Automotive design

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History of the automobile through vehicle design: American Motors Corporation (AMC) automobile designer, 1961

Automobile design is a specialized branch of industrial design that deals with the design of the exterior ( exterior ) as well as the interior ( interior ) of motor vehicles .

Automotive designers have to meet three expectations in particular: They have to find a functional, ergonomic and aesthetic form for the technology. This should symbolize the brand values ​​of the company - such as sportiness, comfort or technological progress. After all, the design should arouse emotions and in this way turn interested parties into buyers. When buying a car , the vehicle design is one of the most important decision criteria today.

The car as a design object

Modern automobile design

From the mid-1930s, the car was no longer viewed exclusively as a technical device, but also as a design object. During this time, two developments were combined: in Europe, especially in Germany, extensive experiments on the streamline led to a new understanding of automobile design. In the United States - strongly driven by the activities of Raymond Loewy - the new occupational profile of the industrial designer emerged, who followed the vision of the Streamline and transferred this principle to automobile design. Both led to the birth of the new automobile design.

Therefore, the starting point for modern car design in general is 1927. Alfred P. Sloan , CEO of General Motors , set up the first design department of an automobile company at that time. He appointed Harley Earl to be the first head of the so-called Art and Color Section . Sloan and Earl started the annual fashion shows of new vehicle models, creating changing design trends. From this point on, the automobile became "a social being with its own identity."

Styling and design

Industrial design: Fiat Panda, household appliance on wheels
Styling: Mercedes fintail, a fashionable exaggeration

Until the 1960s, the focus of car designers was on stylistics , that is, on the aesthetic cladding of the basic form defined in terms of engineering. In the 1980s, Patrick le Quément , design director at Renault , compared styling to "the art of dressing a hump."

A typical example of styling are the tail fins on automobiles from the 1950s. Harley Earl , chief designer at General Motors, is said to have been inspired for this “insane fashion stunt” in 1941 by a Lightning fighter-bomber . The fins were introduced in series in 1948 and reached their largest dimension with the Cadillac Sixty Special in 1959 . Tailfin fashion has been imitated all over the world. Even such a conservative brand as Mercedes-Benz could not avoid it. In retrospect, the later Mercedes design director Bruno Sacco called it an exaggeration. Other important design fashions were Dagmar Bumpers , Knudsen-Nase and Coke-Bottle line .

In the past few decades, automobile design has emancipated itself as a form-creating task in its own right; the designers must also consider ergonomics, ecology, aerodynamics, costs and other aspects in their work. From an organizational point of view, the design departments broke away from engineering and the design director often moved up to the boardroom. At the same time, the designers influenced the specifications of a new automotive project and took an active, influential role in the entire product design process. In their self-image, designers also act as engineers.

A particularly notable product of the extensive industrial design is the Fiat Panda introduced in 1980 , which its designer Giorgio Giugiaro looks at with the greatest pride. When developing the vehicle, the design team had exactly two requirements: limited costs and as low a weight as possible. At the same time, the vehicle should be as large as possible. The design therefore worked on the overall shape of the vehicle and developed every detail including seats and ashtrays. Giugiaro described the result as a "household appliance on wheels."

The design process

Phases in the design process

Design is considered the most difficult part of vehicle development, especially since the designer has to think about 12 years into the future when creating his line: four years development time and around 8 years production time. The efforts to find a new shape for an automobile can be divided into four phases:

In the first phase, several designers are usually asked to draw up their ideas in the form of drafts . These sketches are often exaggerated because they emphasize certain characteristics of the future car. For a selection of the drafts, image syntheses , the so-called renderings , are then created. These are side views, preferably natural size, which try to achieve an appropriately proportional visualization in color. The renderings are checked to see whether the design ideas also harmonize with the desired packaging , i.e. the relationship between vehicle size and usable space of the future vehicle.

