George Wheler

Sir George Wheler, engraving by William Bromley (1769–1842)

Sir George Wheler (born January 20, 1651 in Breda ; died January 15, 1724 in Durham ) was an English botanist and explorer and minister of the Church of England .

George Wheler dropped out of Lincoln College in Oxford in 1673 and went on his grand tour . In 1675 he met Jacob Spon during the tour , with whom he undertook the first modern trip to Greece in 1675/76 , guided by purely archaeological interests . During this trip, however, he devoted himself not only to antiquity, but also extensively to the world of plants and brought some previously unknown plants with him to England.

Back in England, he married and entered the service of the Church, most recently from 1709 until his death as a pastor in Houghton-le-Spring in County Durham , in the far north-east of England. In 1693 he built a church for the tenants of his properties in the London borough of Spitalfields , and in Houghton-le-Spring he founded a school for the poor . In addition to his travelogue, he published works with a Christian content, including a book that was written under the influence of Mary Astell , in which he addressed the subject of Protestant monasteries.

At the time of his ordination around 1683, he gave the antiques and inscriptions he had brought with him from the trip to Oxford University . He bequeathed the manuscripts and coins acquired during the trip as well as his plant collection to various institutions in a will. In this way, Lincoln College received the manuscript collection, which included the so-called Lincoln College Typikon, the particularly valuable founding document of the Bebaia Elpis Monastery of Constantinople from the early 14th century .

His travel report A Journey into Greece from 1682 - just like the Spons report published in 1678 - still provides important knowledge and details about ancient Greece today. The work with which he became known among learned circles across Europe has long been controversial. George Wheler was accused of only having copied Jacob Spon in the end. But his own power of observation was recognized early on, so that his work was sometimes given priority over Spons. More recent research turns to George Wheler as an early traveler and deals with the social and personal conditions under which he made his journey.

Life

Life dates

The dates of life are given in publications dealing with George Wheler in three variants: 1650–1723, 1650–1724 or 1651–1724. The basis for these different statements is the fact that George Wheler was both born in January and died. His life dates thus fall within the period that encompasses the decisive difference between English dates according to "old" and "new style". Until the Chesterfield's Act of 1750 and the subsequent introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1752, the Julian calendar was in effect in England and the civil year began on March 25, Lady Day . In many European, especially the Catholic countries, the calendar year began with the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in the late 16th century on January 1st, the corresponding year counting was considered a "new style" in order to be able to differentiate it from the "old style". Already under Elizabeth I , England started to use both years for borderline cases, for example by showing both years as a fraction.

George Wheler was born on January 20, 1650 "old style", which corresponds to January 20, 1651 "new style". His date of death is given on his epitaph as follows: obiit 18 cal. Feb. anno Domini 1723–4, anno aetatis 74 ("died 18 days before the calendar of February [= January 15] 1723 or 1724, at the age of 74" ). The year of death is reported in both the old and the new style and therefore falls in the year 1724 of our calendar. Accordingly, the data 1650–1723 refer to the old-style dates of life handed down since the late 18th century, while the years 1650–1724 from Robert W. Ramsey mix both styles. With the years 1651-1724 introduced by Nigel Guy Wilson according to modern time calculation, a proleptic conversion with adjustment of the calendar days to the Gregorian calendar is dispensed with.

Childhood and studies

George Wheler was the son of Charles Wheler and his wife Anne, the daughter of John Hutchin of Egerton. Charles Wheler was Colonel in the Life Guards and a supporter of the Royalists in the English Civil War . The family from Tottenham , Middlesex , shared the exile of the future King of England, Charles II , at the time of George's birth . George Wheler was therefore born in Breda, the Netherlands. In 1652 the family was able to return to England and settled in Charing, Kent . Wheler first attended schools in Ashford and Wye . He then received private lessons. He was of a weak constitution and avoided sporting activities, but developed a lifelong interest in gardening, plants and flowers at an early age. He was enthusiastic about mechanics, was a skilled hobbyist and, after learning to play the harpsichord , built his own instrument.

Oxford Botanic Gardens, 1675

An inheritance from the estate of Sir William Wheler of Westminster allowed to visit the Lincoln College of Oxford University , where he on the recommendation of Job Hood, son of the college rector, enrolled on 31 January 1668th In Oxford he showed an enthusiastic affection for heraldic subjects and weapons, cultivated his passion for plants and regularly visited the botanical garden, at that time still a Physic garden , a pharmacist garden . He read a lot and also dealt with modern authors, such as René Descartes .

The death of William Wheler's widow in 1670 and the immediate dispute over the will jeopardized the long-term financial independence of Charles Wheler and George's further studies. Charles Wheler and, in succession, George Wheler should, according to the last will of William Wheler, receive part of the Wheler estate's holdings in Spitalfields after the death of his wife . This was challenged by Sir Charles Wheler of Birdingbury (around 1620-1683), a member of another branch of the family. In order to be able to support his father in the upcoming process for the inheritance, George Wheler switched to studying law at Oxford and was admitted to the Middle Temple in London, one of the four English bar associations , on July 4, 1671 . Although George - who now divided his time between Oxford and London - was not enthusiastic about law, the process ended in the summer of 1673 in favor of his family and ensured his own financial independence. Following an endeavor that he had envisaged at a young age but tied to his financial security, he began planning a trip and initiated his tutor at Lincoln College, George Hickes (1642–1715), who should accompany him.

George Wheler dropped out of college and left university without a degree. On October 15, 1673, he began the journey that only took him back to England in November 1676. He traveled to France and Italy for two years before setting off for Constantinople and Greece in June 1675, accompanied by Jacob Spons . By the time he returned to England he had laid the foundations for continued prominence in the learned circles of England and continental Europe .

Marriage and church service

Grave stele of Diodora, 4th century BC BC, Ashmolean Museum , Oxford, from the George Wheler Collection

After his return, Wheler married Grace Higgons (around 1662-1703), daughter of the diplomat Thomas Higgons, in 1677. In the same year he became a Fellow of the Royal Society on December 13 , which, however , expelled him again in 1685. His own interests turned to an ecclesiastical career. The oldest evidence of his religiously determined worldview is his travelogue published in 1682, which he wrote from the perspective of a Christian traveler. The destruction of the early Christian churches in Ephesus and Pergamon had shaken him and he saw the ruins of Pergamon as God's punishment against sinners. Even before his Journey went to press , he had bequeathed the inscriptions he had brought from Greece to Oxford University. They were placed next to the then famous Marmora Arundeliana & Seldeniana , as he proudly reports. In 1683 he donated his collection of ancient sculptures to the university. Among the pieces are votive and Attic grave reliefs, statue heads and busts as well as a statuette of Silvanus .

He dedicated his travel report to Charles II. The effort invested was rewarded immediately. In the same year he was beaten on September 1, 1682 in Winchester to the Knight Bachelor and from then on carried the suffix "Sir". He was ordained around 1683 . That year he was awarded a master's degree from Oxford University. The following year he became canon at Durham Cathedral as preanor of the Second Stall.

