִׁמּוּר: שִׁמּוּר מוֹרֶשֶׁת הַתַּרְבּוּת בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל , accessed August 19, 2019.
- ↑ a b c d e f Vardit Shotten-Hallel, “Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685–1687”, in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), Pp. 185–198, here p. 185.
- ↑ a b Will Stevens, “American Corner Opens in Akko” (April 29, 2009), on: Archived content: Information released prior to January 20, 2017 , accessed on February 24, 2019.
- ↑ a b c "Matnas - community center in the old town of Akko" , based on: Evangelische Israelhilfe Württemberg , accessed on February 24, 2019.
- ↑ The Zāwiyat al-Šāḏaliya (زاوية الشاذلية) was created in 1862 as Zāwiya ( zaouïa in French transliteration), similar to a madrassa. A Zāwiya is not a mosque in the traditional sense, but a place of retreat and gathering for dervishes and Sufis as well as Sufi sheikhs. Sheikh Ali Nur al-Din al-Isroti, founder of the Šāḏali Sufi order in Akko, immigrated to Akko from Tunisia and donated the building, hence this typical Maghreb institution, which is quite unusual for the Levant.
- ↑ a b c "בִּיקּוּר עַכּוֹנֶט מוּזֵיאוֹן אֲסִירֵי הַמַּחְתָּרוֹת בְּעַכּוֹ” , In: Akkonetיְדִיעוֹת בְּעַכּוֹ: הַדִּיּוּנִים עָבְרוּ לַקְבוּצָה עַכּוֹנֶט בְּפֶייְסְבּוּקfacebook.com/akkonet , accessed March 15, 2019.
- ↑ a b c "עוֹקָשִׁי לְאָמָּנוּת” On: עִירִיַּית עַכּוֹ Akko Municipality بلدية عَکّا , accessed April 4, 2019.
- ↑ a b "Okashi Art Museum" , on: The Secrets of the Aboveground and Underground City of Akko , accessed on April 4, 2019.
- ↑ a b c Vardit Shotten-Hallel, "Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687", in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), p 185 –198, here p. 192.
- ^ Adrian Boas, Crusader Archeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East , London and New York: Routledge, 2 2017, p. 39. ISBN 978-1-138-90025-7 . Goldmann, on the other hand, still suspected that St. John's Church might have stood on the site of the Jazzār mosque, cf. Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko”, in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, p 199-206, here p. 204.
- ↑ “The Seraglio” , on: The Secrets of the Aboveground and Underground City of Akko , accessed on February 22, 2019.
- ↑ Bernhard Dichter with Salman cotton (arrangement), Alex Carmel ( arrangement ) and Ejal Jakob Eisler ( arrangement ), עַכּוֹ - אֲתָרִים מִיָּמֵי הַתּוּרְכִּים /عَکّا: مواقع من العهد التركي(Additional title: Akko, buildings from the Turkish period / Akko, sites from the Turkish period ), University of Haifa /הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19 (Gottlieb Schumacher Institute for Research into the Christian Contribution to the Reconstruction of Palestine in the 19th Century; Ed.), Haifa: הַמָּכוֹן עַל שֵׁם גּוֹטְלִיבּ שׁוּמַכֶר לְחֵקֶר פְּעִילוּת הָעֹולָם הַנּוֹצְרִי בְּאֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּמֵּאָה הַ -19, 2000, pp. 216-219.
- ↑ a b c Vardit Shotten-Hallel, "Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687", in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), p 185 –198, here p. 193.
- ↑ Vardit Shotten-Hallel, "Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687", in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), pp 185-198, here p. 198.
- ↑ Michael Meinecke , The Mamluk architecture in Egypt and Syria (648/1250 to 923/1517) : 2 vols., Glückstadt: Augustin, 1992, (= treatises of the German Archaeological Institute, Cairo. Islamic series; vol. 5, p. 1), Part 1 'Genesis, development and effects of the Mamluk architecture', p. 49. ISBN 3-87030-071-X .
- ↑ In fact, an-Nasir Muhammad never allowed himself to be buried in it for fear that his grave would be desecrated after his death, although he had his mother Bint Sukbay and his son Anuk buried in it.
- ↑ Vardit Shotten-Hallel, "Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687", in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), pp 185-198, here p. 194.
- ↑ a b Vardit Shotten-Hallel, “Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687”, in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), pp. 185– 198, here p. 189.
- ↑ Cf. Vardit Shotten-Hallel (וַרְדִּית שׁוֹטֶּן-הַלֵּל), “Reconstructing the Hospitaller Church of St. John, Acre, with the help of Gravier d'Ortières's drawing of 1685-1687”, in: Crusades , Vol. 9 (2010), pp. 185-198.
- ↑ Cf. Nomination of the Old City of Acre for the World Heritage List , Jaʿel Fuhrmann [-Naʿaman] and Adi Kitov on behalf of the Department of Monument Preservation of the Israel Antiquities Authority (ed.), (= WHC Nomination Documentation; No. 1042), Paris: UNESCO, 2001, No. 14 'Turkish Bazaar' of the Monument Appendix.
- ^ A b c d Adrian Boas, Crusader archeology: The material culture of the Latin East , London and New York: Routledge, 2 2017, p. 40. ISBN 978-1-138-90025-7 .
- ↑ a b Andrew Petersen, A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine , Council for British Research in the Levant (Ed.), (= British Academy monographs in archeology; No. 12), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 84 . ISBN 978-0-19-727011-0 .
- ↑ Eliezer Stern, "La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre", in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 entitled 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), p 53–60, here the outline. Original omission.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 55.
- ↑ a b c d e f Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 57.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 58.
- ^ Israel , Theodor Friedrich Meysels (1899–1963) et al., (= Nagels Encyclopedia Travel Guide. German Series), verb. Ed., Revised. by SFG Nathan, Geneva: Nagel, 2 1967, p. 220.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Eliezer Stern, “La commanderie de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers à Acre”, in: Bulletin Monumental , Vol. 164 (No. 1, 2006 with the title 'L'architecture en Terre Sainte au temps de Saint Louis'), pp. 53–60, here p. 56.
- ↑ Goldmann thought it was an underground connecting passage. See Ze'ev Goldmann, “The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko,” in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967 , Pp. 199-206, here p. 205.
- ^ Hans Kühner, Israel: a travel guide through three thousand years , David Harris (photos), Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter, 1975, p. 260. ISBN 3-530-49171-3 .
- ^ Ze'ev Goldmann, "The Hospice of the Knights of St. John in Akko", in: Archeological Discoveries in the Holy Land , Archeological Institute of America (compiled), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1967, Pp. 199-206, here p. 201seq.
Web links
- Hospitallers coming: the Hospitaller fortress