  • Phase 1: design drawing

  • Phase 1: final artwork

  • Phase 2: Image synthesis

  • Phase 3: clay model

  • Phase 4: dummy

In the third phase, three-dimensional models are created from the selected renderings. For this purpose, the design departments create clay models from clay in different scales, preferably in original size. The formal details are only worked out on the spatial body. The clay model already gives a good, spatial impression of the car shape. However, the illusion of windows and paint is missing. Therefore, fourthly, a complete dummy of the future automobile, the so-called mock-up , will be built. In contrast to the prototype , the mock-up is technically not functional. However, it can be compared easily and intuitively with existing vehicles and is therefore also used for confidential public tests, the so-called car clinics .

History of the design process

In the early years of automobile manufacturing, the design of the automobile body was a task for the specialized body shop. Harley Earl , long-time head of design at General Motors , is considered to be the designer who has brought this design task to the center of automotive development since the late 1920s and thus laid the basis for automotive design. Earl is also credited with inventing the clay model for creating new designs. In any case, with the integrated car design at General Motors, Earl created the basic form of the design process that is still valid today. He stipulated that the drawing should be translated into clay models built over wooden molds; This allowed designers and management to better evaluate the effect of the vehicle and the production engineers to transfer the shapes more easily into metal and production.

  • A clay and a wood model: NSU Ro 80

  • Four design studios, 15 design models: Ford Sierra

The effort companies put into finding a new form of automobile varied considerably. According to his own statements, Claus Luthe , chief designer at NSU and later at BMW , managed to get by with just one clay model and one wooden model when developing the revolutionary form of the NSU Ro 80 in the 1960s . On the other hand, the development of the body shape for the Ford Sierra, which was also perceived as novel, started in 1976, the four Ford design studios in Cologne , Ghia in Turin , Dunton (United Kingdom) and Detroit (USA) with designs that were more than necessary for the decision-making process Made 15 design models. At the same time, separate models were created for separate aerodynamic tests.

Today the design process is run through in the computer as automatically as possible . The graphic drafts, the integration of the technical construction as well as the lifelike three-dimensional representation of the model are carried out in electronic form. The design studios can also incorporate the drafts as moving models in captivatingly realistic films so that the future automobiles appear to appear in existing traffic. Nevertheless, a three-dimensional clay model and a touchable dummy are not yet dispensed with.

Design trends

The automotive design - like the art of the 20th century - is fanned out into several parallel styles, so that labeling according to serial style phases does not make sense. In order to differentiate between the main design trends, five categories have recently been proposed that automobile design went through between the 1930s and the present:

  • Aeroform (from the 1930s)
  • Shell shape (since the mid-1940s)
  • Line dominance (since the late 1950s)
  • Box design (since the early 1970s)
  • Formation as a molded body (since the mid-1990s).

Aeroforms (from the 1930s)

The streamline

The streamlined shape developed by Zeppelin engineer Paul Jaray in the mid-1920s became the first ideal for the automobile - and thus the birth of modern automobile design. The flowing forms of the Jaray constructions allowed a higher speed and enabled a lower consumption. Various manufacturers experimented with the new shape, also to enable an appropriate body for high-speed travel on the new highways. But only the Czech manufacturer Tatra had the courage in the 1930s to actually mass-produce them in their pure form. The streamline, however, became the guiding principle for a whole generation of vehicles with curved fenders, integrated headlights, a rounded radiator shape and sloping, humped back line. Still, the design line had very different customer reactions: the Chrysler Airflow was quite a failure; of the Peugeot 402 with its so-called "rocket design" in the press, however, around 30,000 units were sold.

Art Deco impulses

The Art Deco design movement, which was important between the 1920s and 1940s, primarily influenced the shape of extravagant and expensive automobiles. The aircraft pioneer and great eccentric Gabriel Voisin transferred the ideas from aircraft construction to the shape of his exalted automobiles. In Molsheim , the young Jean Bugatti created the most fascinating model of this brand with the Bugatti Type 57 SC Atlantic with a comb-like rivet flange over the streamlined body. The body manufacturers Saoutchik and Figoni & Falaschi , based in the greater Paris area, played a leading role in the design of luxury automobiles, creating flowing shapes on the chassis of high-quality brands - in particular Delahaye and Talbot-Lago . The hallmarks were the sweeping, streamlined fenders and the slim, tapering tail forms. Ultimately, the French coachbuilder Labourdette himself matched the iconographic Rolls-Royce radiator to the fluid line of the body.