From 1685 to 1702 Wheler was vicar (pastor) in Basingstoke . During this time he published a small book on early churches in Tire , Jerusalem and Constantinople in 1689 under the title An Account of the Churches, or Places of Assembly, of the Primitive Christians from the Churches of Tire, Jerusalem, and Constantinople Described by Eusebius . Based on the reading of Eusebius , he attempted to reconstruct the ground plans of early church buildings based on the knowledge he had gained on the trip - one of the early works on the subject of Christian archeology . As a result of this study, he developed the plan for an ideal Christian church building. On this basis, in his opinion, the religious minority of the dissenters , who had been granted restricted freedom of religion under the Toleration Act in 1689 , could have been able to participate in community services. His continued interest in Greece and his affection for the Greeks were shown in 1693 when he supported the ultimately failed project of donating scholarships to Greek students at the Catholic College Gloucester Hall in Oxford.

Around 1690, George Wheler began building a chapel for his tenants in Spitalfields . Church of England supporters were unable to worship at Spitalfields at the time, and Wheler offered to donate £ 500 for the building if the residents raised the same amount. When this failed, he and the goldsmith Thomas Seymour decided to have a private church built at their own expense. This chapel, presumably made of wood and largely financed by Wheler, which offered space for almost 500 people, was inaugurated on Christmas Day 1693. Since the residents had paid for the seating and the galleries, they expected it to be run like a parish or subsidiary church , which would have meant that the community would have a say in the appointment of offices. Wheler, however, saw it as a private band and determined its direction. Thereupon part of the congregation moved with the pastor Luke Milbourne, who was dismissed by Wheler, to other locations. Apparently the timber structure was replaced by a brick structure at Wheler's expense in 1714, which must have been in a dilapidated condition as early as 1728.

St Michael and All Angels at Houghton-le-Spring

In 1698 Wheler published an octave ribbon with a thickness of around 350 pages . Under the title The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family , he devoted himself to the advantages of monastic life and the question of how they can be made fruitful for leading a family. He was of the opinion that a godly nation like the English would benefit from revitalizing the monastic life , which had died out since the dissolution of the English monasteries, under Protestant auspices. Under the influence of Mary Astell's A Serious Proposal , he primarily thought of women's convents. In this way, women could have been able to live a life that was pleasing to God, with extensive freedom to marry at any time and without having to leave the community. George Wheler was aware that the political situation did not permit such a solution. With his book he tried to give instructions on how the monastic ideal of piety could be transferred to the family. In contrast to Mary Astell, who in this context demanded the absolute independence of women, Wheler saw the leadership role of the man as head of house as God given. He ignored any further approaches by Astell. In his book he differentiated between different types of household according to economic principles. He appealed to workers - "as the basis upon which the rest of the tall pyramids of human size are built" - and traders, finally to the landowning nobility who live off other people's labor. The book was widely distributed in England.

On the occasion of his 50th birthday in 1701 he wrote a notitia ... Geo. Wheleri Equitis et Presbyteri entitled autobiography, which covered his life up to the start of the journey. Under the siglum MS 3286 is the manuscript in the Lambeth Palace Library kept. In 1702 he received his doctorate in theology . In 1706 he received the parish in Winston as a pastor , and in 1709 finally the parish in Houghton-le-Spring , which he looked after until his death. Here he founded a school for the poor and expanded the poor house . The last dispositions of his will date from September 4, 1723.

Death and inheritance

Illumination from the Lincoln College Typikon (folio 1 v )

Georg Wheler died on January 15, 1724 "new style" and was buried in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral. At his own request, his grave - like the graves of some of his previously deceased children - is as close as decency allowed to the burial place of the Anglican saint Beda Venerabilis . His son Granville Wheler erected an epitaph in his memory there.

This marble monument sums up the most important dates of George Wheler's life in forty lines - birth in Breda, education, travel, marriage, his services to the Anglican Church. The day of the burial was January 23rd, according to the Durham Cathedral registry.

At the time of his death, two sons and six daughters of his 18 children were still alive. The main heir was his older son George, while the younger son Granville got his theological books and the editions of classical authors. Lincoln College received over thirty manuscripts, some of them precious.

Among them was the so-called Lincoln College Typikon , a deed of foundation for the Bebaia Elpis Monastery in Constantinople drawn up at the beginning of the 14th century . The valuable manuscript is illuminated on the first twelve sheets and shows the extraordinarily high-quality portraits of the monastery founder Theodora Palaiologina Synadene , her parents Konstantin Palaiologos and Irene Komnene Laskarina Branaina and other family members on full-page pictures . Wheler had acquired the manuscript in Athens. It is now kept under the siglum Lincoln College Cod. Gr. 35 in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

Among the preserved at Lincoln College manuscripts from the estate are codices of the New Testament from the 11th century, such as the minuscule 68 and 95 and the Lectionary 3 . They were examined by John Mill , a pioneer of textual criticism of the New Testament , who used the minuscule as Wheeleri 1 and 2 for his Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS from 1707.

The dried and pressed Whelers plants, collected in four volumes, also went to Oxford University. He bequeathed his coin collection to the Chapter of Durham; it is now in the Durham Cathedral Library, which owns portions of Wheler's correspondence.

travel

George Whelers Map of Achaia

On October 15, 1673, George Hickes and George Wheler embarked in Dover for the Grand Tour and left England. In the first two years, the journey led first to France , where Hickes left him in Marseille , and then to Switzerland and finally to Italy . In Rome in the spring of 1675 Wheler met the French doctor and antiquarian Jacob Spon . Born in Lyon , Spon, a passionate collector of ancient inscriptions and an enthusiastic archaeologist, had already published a Relation de l'etat present de la ville d'Athenes in 1674 , a report written in 1672 by the Jesuit Jaques-Paul Babin about a trip he had undertaken a few years earlier to Athens .

Babin had traveled to Greece in the wake of the French ambassador to Constantinople, Charles Marie François Olier , Marquis de Nointel - an undertaking that only became possible at that time. In 1669 the 25-year war for Crete between the Republic of Venice and the victorious Ottoman Empire for supremacy over the Aegean Sea had ended and the sultan allowed the French ambassador to travel. Babin's report was one of the first modern descriptions of Athens based on personal experience. Previously, only Louis Deshayes in 1632 and sieur du Loir in 1654 had published brief reports on Athens as eyewitnesses. The antiquarians and antiquarians, whose gaze had previously been concentrated on Rome and Constantinople, became aware of a new goal, which in their imagination was more original.

Spon and Wheler decided to travel to Greece, at least as far as Athens, to check Babin's descriptions on the spot and to do their own research. It was the first trip to Athens envisaged with purely archaeological interests. They went to Venice to embark for the passage to Constantinople. Wheler took over the financing. Two other English travelers joined the company in Venice: the astronomer and mathematician Francis Vernon and Sir Giles Eastcourt. At that time, George Guillet de Saint-George had published a new work on Athens: Athènes ancienne et nouvelle. The book was not based on any personal opinion or knowledge of Athens, rather it comprised reports by a fictional brother of the author named de la Guilletière, but it was a great success and it reached four editions within a few years. According to Spons, this new plant should also be subjected to a critical inspection on site.

From Venice to Constantinople

On June 20, 1675, the group embarked in Venice for Dalmatia . The opportunity was taken to embark on the journey on the galley Il Hercule in cunea , one of two ships that were to bring Giovanni Morosini to Constantinople as the new Bailò . The next day they reached the small, Franciscan island of St. Andrea near Rovinj , and George Wheler began his botanical studies. The next stop was Pola , of whom Wheler offers detailed descriptions, supplemented by drawings of the Augustus temple , the Arch of the Sergians and the amphitheater . Following the coast further south, the journey was slow. Split was reached via Zara . Day trips were used to visit Klis , for example . In Split, the ambassador decided to use the land route because of the rigors of the sea voyage. But the ships were obliged to transport gifts and personal items at least to Korkyra , one of the last Venetian possessions on the way. Via Korkyra, Kephalonia and Arta one got to Zante , which was an important outpost of Venice and also an English trading stadium with an English consul.

The tour group separated in Zante. While Vernon and East Court, the book Guillets in the bag, heading off on land directly to Athens, sailed Spon and Wheler on Delos , which has been extensively studied, and other islands of the archipelago , the Asia Minor west coast to Constantinople Opel that led them to other anchorages about in Reached Callipolis , Lampsakos and Herakleia / Perinthos on September 13, 1675.

Constantinople and Asia Minor

Serpentine pillar

Constantinople has been extensively studied and described. A monument seemed strange to Wheler, which he did not know how to interpret: the bronze serpent column that Constantine the Great had once had brought from Delphi to Constantinople. In addition to the description, Wheler also made a drawing showing the column still intact with its three snake heads. They got in touch with the French ambassador, the Marquis de Nointel, and studied his documents and paintings of Athens made on site, as well as the sculptures, inscriptions and reliefs brought back from his travels to Greece and the Aegean islands. On excursions into the surrounding area, they followed the city's aqueducts , they visited the so-called column of Pompey at the entrance to the Black Sea and Chalcedon , and Wheler devoted himself to his plant studies.

For the onward journey to their actual destination, they initially planned to travel overland via Adrianople through Thrace to Mount Athos , then through Macedonia and Boeotia to Athens. However, the English ambassador urgently advised against this attempt, which, because of the plague raging in Thrace, could only have survived alive through a miracle. By chance the opportunity arose to travel to Smyrna with a group of English traders , and so George Wheler and Jacob Spon set sail on October 6, 1675 in the direction of Apamea , from where they should continue on land.

One of the places visited along the way was Bursa , where Wheler was the first to describe the weeping willow introduced in England in 1694 . Continuing overland, they reached Thyatira , Magnesia am Mäander , and finally Smyrna at the end of October, an occasion for Wheler to enter into the trade competition between the Dutch, the English, the Venetians and the French, all of whom were represented by consuls in Smyrna. The numerous chameleons in the area provided the opportunity for a detailed, multi-page description of their shapes, movements and color changes. Since all the ships they could have brought to Greece were not yet ready to leave, Spon and Wheler used the time for an excursion to Ephesus and on to Pergamon - the Seat of Satan , as Wheler alludes to the Revelation of John ( Rev 2:13  NCC ) to ponder the punishment of God that was revealed to him in the ruined and dilapidated churches. At Palathsa, today's Balat near the ancient city of Milet in the Turkish province of Aydın , they dealt with the course of the Great Meander . Wheler published good drawings of the Temple of Augustus and the Column of Menandros by Mylasa , which the two of them examined first.

After visiting many other places, they boarded the Dartmouth on November 17th, not without a letter of recommendation from Ambassador de Nointel, Wheler with the rank of lieutenant, since the actual man for the post was not on board due to illness. The wintry crossing turned out to be difficult and it was believed that two ships had been lost. On arrival in Zante on Christmas Eve 1675, which the Greeks, as Wheler notes, as well as the English considered a holiday, they met again. They had made the crossing fifteen days faster.

Greece

View of Athens

From Zante one traveled to Patras , on to Lepanto , where Wheler and Spon arrived on January 1, 1676. In the Gulf of Corinth they caught a pelican, which Wheler measured and described. An unfavorable wind prevented the onward journey until January 19, when the crossing to Salona could take place. From there they set out for the village of Kastri, whose location they identified with that of ancient Delphi . They are considered to be the first to visit and recognize Delphi since Cyriacus of Ancona in 1436. But Francis Vernon, who had reached Delphi in September 1675, had predicted them a few months beforehand. In Stiria they reached the east coast of Attica for the first time , but rode from there first to Livadia , in order to reach Athens on January 27, 1676, the actual goal of their enterprise.

There they devoted a month to Athens, where, according to a census carried out recently, about 8,000-10,000 inhabitants lived. Spon and Wheler were able to identify numerous errors in Guillet de Saint-George's book on site. Francis Vernon, who had already explored Athens in August and left Greece in October, warned the learned world in a letter to the Royal Society against the fictions of Guillet de Saint-Georges. The following year Vernon was murdered near Isfahan in Persia , while Eastcourt fell ill in 1675 and died on the way to Delphi in Vitrinitsa .

From Athens, Spon and Wheler explored Attica and the surrounding area on sometimes extensive excursions lasting several days. In Piraeus they saw the lion statue , which came to Venice as spoils of war in 1688 and was erected there in front of the arsenal . On February 5th they set out via Eleusis , Megara and the Isthmos to Corinth , from there to Sicyon . Further excursions led to the Poseidon Temple of Cape Sounion, which can be seen from afar . The Euripos gave Wheler the opportunity to deal intensively with the phenomena of ebb and flow, as the strait is known for its unusual tidal currents .

When they learned in Turkochorio, a new Turkish establishment on the site of ancient Elateia , that it was impossible to get any further through the mountains due to the amount of snow and that this weather would last for the next four to six weeks, Jacob Spon decided to break off the trip. He took the quickest route via Zante to Venice and home. Since Wheler feared a return journey by ship at this time of year, the travelers separated on March 9, 1676 and George Wheler was left alone in Turkochorio, from where he traveled east to Kalapodi .

While Spon was returning to Venice by ship, Wheler still visited the Kopaïs , devoted himself to the Helikon and Livadia, before he reached Aspra Spitia via Hosios Lukas to embark for Italy on April 20, 1676. On November 15, 1676, George Wheler arrived back in Canterbury, England .

In addition to inscriptions and marble sculptures, he brought back some plants from his trip that were previously unknown in Europe and bequeathed specimens to the English botanists John Ray , Robert Morison and Leonard Plukenet . One of the plants he introduced is St. John's wort , which was known in England under the name Sir George Wheler's Tutsan until the 19th century .

A Journey into Greece

occasion

Jacob Spon

Jacob Spon published his three volumes of Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, fait aux années 1675 et 1676 as early as 1678 and named George Wheler, the company's financier, as an author. The work was a great success; a first reprint took place in Amsterdam in 1679, and a German translation was printed in Nuremberg in 1681. George Wheler learned that an English translation was being prepared, which was to appear in the winter of 1678/79.