In the United States, those in charge experimented with design lines that were meant to reflect modernity since the early 1930s. The luxury brand Pierce-Arrow made its first attempt with the Silver-Arrow designed by Philip Wright in early 1933. The ultra-streamlined shape of the car with fully integrated front fenders and an arrow-shaped radiator grille was seen as trend-setting, but it was not sold successfully; so the design found no imitators.

The completely new shape found by the designer Gordon Buehrig for the Cord 810 presented in 1935 was different . The design line was so new that it was registered with the American patent office for utility model protection. The radiator grille was shaped with horizontal, curved transverse lamellas that ran all the way to the A-pillar. The headlights were hidden in the teardrop-shaped fenders. The only 24-year-old Bill Mitchell transformed the streamlined look of the outstanding Cadillac Sixty Special Sedan, initially judged by customers to be too extravagant, with flowing lines, large windows and an integrated trunk into a widely accepted design language. The design line with the characteristic transverse lamellas of the bonnet were cited in automotive design well into the 1950s (for example in the Opel Kapitän from 1939).

Hump ​​shape

In an effort to adapt the findings of streamline research to the conservative expectations of the audience, the hump shape was created . This exercise was mastered first in 1935 by John Tjaarda and the recently appointed Ford chief designer Bob Gregorie , who gave the Lincoln Zephyr a slightly rounded shape with a nose-like front. The Museum of Modern Art later recognized the model as the first successful streamlined car in the United States. The basic shape was taken up in different variants by other manufacturers, with the humpback volvo and the humpback taunus becoming proverbial because of their strongly bulged stern.

Wrapping in new proportions

In the 1940s, the designers tried to clothe the vehicle body in a flowing covering, in which the previously individually protruding structural elements - fenders, bonnet, rear - disappeared under a uniform dress. At the same time, the proportions of the vehicles changed: for the first time they were wider than they were high. Chrysler showed this design line called Envelope Body in 1941 on the Newport show car drawn by Ralph Roberts . The competitor Packard, however, brought the Clipper, the first production model with this new package, to the road. Howard Darrin always claimed the authorship of this model for himself. The clipper was significantly lower than comparable vehicles, so that a "normal-sized man" could see over the roof. The envelope body with the fade-away fenders that gently merge into the front door was remodeled in the United States and also in Europe until the 1950s - for example by Alfa Romeo in the 6C Freccia d'oro .

The people's car

In the 1930s, efforts grew in Europe to develop an automobile for everyone. Until then, the vehicles were too expensive for the middle class; Until then, however, hardly any manufacturer had been able to make the necessary investments to build such vehicles. Partly developed before the Second World War, the people's cars, apart from the Italian Fiat 500 Topolino from 1936, only hit the streets after the war: the Morris Minor in England, the Citroën 2 CV in France - and the VW Beetle in Germany, the Erwin Komenda had given a shape that combined Jaray's aerodynamics with the ornamental decoration of Art Deco . All people's cars followed the then modern findings of streamline design and all showed by choosing a humanized nickname - beetle, duck, topolino (little mouse) and mosquito - that the automobile had arrived in society.

Cut at the stern

Extensive wind tunnel tests in the 1930s had shown that a tail cut off at a suitable point can achieve better drag coefficients than the pure Jaray shape, which provided for a long tapering end of the car. This so-called K-Heck was based on research by Reinhard von Koenig-Fachsenfeld and Wunibald Kamm . BMW took over the ideas for its model 332 , for which the designers had modeled both a cut-off K-tail and completely flat sides without bulges for fenders. The test cars could be tried out in 1940; Due to the war, however, series production did not take place. In 1943–1945 Alfa Romeo developed the 6C 2000 Gazzella with what was then a futuristic-looking streamline with a K-tail, but only one model could be completed.