Even if Wheler felt honored by the mention of his name, he did not want to allow a work to be published in England under his name that was not his pen. A comparison of Spon's work with his own notes led him to the result that he was able to communicate enough of what Spon had neglected to write his own book about the journey together. He knew how to prevent an English translation of the Voyage d'Italie, but he returned the honor of being named by writing his report A Journey into Greece, by George Wheler Esq; published in 1682 ; Titled in Company of Dr Spon of Lyons . A French translation, in which numerous minor errors in the English first edition were corrected, appeared in Amsterdam in 1689 and was reprinted in The Hague in 1723 . Nevertheless, Spon saw the process a little differently. According to Spon, Wheler had offered to do an English translation of the Voyage , but on the premise that Wheler's name would be mentioned first. This in turn refused Spon with reference to their teacher-student relationship in antiquarian questions.

Spon used his work primarily as a pamphlet against George Guillet de Saint-George to correct his representations, which triggered reaction and backlash. Wheler aimed primarily to portray his journey as that of a Christian traveler and to extol the wonders of creation. Again and again he reflected on the rise and fall of cultures as God's work. This is why his work represents aspects of the edification literature that was particularly widespread in the 17th century . The influence of his tutor George Hickes, the later suffragan bishop of Theford of the Non-juring Church , who had a major influence on Wheler's religious worldview and encouraged him in his natural history studies, is palpable .

content

A Camelion by George Wheler

The Greek beehive

Wheler divided his work into six books, which reflect the most important stages of the journey - 1. From Venice to Constantinople; 2. Description of Constantinople; 3. Asia Minor; 4. From Zante to Athens; 5. Description of Athens; 6. Attica, Corinth, Boeotia. For the circumstances of the time, he made extensive use of coin images and drawings of antiquity.

His interest in cartography , discovered during the trip , led him to add a map of Achaia to his work , which he considered to be one of the most important innovations compared to the Sponsored trip description. By Achaia , Wheler did not understand the historical landscape in the modern sense, but the Greek motherland, as it was manifested in the Roman province of Achaea , in the Principality of Achaia and in the Duchy of Athens, and as far as Wheler and Spon had traveled. Since they spent a lot of time exploring Attica, the corresponding map section appears disproportionately large.

Over many pages of his foreword Wheler described the basics of this map, the determination of latitudes, distances and the problems of mathematical abstraction associated with the transfer of geographic data to a two-dimensional medium. In part, he could rely on the help of Francis Vernon. The value of the card is highlighted in the editor's foreword to the 1723 edition.

Wheler's map of Athens is less detailed. While Spon noted 50 individual objects and buildings by name in the legend of his Athens map, Wheler's map only came up with 12, which underlines the different interests.

In contrast to Spon, George Wheler did not begin his journey as a Greek enthusiast or as a learned antiquarian. For him it was part of his educational journey. Aware that Spon was the better and more educated antiquarian, Wheler emphasizes in his foreword, for his report he took over from Spon what he himself had not taken into account sufficiently in his notes and added what Spon in turn believes had not properly appreciated.

His independent gaze saved Wheler from reconstructing overly idealized conditions in his descriptions. He described what he had seen, in the case of the Acropolis, the colorful juxtaposition of the buildings and remains over the centuries, including the Turkish facilities. His explanations and his drawings offer details that the antiquarian eye Spons had missed or that he did not consider worth mentioning, such as the fact that the Erechtheion on the Athens Acropolis was used as a seraglio for the wives of the Turks who lived there. At the same time, his view was quite unpathetic. The greatness of Athens was only a narrative to him in the travelogue of Pausanias , with whom Spon and Wheler explored Greece.

The special value of his portrayal can be seen in the description of natural history phenomena and the customs and cultural expressions prevailing at his time. So he dealt with questions relating to the relationship between ancient and modern Greek and which he pursued in a separate section of his description of Athens.

He dealt extensively with the flora of the various places. He noted several hundred plants in his report and was sometimes the first to describe them. When describing the hymetto , Wheler left out two pages about beekeeping there, about honey and the shape of the beehives. It provided the first description of a headbearer hive and thus takes a place in the history of beekeeping. Spon, on the other hand, devoted only a few sentences to the subject and the landscape of the hymetto, as there were no antiquities to communicate. In all of this, Wheler presents himself as a natural scientist who strives for exactness. In his foreword he points out that the foot measurements given by him correspond to the French foot , since he did not have an English foot available. The French, however, was half an inch larger. He tried to compensate for his admitted inability to adequately describe the Parthenon in words by means of exact descriptions and dimensions.

Position and Effect

"Ceres" by Eleusis after George Wheler

"Ceres" by Eleusis after Peltro William Tomkins by Edward Daniel Clarke (1809)

Spons and Wheler's works on their journey together were the most important publications on Greece, especially Athens, until the middle of the 18th century. They proved that Athens still existed and was inhabited. Until then, this had not been generally acknowledged, and a few decades earlier it had even been denied. There was a consul in Athens with Jean Giraud, who came from Lyon, who was first in French and then in English service when Spon and Wheler arrived there. In addition, their reports, especially the Spons works, at least partially refuted the descriptions of George Guillet de Saint-George. With the beginning of the Great Turkish War in 1683 and the subsequent Venetian-Austrian Turkish War , the narrow window of time in which such trips were possible closed. There were other drawings and reports on Athens, such as the photographs made by French engineers in 1685 under the direction of Étienne Gravier, Marquis d'Ortières, and some views made as part of the Venetian expedition in 1687. It was not until the epoch-making engravings from 1751 to 1754 in The Antiquities of Athens by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett from 1762 that Spons and Wheler's descriptions replaced.

The Whelers work, however, is given less importance. In general, he is accused of only having written off Spon, having "written him out". The traditional prejudice in this regard is now giving way to a more differentiated view. Where Wheler gave his own interpretation of what was seen on antiquarian questions, his conclusions were often not valid. If he disagreed with Spon's reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus , he was just as wrong as he was wrong with his disapproval of Spons's location of Halicarnassus . On the other hand, in contrast to Spon, he correctly determined the position of the Propylaea in Athens and the Areopagus . His speculations about the building history of the Parthenon and his inexperience in dealing with antiquity led to a devastating, contemptuous assessment of his work by Léon de Laborde . In 1854, Laborde discussed Wheler's work and his share in the discoveries and investigations in fifteen pages, without assigning him the slightest value: Wheler was not an archaeologist, was not a Hellenist and could not have reproduced two inscriptions correctly. In contrast, Charles Beulé recognized a year earlier that Wheler had had the greater sensitivity and the better power of observation. This judgment was supported by Ludwig Ross , who organized Wheler's representations of Athens for more systematic order and whose perceptions were often more correct due to the “impartial observation of the facts”. Even Adolf Michaelis was 1871 Laborde's judgment too hard.

From these evaluations from the point of view of classical archaeologists, especially of the 19th century, the view has recently turned to George Wheler in his own time context. While Laborde still demanded that travelers to Greece devote themselves solely to the archeology and history of the country, research today recognizes that the time was not yet given for this. Spon and Wheler were only at the beginning of a tradition that traveled to Greece from a purely archaeological point of view, always in search of the increasingly idealized, ultimately romantically transfigured antiquity. At that time, the English mostly only knew Greece from ancient texts. The few Englishmen who had traveled the area before Wheler - such as Fynes Moryson (1566–1630), William Biddulph ( bl. 1600–1612), George Sandys (1577–1644) or William Lithgow  - only roamed the country on their way in the Levant. What they knew to report was the contradiction they perceived between the literary expectation and the reality experienced. The Greece of their time was mainly characterized by decay, the Greeks living there did not recognize them as descendants of the ancient Greeks.

Wheler, on the other hand, like Spon in his own way, devoted himself not only to the past, but almost equally to modern Greece, its people and the country. They were positive about the discussions about the liberation of Greece that had already been going on in their day. They were the first to recognize that the traditional link between ancient Greece and the West must be extended to modern Greece. With his interest in plants and natural phenomena, Wheler anticipated what was taken for granted after Carl von Linné : the imparting of knowledge of nature to the learned world in Europe through travelers. At the same time, he was the first to convey the experience of nature that can be experienced in Greece and combined the esprit of the Greeks he perceived with the favorable climatic conditions.

George Wheler was concerned not only to inform his readers, but also to guide them in terms of his Christian worldview. As a member of the Church of England he was grateful to have been born in England - after the English Civil War, which was also religiously motivated and not too long ago. His experiences on the trip convinced him to belong to the "noblest, purest and most orthodox church in the world".

Wheler's report remained the standard work for travelers to Greece in England for decades. Even Richard Chandler's Travels in Greece from 1776 offered no substitute for country information - his report on the trip paid for by the Society of Dilettanti was strictly based on archaeological knowledge. When the naturalist Edward Daniel Clarke toured Greece in 1801, he found a colossal fragment of a statue in Eleusis, which he knew from reading Whelers. George Wheler was the first to describe it, interpreted it as a cult statue of Ceres , that is, Demeter, and it could not be ruled out that it came from Praxiteles . Clarke believed he had to purchase this piece for England, but met bitter resistance from the population, who saw the fertility of their fields linked to the presence of the statue. The heavy, 2.09-meter-high fragment was removed by force of arms and shipped to England. Since 1865 it has been owned by the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge University under inventory number GR.1.1865 . Nowadays it is used as part of one of the two caryatids of the after 50 BC. Small Propylaea of Eleusis, built by Appius Claudius Pulcher .

In 1813 the travel writer Frederick SN Douglas was able to state that Wheler's report offered the best information about Greece in English.

Works

• A Journey into Greece, by George Wheler Esq; In Company of Dr Spon of Lyons. Cademan, Kettlewell, and Churchill, London 1682 ( digitized ).
• An Account of the Churches, or Places of Assembly, of the Primitive Christians from the Churches of Tire, Jerusalem, and Constantinople Described by Eusebius. London 1689 ( online ).
• The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family. [London] 1698 ( Google Books ).

literature

• Warwick William Wroth:  Wheler, George . In: Sidney Lee (Ed.): Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 60:  Watson - Whewell. , MacMillan & Co, Smith, Elder & Co., New York City / London 1899, pp. 445 - 446 (English).
• Robert W. Ramsey: Sir George Wheler and his Travels in Greece, 1650-1724. In: Essays by Divers Hands. Being the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Neue Serie, Volume 29, 1942, pp. 1-38.
• Richard Stoneman: Land of Lost Gods. The Search for Classical Greece. Hutchinson, London 1987, ISBN 0-80612-052-5 , pp. 56-83.
• Sandra Raphael: The Reverend Sir George Wheler, 1650-1724. In: Roland Étienne, Jean-Claude Mossière (Ed.): Jacob Spon. Un humaniste lyonnais du XVII ^e siècle (= Publications de la bibliothèque Salomon-Reinach. Volume 6). Boccard, Paris 1993, ISBN 2-95056-331-7 , pp. 257-267.
• Olga Augustinos: French Odysseys: Greece in French Travel Literature from the Renaissance to the Romantic Era. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1994, ISBN 0-80184-616-1 , pp. 95-112.
• Nigel Guy Wilson : Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 58, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, pp. 452-453, ISBN 0-19-861406-3 ( online ).
• Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 15-29 ( online ).
• Annamarie Felsch-Klotz: Early Travelers in Phokis and Lokris. Reports from central Greece from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Göttinger Universitätsverlag, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-941875-00-5 , pp. 36-38 ( PDF 5.1 MB).

Web links

Commons : George Wheler  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Remarks