Immediately after the war, the idea was revived in other companies and the engineers combined the hump shape with completely flat side surfaces. In doing so, they created the transition to the pontoon shape. The pioneer was the GAZ-M20 Pobeda , designed in the USSR by Veniamin Samoilov , which combined the smooth side surfaces with a hatchback. In England, Standard showed the Vanguard, a modern silhouette with aerodynamic lines and a flowing vehicle end reminiscent of the K-tail .

Tail fins

The tail fin , which has become a stylistic symbol of the 1950s, was developed in its first variants in the flow tests of the 1930s. Although aerodynamicists now deny that the tail fins ever contributed to improving the wind slipperiness of a vehicle, a fin on the vehicle's back seemed to ensure that the automobile was less disturbed by cross winds in the early tests. The Tatra 87 has the first tail fin in automotive history. The fact that Harley Earl's tail fin design celebrated at Cadillac from 1948 onwards was inspired exclusively by the then new types of jets seems to be refuted. In any case, tail fin fashion has become a global design trend. In Italy in the 1950s , Franco Scaglione created three concept vehicles for Bertone that were highly regarded at the time, which were supposed to show an aerodynamically optimized car shape - and which naturally featured large, curved tail fins. The unique pieces known as BAT (Berlinetta Aerodinamica Tecnica) were considered to be the culmination of European car design in their time. Today, however, the fin fashion is considered "excess."

The representative baroque

The expressiveness of the carriage shape was still cited after the war when it came to documenting the power and importance of the occupants of a car. Vehicles for the elite featured bulbous front fenders that stretched to the bulbous rear fenders (the so-called through fenders ). On the occasion of the BMW 501/502, the often somewhat chubby overall appearance of the vehicles led to the derisive term baroque angel , which was later carried over to all of the puffy bodies of the 1950s that were originally meant to be lordly. The fact that state cars could also appear bourgeois was shown by the stretched design of the Mercedes-Benz 300 Adenauer , which was also known as the Bonn Volkswagen .

A sporty variant of the baroque aerostyle was created for the individualistic gentleman who drives himself for pleasure. One of the first admired models of this design direction to hit the market after World War II was thanks to William Lyons' good gut feeling . The Jaguar XK 120 lines showed an eccentric variant of aerodynamics as a "lush baroque sculpture". Owners like Clark Gable and Humphrey Bogart ensured the breakthrough of this model. Its popular version was shown by the MGA in 1955 , which for a long time shaped the idea of ​​the small British sports car. Karmann built the German version of the sporty Baroque in the form of the Karmann Ghia , the design of which was based on American inspiration from Luigi Segre .

Completion of the streamline design

The streamlining ideas developed since the 1920s were only brought to perfection in automotive design - after preliminary work by Saab - by Citroën in the mid-1950s :

The aircraft manufacturer Saab decided to enter the automobile business after the Second World War - with a streamlined automobile designed by Sixten Sason . The Saab 92 played through the ideas of the Jaray streamline, but looked a bit chubby overall. The stroke of genius to transform the Jaray line into a "completely magical object" was achieved in 1955 by Flaminio Bertoni . The Citroën DS formed by him is considered a candidate for "the fictional hall of fame of car design." The stretched line of the DS "reflects thoroughbred streamlined thoughts" based on the Jaray concept. The sideline corresponded to the wing profile proposed by Jaray, which was raised at the front and tapered flat at the rear. The flat front and the rear sloping downwards also followed the original streamlined concept. The elegant three-dimensional lines of the Citroën once again impressively show the creative potential of the old design ideas and also proved that this shape could also be successfully sold on the market.

  • Streamline exercise: Ursaab , 1947

  • Completion of the Jaray line: Citroën DS , 1955

Streamline illusion

The aerodynamic sedan was rediscovered by Pininfarina at the end of the 1960s . The designer Paolo Martin employed there developed the prototype for a mid-range sedan with a new illusion of streamline for BMC : the aerodynamic, generously glazed passenger cell ended in a cut-off rear end. Passengers and luggage traveled under one roof. BMC rejected this novel architecture in 1967 as too innovative; at Citroen, however, Robert Opron adopted this form for the GS presented in 1970 and later, in a further developed version, also for the CX . David Bache resorted to the same streamlined illusion for the large Rover SD1 3500 and finally Aldo Brovarone and Leonardo Fioravanti from Pininfarina were also able to convert their own concept into a real product for the Lancia Gamma . The sales success at Rover and especially at Lancia remained very far below expectations; the elegantly tapering hatchback therefore remained a marginal phenomenon in the vehicle concept.

Shell shape (since the mid-1940s)

Design quality through scarcity

The beginning of modern automobile design is traditionally associated with the Cisitalia 202, which was first shown in 1946 and added to the MoMa design collection in 1951. The flat, flowing and horizontal lines were drawn by Giovanni Savonuzzi and congenially transformed into sheet metal by Battista "Pinin" Farina . They created a new design style that impressed with its scarcity. "The body of the Cisitalia is pulled over the chassis like a dust jacket over a book." The elongated roof and the side windows stretched to the rear give the vehicle optical length and elegance. Instead of chrome, the interplay of sheet metal and light should express beauty in new proportions. A similar philosophy was followed in 1948 by Erwin Komenda shaped Porsche 356 whose dress a little plump like a shell extends beyond the vehicle. This resulted in an iconic shape that has remained practically unchanged to this day. The Cisitalia line was quickly adapted as a modern design line and varied in the Lancia Aurelia B20, the Aston Martin DB2 and the Alfa Romeo Giulietta Sprint . This design language became "the mother of the modern automobile form."

Pontoon shape

The pontoon shape was introduced into automobile production in the United States in 1946 . Howard Darrin , who had a wide range of interests and had learned to build bodywork in Paris in the 1930s, invented the body with completely smooth side surfaces and generally no frills for the Kaiser Special presented in 1946 . He is considered to be the inventor of the pontoon shape. It set the style for numerous sedans until the mid-1950s. Stylistically, the pontoon shape took over the shell design language, but in a more boring three-box body with flat sheet metal, small window openings and gently rounded curves. For a few years, the manufacturers adapted this then modern form rather undifferentiated, so that the models differed almost only in the radiator grille. In Germany, the Mercedes pontoon had a defining influence on the language, although Carl Borgward launched the Borgward Hansa 1500, the first German post-war car with a pontoon body, on the market in 1949.

Three box design

Raymond Loewy invented the notchback sedan in 1947 for Studebaker with a shape that was considered exemplary and trend-setting. The Studebaker Champion showed a rear that was almost as long as the bonnet and thus offered space for a generous trunk. This equally stretched in both directions automobile shape defined the tripartite division of the car body: the division hood, gazebo, the trunk is called three-box design and three-box principle (Engl. Three-box design called and was normal for decades the form) Automobiles. The Loewy creation subsequently became the model for countless automobile models and thus the modern form of the car.

Chromorgy

In order to avoid the confusion of the pontoon shapes, the automobile manufacturers took refuge in the decoration. In the United States, it became customary to change chrome jewelry annually in order to encourage customers to buy annually with the systematic collection changes. Typical means of expression of the functionless decoration were the projectile-like chrome-plated attachments on the bumpers, which were called Dagmar Bumpers . An example of the theatrical design language is the Buick Roadmaster , which GM chief designer Harley Earl had given a styling of flamboyant extravagance that the design critic Reyner Banham reviled as a "throwaway aesthetic". In Europe, Fiat and Opel in particular cited the loud, American chrome orgy. On the other hand, brands like Mercedes-Benz or Alfa Romeo very systematically cared for their cool face and achieved a carefully maintained self-similarity of their car models over decades.