1. ↑ So in the more recent literature, for example: Ulrike Steiner: The beginnings of archeology in folio and octave (= Stendaler Winckelmann research. Volume 5). Rutzen, Ruhpolding 2005, ISBN 3-93864-602-0 , p. 260; Annamarie Felsch-Klotz: Early Travelers in Phokis and Lokris. Reports from central Greece from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Göttinger Universitätsverlag, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-94187-500-5 , p. 36; Martin Kreeb: Early research on Attic sites. The travelers and their contribution. In: Hans Lohmann , Torsten Mattern (ed.): Attika: Archeology of a “central” cultural landscape (= Philippika. Volume 37). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-44706-223-7 , pp. 246–262, here: p. 250.
2. ↑ So in the more recent literature, for example: Sandra Raphael: The Reverend Sir George Wheler, 1650-1724. In: Roland Étienne, Jean-Claude Mossière (Ed.): Jacob Spon. Un humaniste lyonnais du XVII ^e siècle (= Publications de la bibliothèque Salomon-Reinach. Volume 6). Boccard, Paris 1993, ISBN 2-95056-331-7 , pp. 257-267; Ray Desmond: Dictionary of British and Irish Botanists and Horticulturists. Including Plant Collectors, Flower Painters, and Garden Designers. Taylor & Francis and The Natural History Museum, London 1994, ISBN 0-85066-843-3 , p. 733; John Harvey: Coronary Flowers and Their 'Arabick' Background. In: Gül A. Russell (Ed.): The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England. Brill, Leiden u. a. 1994, ISBN 9-004-09888-7 , p. 301; Ina E. Minner: Eternally a stranger in a strange land - Ludwig Ross (1806-1859) and Greece. Biography. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee-Wamel 2006, ISBN 3-93392-582-7 , p. 183.
3. ↑ So in the more recent literature, for example: Ekaterini Kepetzis: Personal experience and new legibility. Athens trips in the 1670s In: Dietrich Boschung , Erich Kleinschmidt (Hrsg.): Legibilities: Antiquity between Baroque and Enlightenment. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-82604-296-6 , pp. 11–36, here: p. 17; Palmira Brummett: Mapping the Ottomans. Cambridge University Press, New York 2015, ISBN 978-1-10709-077-4 , p. 309.
4. ↑ On Old Style and New Style Dates and the calendar reform in England see Christopher Robert Cheney, Michael Jones: A Handbook of Dates for Students of British History (= Royal Historical Society: Guides and Handbooks. Volume 4). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2000, ISBN 0-52177-095-5 , pp. 17-20 ( PDF ).
5. ↑ Autobiographical note, printed by Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, p. 204 ( digitized version ): "Her next was myselfe, born at Breda, January the 20th, I suppose Old Stile, in the year 1650 But if New Stile, it was then January 10, 16 ⁴⁹ ⁄ ₅₀ . It was Old Style, as y ^e Letter, I found among my ffather's papers, of my Birth proves. "
6. ↑ Christopher Hunter: Durham Cathedral as it was before the Dissolution of the Monastry. 2nd Edition. Richardson, Durham 1742, p. 164 f. ( Google Books ); Patrick Sanderson: The Antiquities of the Abbey or Cathedral Church of Durham. White and Saint, Newcastle upon Tyne 1767, pp. 134-136 ( Google Books ); William Hutchinson: The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine, of Durham. Volume 2. Hodgson, Newcastle 1787, p. 177 f. Note || ( Digitized version ).
7. ^ For example, William Hutchinson: The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine, of Durham. Volume 2. Hodgson, Newcastle 1787, p. 177 ( digitized version), and in the revised new edition by Robert Surtees: The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham. 1816. Reprint: Hills, Sunderland 1908, p. 180 ( digitized ); Warwick William Wroth:  Wheler, George . In: Sidney Lee (Ed.): Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 60:  Watson - Whewell. , MacMillan & Co, Smith, Elder & Co., New York City / London 1899, p. 445 (English) ..
8. ^ Robert W. Ramsey: Sir George Wheler and his Travels in Greece, 1650-1724. In: Essays by Divers Hands. Being the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Neue Serie, Volume 29, 1942, pp. 1-38.
9. ^ Nigel Guy Wilson : Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
10. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. New series, Volume 2, 1885, p. 205.
11. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, p. 208; Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
12. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, p. 208 f .; Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004; Warwick William Wroth:  Wheler, George . In: Sidney Lee (Ed.): Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 60:  Watson - Whewell. , MacMillan & Co, Smith, Elder & Co., New York City / London 1899, p. 445 (English). states 1667 as the year of enrollment in the old style.
13. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, p. 210 f .; Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
14. ^ Francis HW Sheppard (ed.): Survey of London. Volume 27: Spitalfields and Mile End New Town. London County Council, London 1957, pp. 96-99. 100-107 ( online ).
15. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. New series, Volume 3, 1886, p. 44 ( digitized version ).
16. ^ Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004 ( online ).
17. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. New series, Volume 3, 1886, p. 48.
18. ↑ Alexander Conze : The Attic grave reliefs. Volume 4, text. Walter De Gruyter, Berlin / Leipzig 1922, p. 91 No. 2092 ( digitized version ).
19. ↑ List of Fellows of the Royal Society 1660-2007 , The Royal Society - Library and Information Services (PDF).
20. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 261 f. 264; Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 18 f.
21. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 405.
22. ^ Adolf Michaelis : Ancient Marbles in Great Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1882, p. 539; Warwick William Wroth:  Wheler, George . In: Sidney Lee (Ed.): Dictionary of National Biography . Volume 60:  Watson - Whewell. , MacMillan & Co, Smith, Elder & Co., New York City / London 1899, p. 446 (English) ..
23. ^ Adolf Michaelis: Ancient Marbles in Great Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1882, pp. 572-592, numbers 131-134. 138-141. 144-146. 151, 153, 163, 180, 181, 227, 230 ( digitized ); some images of the pieces at Arachne , the central object database of the German Archaeological Institute .
24. ^ William Arthur Shaw: The Knights of England. Volume 2. Sherratt and Hughes, London 1906, p. 258 ( digitized version ); see also Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 20.
25. ^ Robert W. Ramsey: Sir George Wheler and his Travels in Greece, 1650-1724. In: Essays by diverse hands. Being the transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Neue Serie, Volume 29, 1942, pp. 23-25; Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
26. ^ Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
27. ↑ George Wheler: An Account of the Churches, or Places of Assembly, of the Primitive Christians from the Churches of Tire, Jerusalem, and Constantinople Described by Eusebius. London 1689, pp. 110-115; see for example Robin Griffith-Jones, David Park: The Temple Church in London. History, Architecture, Art. Boydell, Woodbridge 2010, ISBN 978-1-84383-498-4 , p. 158; Peter M. Doll: 'The Reverence of God's House': The Temple of Solomon and the Architectural Settings for the 'Unbloody Sacrifice'. In: Peter M. Doll (Ed.): Anglicanism and Orthodoxy: 300 Years After the 'Greek College' in Oxford. Lang, Oxford et al. a. 2006, ISBN 3-03910-580-9 , pp. 193-224, here: p. 209.
28. ↑ On the history of the Greek College in Oxford, which only existed for a few years : ED Tappe: The Greek College at Oxford, 1699–1705. In: Oxoniensia. Volume 19, 1954, pp. 92-111.
29. ↑ On Wheler's Chapel, see Francis HW Sheppard (Ed.): Survey of London. Volume 27: Spitalfields and Mile End New Town. London County Council, London 1957, 100-104, pl. 42 ( online ).
30. ^ Mary Astell: A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest. Parts 1 and 2. London 1694–1697 ( digitized version of the complete edition from 1697).
31. ↑ George Wheler: The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family. [London] 1698, pp. 14-18.
32. ↑ George Wheler: The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family. [London] 1698, pp. 21-28; on the different approaches of Mary Astell and George Wheler see: Corinne Harol: Enlightened Virginity in Eighteenth-Century Literature. Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2006, p. 55; Greg Peters: Reforming the Monastery: Protestant Theologies of the Religious Life. Wipf and Stock, Eugene (OR) 2014, p. 59 f.
33. ↑ George Wheler: The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family. [London] 1698, p. 121: " as the Basis, on which the rest of the high Pyramids of Human Greatness is built ".
34. ↑ George Wheler: The Protestant Monastery; or Christian Oeconomicks, containing Directions for the Religious Conduct of a Family. [London] 1698, p. 152: “ That they live by the Labor of others ”.