Pontoon with a profile

The designers quickly learned how to shape a pontoon body in a puritanical, straightforward way, but still with a personal profile. An exercise in lightweight construction and aerodynamics led Panhard to model the Dyna Z with a remarkably low drag coefficient and an expressive, avant-garde-looking pontoon body, which was initially even formed from aluminum. Jan Wilsgaard succeeded in doing without stylistic antics at Volvo Amazon and for that very reason created a car that, according to Volvo General Manager Assar Gabrielsson, looks "like a pin-up girl."

Roadster eroticism

Joy of life and irrationality led to the design of the roadster. The open, two-seater automobiles, mostly derived from racing cars, were seen in the mid-1950s as an expression of love of freedom and individualism, which also strengthened the status and potency of the owner. Although actually predestined for the jet set, the roadster became a classless vehicle category because several large-scale manufacturers brought their own version of the open sports car onto the market. After the English roadsters, which had set the trend, were designed in the aero-baroque style, the Austin-Healey 100 and above all the continental European roadsters such as the Alfa Romeo Giulietta Spider , the Lancia Aurelia B24 Spider and the Porsche 550 Spyder showed one elegant and dynamic appearance - with a slim cut. The American variant of this type of vehicle found its way to customers in the form of the Corvette . The top products in Europe, however, remained undisputed the Ferrari 250 and the Mercedes 300 SL .

Individual designers knew how to put the already erotically charged line of the roadster in the picture. Albrecht Graf von Goertz drew a particularly tight, flowing body for the BMW 507 . The vehicle, which is now an icon, thus acquired the "provocative charisma of a lady with a dress that was far too tight" for the 1950s. Malcolm Sayer achieved something similar when modeling the Jaguar E-Type . Although Sayer said he was only interested in a mathematically sound, optimized aerodynamic shape, in this way he created "the most erotic shape in automobile history with a phallus front and pointed bottom."

Mobility minimum

In order to mobilize the masses, the manufacturers reinterpreted the people's car in the 1950s: they created automobiles that were as fully-fledged as possible, but in miniature. Efforts to find as much usable space as possible in very tight dimensions led talented automotive engineers such as Dante Giacosa and Alec Issigonis to novel conceptual solutions and shapes that ultimately revolutionized the image of the small car. Not only was it small, it also became a fad that was interpreted by young users as an expression of a new way of life. The actually tiny Fiat 500 , shaped by Dante Giacosa with a tight belt, became a reference point for a whole generation in its basic form. Alec Issigonis gave the Austin Mini a lot of practicality in its dwarf-like dimensions - but above all so much charm that the vehicle, in combination with the mini-skirt, which was invented at the same time, could become a symbol of youth rebellion and Carneby-Pop. "The ubiquitous Volksmobile are the backbone of mobility and not so much design icons as a universal work of art."

The K shape

The automobile manufacturers repeatedly tried to introduce the so-called K-shape into automobile design. The K-shape goes back to attempts in the 1930s by Wunibald Kamm and Reinhard von Koenig-Fachsenfeld , which led to an aerodynamically advantageous shape with a trailing edge and a hatchback. The BMW 332 and Alfa Romeo 6C 2000 Gazzella, which were not built because of the war, were developed according to these ideas. The K-shape first found its way to customers in 1952, when Carl FW Borgward presented its large, prestigious Borgward Hansa 2400 sedan . At that time, however, it was only received very cautiously.