35. ↑ Simon Schaffer : Experimenters 'Techniques, Dyers' Hands, and the Electric Planetarium. In: Isis . Volume 88, No. 3, 1997, pp. 456–483, here: p. 467, calls it George Wheler's “best-selling book”.
36. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, pp. 202-211 ( digital copy ); same: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 3, 1886, pp. 41–49. 216 ( digitized version ); as a summary work: the same: Autobiography of Sir George Wheler. Edited, with notes, appendices, and genealogies by EG Wheler. Cornish Bros., Birmingham 1911.
37. ^ Entry on The National Archives.
38. ^ Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004 ( online ).
39. ↑ See Robert W. Ramsey: Sir George Wheler and his Travels in Greece, 1650-1724. In: Essays by Divers Hands. Being the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Neue Serie, Volume 29, 1942, pp. 1-38, and Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004 ( online ).
40. ↑ Christopher Hunter: Durham Cathedral as it was before the Dissolution of the Monastry. 2nd Edition. Richardson, Durham 1742, p. 61 ( Google Books ).
41. ^ William Hutchinson: The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine, of Durham. Volume 2. Hodgson, Newcastle 1787, p. 178 Note on note || ( Digitized version ); the same date for the burial is also given in the register in George J. Armytage: The baptismal, marriage, and burial registers of the Cathedral church of Christ and Blessed Mary the virgin at Durham, 1609–1896. London 1897, p. 117 ( digitized version ).
42. ↑ With the older literature: Iohannis Spatharakis: The Portrait in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts (= Byzantina Neerlandica. Vol. 6). Brill, Leiden 1976, ISBN 90-04-04783-2 , pp. 190-206; Cecily Hennessy: The Lincoln College Typikon: Influences of Church and Family in an Illuminated Foundation Document for a Palaiologan Convent in Constantinople. In: Alixe Bovey, John Lowden (Eds.): Under the Influence. The Concept of Influence and the Study of Illuminated Manuscripts. Brepols, Turnhout 2007, ISBN 978-2-503515-04-5 , pp. 97-110 ( online ); English translation: Typikon of Theodora Synadene for the Convent of the Mother of God Bebaia Elpis in Constantinople. Translated by Alice-Mary Talbot. In: John Thomas, Angela Constantinides Hero (Ed.): Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents: A Complete Translation of the Surviving Founder's Typika and Testaments. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington DC 2000, pp. 1512–1578 ( PDF ( Memento of the original from January 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ). 
43. ↑ Oxford, Bodleian Library, Lincoln College Cod. Gr. 35 on the Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection website .
44. ↑ See Caspar René Gregory : The textual criticism of the New Testament. Volume 1. Hinrichs, Leipzig 1900, pp. 144, 150, 387 ( digitized version ); compare also Kurt Aland , Michael Welte, Beate Köster, Klaus Junack: Concise List of the Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament. Second, revised and supplemented edition. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1994, ISBN 3-11011-986-2 , p. 50 (minuscule 68). 52 (minuscule 95). 219 (lesson 3).
45. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. New series, Volume 3, 1886, p. 49.
46. ^ Jacques Paul Babin: Relation de l'etat present de la ville d'Athenes, ancienne capitale de la Grece, bâtie depuis 3400 ans. Lyon 1674 ( digitized ); published by Jacob Spon without naming Babin's authorship.
47. ↑ Louis Deshayes: Voiage de Levant. Fait par le commandement du Roy en l'année 1621. 2nd edition. A. Taupinard, Paris 1632, p. 473 f .; Printed by Léon de Laborde : Athènes aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Volume 1. J. Renouard, Paris 1854, p. 63 f. ( Digitized version ).
48. ↑ Du Loir: Les voyages du sieur Du Loir, contenus en plusieurs lettres écrites du Levant… ensemble ce qui se passa à la mort du feu sultan Mourat dans le serrail… avec la relation du siège de Babylone fait en 1639 par sultan Mourat. G. Clouzier, Paris 1654, pp. 309-319 ( digitized version ).
49. ^ David Constantine: Early Greek Travelers and the Hellenic Ideal. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, ISBN 0-52125-342-X , p. 33.
50. ↑ George Guillet de Saint-George: Athènes ancienne et nouvelle et l'estat présent de l'Empire des Turcs. Estienne Michallet, Paris 1675 ( digitized ).
51. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 80.
52. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 211 f.
53. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 217; John Harvey: Coronary Flowers and Their 'Arabick' Background. In: Gül A. Russell (Ed.): The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England. Brill, Leiden 1994, p. 301.
54. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 247-249.
55. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 261-263.
56. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 277; to the column: Menandros column in the Arachne archaeological database .
57. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 285.
58. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 287.
59. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 304.
60. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 313-316.
61. ↑ Annamarie Felsch-Klotz: Early travelers in Phokis and Lokris. Reports from central Greece from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Göttinger Universitätsverlag, Göttingen 2009, p. 16. 36.
62. ^ Francis Vernon: Mr. Francis Vernons Letter, Written to the Publisher January. 10th. 1675/6 giving a Short Account of Some of his Observations in His Travels from Venice Through Istria, Dalmatia, Greece, and the Archipelago, to Smyrna, Where This Letter Was Written. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Volume 11, 1676, pp. 575–582, here: p. 581 ( digital version  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ); Benjamin D. Meritt : The Epigraphic Notes of Francis Vernon. In: American School of Classical Studies at Athens (Ed.): Commemorative Studies in Honor of Theodore Leslie Shear (= Hesperia . Supplement 8). American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton 1949, pp. 213-227, here: pp. 213 f.  
63. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 334 f.
64. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 347.
65. ↑ The Royal Society published the letter in their Philosophical Transactions : Francis Vernon: Mr. Francis Vernons Letter, Written to the Publisher January. 10th. 1675/6 giving a Short Account of Some of his Observations in His Travels from Venice Through Istria, Dalmatia, Greece, and the Archipelago, to Smyrna, Where This Letter Was Written. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Volume 11, 1676, pp 575-582 ( Digitalisat  ( page no longer available , searching web archives )  Info: The link is automatically marked as defective Please review the link under. Instructions and then remove this notice. ).  
66. ^ David Constantine: Early Greek Travelers and the Hellenic Ideal. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, pp. 19. 21-24. 28 f.
67. ↑ On the chronological sequence and the death of Eastcourt see Benjamin D. Meritt: The Epigraphic Notes of Francis Vernon. In: American School of Classical Studies at Athens (Ed.): Commemorative Studies in Honor of Theodore Leslie Shear (= Hesperia. Supplement 8). American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton 1949, pp. 213-227, here: pp. 213 f.
68. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 418 f.
69. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 448.
70. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 458-461.
71. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 462 f.
72. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 482.
73. ^ John Ray: A Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages. Volume 2. Smith and B. Walford, London 1693, pp. 30-34 ( online ).
74. ^ Robert Morison: Plantarum Historiae Universalis Oxoniensis pars tertia. Oxford 1699, p. 362, 376, 385 and more often ( digitized ).
75. ↑ See for example Leonard Plukenet: Almagestum botanicum sive Phytographiae Pluc'netianae Onomasticon Methodo Syntheticâ digestum. London 1696, p. 236 ( digitized version ).
76. ↑ Nurhan Atasoy: Links Between the Ottoman and the Western World on Floriculture and Gardening. In: Michel Conan, W. John Kress (Eds.): Botanical Progress, Horticultural Innovation and Cultural Changes. Harvard University Press, Washington DC 2007, ISBN 978-0-884-02327-2 , pp. 61-80, here: p. 74; general Ray Desmond: Dictionary of British and Irish Botanists and Horticulturists. Including Plant Collectors, Flower Painters, and Garden Designers. Taylor & Francis and The Natural History Museum, London 1994, p. 733.
77. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. II.
78. ^ Voyage de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant. Par Mr. George Wheler. Traduit de l'Anglois. Two volumes. Jean Wolters, Amsterdam 1689.
79. ^ Voyage de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant. Par Mr. George Wheler. Traduit de l'Anglois. Two volumes. Rutgert Alberts, The Hague 1723.
80. ^ Jacob Spon: Response à la critique publiée par M. Guillet on the "Voyage de Grèce" de Jacob Spon. Amaulri, Lyon 1679, p. 87 ( digitized version ).
81. ↑ George Guillet de Saint-George: Lettres écrites sur une dissertation d'un voyage de Grèce, publié par M. Spon. Michallet, Paris 1679 ( digitized ).
82. ^ Jacob Spon: Response à la critique publiée par M. Guillet on the "Voyage de Grèce" de Jacob Spon. Amaulri, Lyon 1679 ( digitized ).
83. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. III.
84. ↑ For example George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 261 f. 264,482.
85. ↑ See Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 18-20.
86. ^ Edward G. Wheler: Notes of the Life of Sir George Wheler, Knight. In: The Genealogist. Neue Serie, Volume 2, 1885, p. 210 ( digitized version ); compare Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 17 f.
87. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. III-VI.
88. ↑ For Wheler's maps see Christopher Witmore: World on a Flat Surface: Maps from the Archeology of Greece and Beyond. In: Sheila Bonde, Stephen Houston (Ed.): Re-presenting the Past: Archeology through Text and Image (= Joukowsky Institute Publication. Volume 2). Oxbow Books, Oxford / Oakville, CT 2013, ISBN 978-1-78297-231-0 , pp. 127–157, here: pp. 131–136.
89. ^ George Wheler: Voyage de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant. Par Mr. George Wheler. Traduit de l'Anglois. Volume 1. Rutgert Alberts, The Hague 1723, p. III: Il donne un Carte de l'Achaie infiniement plus correcte que toutes celles qui se trouvent dans les Geopgraphes Anciens & Modernes ; see also Nigel Guy Wilson: Wheler, Sir George (1651-1724). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004; Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 19; even Léon de Laborde , one of Wheler's greatest critics, recognized the achievement in the card: Léon de Laborde: Athènes aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Volume 2. J. Renouard, Paris 1854, p. 46 f. Note 2 ( digitized version ).
90. ^ Jacob Spon: Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, fait aux années 1675 et 1676. Volume 2. A. Cellier, Lyon 1678, supplement at the end of the volume ( digitized version ).
91. ^ Christopher Witmore: World on a Flat Surface: Maps from the Archeology of Greece and Beyond. In: Sheila Bonde, Stephen Houston (Ed.): Re-presenting the Past: Archeology through Text and Image (= Joukowsky Institute Publication. Volume 2). Oxbow Books, Oxford / Oakville, CT 2013, pp. 127–157, here: pp. 132 f.
92. ↑ Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 19.
93. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. II.
94. ↑ Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 23 f.
95. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 363-365.
96. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 365.
97. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 345; Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 21 f.
98. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, pp. 353-356; Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 22.
99. ^ Eva Crane : The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting. Duckworth, London and Routledge, New York 1999, ISBN 0-71562-827-5 , pp. 395 f.
100. ↑ Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 24.
101. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. VII.
102. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 360; see Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 23.
103. ^ William Biddulph: The Travels of Foure Englishmen and a Preacher into Africa, Asia, Troy, Bythinia, Thracia, and the Blacke Sea. Published by Theophilus Lavender. Aspley, London 1612, p. 10.
104. ^ David Constantine: Early Greek Travelers and the Hellenic Ideal. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, p. 10.
105. ↑ See for example Adolf Boetticher : The Acropolis of Athens. According to the reports of the ancients and the latest research. Springer, Berlin 1888, p. 29. 32; Walther Judeich : Topography of Athens (= manual of classical antiquity in systematic representation . 3rd volume, 2nd section, 2nd half). CH Beck, Munich 1905, p. 19 f. ( Digitized version ); Richard Stoneman: Land of Lost Gods. The Search for Classical Greece. Hutchinson, London 1987, ISBN 0-80612-052-5 , pp. 56-83, here: p. 57; Olga Augustinos: French Odysseys: Greece in French Travel Literature from the Renaissance to the Romantic Era. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1994, ISBN 0-80184-616-1 , pp. 95-112, here: p. 109.
106. ↑ See for example Martin Kreeb: Early research on Attic sites. The travelers and their contribution. In: Hans Lohmann, Torsten Mattern (ed.): Attika: Archeology of a “central” cultural landscape (= Philippika. Volume 37). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2010, pp. 246–262, here: p. 250 note 48, which points to the independence of Wheler's text.
107. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 258.
108. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 275.
109. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 359.
110. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 383 f.
111. ↑ Walther Judeich: Topography of Athens (= manual of classical antiquity in systematic representation. 3rd volume, 2nd section, 2nd half). CH Beck, Munich 1905, p. 20.
112. ^ Léon de Laborde: Athènes aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Volume 2. J. Renouard, Paris 1854, pp. 41-55 ( digitized version ).
113. ^ Charles Beulé: L'Acropole d'Athènes. Volume 1. Firmin Didot, Paris 1853, p. 70 ( digitized version ).
114. ↑ Ludwig Ross: Archaeological essays. Second collection. Teubner, Leipzig 1861, p. 261 f.
115. ^ Adolf Michaelis: The Parthenon. Text tape. Breitkopf and Härtel, Leipzig 1871, p. 61, note 247 ( digitized version ).
116. ^ Léon de Laborde: Athènes aux XVe, XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Volume 2. J. Renouard, Paris 1854, p. 43 note 2.
117. ^ David Constantine: Early Greek Travelers and the Hellenic Ideal. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, p. 33.
118. ↑ Terence JB Spencer: Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1954, pp. 35-47; Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 17.
119. ↑ Olga Augustinos: French Odysseys: Greece in French Travel Literature from the Renaissance to the Romantic Era. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1994, p. 108; Terence JB Spencer: Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1954, p. 135.
120. ^ Mary Louise Pratt: Imperial Eyes: Studies in Travel Writing and Transculturation. Routledge, London 1992, ISBN 0-41506-095-8 , p. 27.
121. ↑ Terence JB Spencer: Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1954, p. 134 f.
122. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 355; on this Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 22; Olga Augustinos: French Odysseys: Greece in French Travel Literature from the Renaissance to the Romantic Era. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1994, p. 102.
123. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 482: "the most refined, pure, and Orthodox Church in the world" ; on this Efterpi Mitsi: Travel, Memory and Authorship: George Wheler's A Journey into Greece (1682). In: Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2006, p. 19 f
124. ↑ Terence JB Spencer: Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1954, p. 132.
125. ↑ George Wheler: A Journey into Greece. London 1682, p. 428.
126. ^ Edward Daniel Clarke: Greek marbles brought from the shores of the Euxine, Archipelago, and Mediterranean and deposited in the vestibule of the public library of the University of Cambridge. 1809, pp. 12-37 ( digitized version ).
127. ^ Ludwig Budde , Richard V. Nicholls: Catalog of the Greek and Roman Sculpture in the Fitzwilliam Museum Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1967, No. 81, Pl. 24-25; Object page of the Fitzwilliam Museum.
128. ↑ Glenys Lloyd-Morgan: Caryatids and other Supporters. In: Martin Henig (Ed.): Architecture and Architectural Sculpture in the Roman Empire. Oxford University Committee for Archeology, Oxford 1990, ISBN 0-94781-629-1 , pp. 143-151, esp. 144 f .; Eleni Vassilika: Greek and Roman Art. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998, ISBN 0-52162-378-2 , p. 96 f. No. 46.
129. ↑ Frederick SN Douglas: An Essay on Certain Points of Resemblance between the Ancient and Modern Greeks. Murray, London 1813, p. 37 ( digitized version ): "[…], perhaps, the best information we possess in our own language is still to be found in the quaint relations of Sir George Wheler and Dr. Spon " ; see also Terence JB Spencer: Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1954, p. 132.