The dominance of the line (since the late 1950s)

Trapezoid line

In keeping with the cool design, which was also used for consumer devices, the cars were given corners, edges and tricks at the end of the 1950s. The softened curves of the shell-like shapes have been replaced by an objective, clear line. It was the translation of International Style to automotive design. This line design of modern limousines was lastingly shaped by Battista Pinin Farina , who for the first time shaped the so-called trapezoidal line in the one-off Florida II based on Lancia . Pininfarina then declined the new shape in the Lancia Flaminia , Fiat 1800 and Peugeot 404, which were very well received by the public . When viewed from the side, the angular design looked like a trapezoid: the accentuated belt line at the end of the bonnet and trunk extended beyond the floor line; in the opposite direction, the pavilion tapered from the waistline upwards. In Germany, Taunus 17M, ridiculed as Gelsenkirchen Baroque, was one of the first representatives of the trapezoidal line in 1957, which Zackenford customers saw as too American and not balanced enough. Later, the DKW F 12 drawn by Jupp Dienst and the Trabant 601 for which Werner Lang was responsible showed a flawless trapezoidal line.

Elite limousine

The balanced proportions of the trapezoidal shape developed by Battista Pinin Farina predestined this design for elite sedans. Already the pioneer of the trapeze, the Lancia Flaminia was a ladylike, upper-class appearance - at that time Italy's largest and most luxurious automobile. The extremely cultivated and classic touring limousine was often driven by dignitaries of the Catholic Church. The presidential upgrade appeared in 1961 in the form of the extended landaulet version, which was used by both the Italian President and the Pope for decades. When Rolls-Royce decided to build a more compact sedan, the Silver Shadow , chief designer John Blatchley also chose the stately trapezoidal shape. For decades it became the epitome of elitist automobile design.

The compact form

A circumferential sheet metal crease in the side line of the vehicle ensured a new, more original modeling in car design from 1960 onwards. The sheet metal pinch that emphasized the belt line created a tension-generating edge of light: the light was reflected above the pinch, which ensured that the vehicle shoulder was illuminated; a shadow area appeared underneath, which effectively modeled the monotony of the pages. The designers carried out this tin gimmick around the entire car at an early stage, creating an impression of uniformity. The vehicle was divided into a top and bottom - and no longer in fenders, hoods and superstructures. Allegedly, the sheet metal fold was originally invented in order to be able to connect different body parts with one another, the abutting edge of which was then hidden behind a chrome strip. In any case, after its first appearance in 1960 for the Chevrolet Corvair drawn by Ned Nickles , this design line, known as the compact shape , was quickly quoted by numerous manufacturers in Europe. The NSU Prinz 4 even looked like a complete adaptation of the American model. The Fiat 1500 and the Karmann Ghia Type 34 showed variants . In Eastern Europe, due to the Zastava 1300/1500, which was built until 1979, and the Saporoshez 968M , which was built until 1994 , the compact shape was still far beyond fashion in the street scene.

Flowing line

Uwe Bahnsen went his own way in 1960 with the design of the Taunus 17M . For the Ford , the designer mixed the geometric with the organic, creating the archetype of the flowing line . Against all trends of the time, the Ford did without graphically motivated chrome jewelry and worked with its smooth, no-frills shape, in which the front, side and rear were merged in a curved, uninterrupted line. The bumpers became an integral part of the car body. The so-called current form was celebrated by the press as a revolutionary departure from the trapezoidal line and was marketed by Ford himself as the line of reason . The customers appreciated the new line, even if it was faked as a bathtub . The flowing lines were nevertheless style-defining. With the Peugeot 204 in 1965, Pininfarina showed how a flowing line can be modeled that doesn't look like a bathtub.

Exemption from the notchback

For a long time bourgeoisie and station wagons (with a large tailgate) were mutually exclusive. It was not until the mid-1960s that it became possible to combine the advantages of a large trunk access with the status-oriented self-image of a limousine. The pioneer was the Austin A40 designed by Pininfarina , which, in its Countryman variant, combined the trapezoidal shape of a compact vehicle with a steep tailgate, which, however, was still divided into two parts. Dante Giacosa designed a bourgeois, elegant trapezoidal tail for the Autobianchi Primula . The hatchback for space utilization with a one-piece tailgate hinged at the top achieved great success for the first time in the form of the Renault 4 - but the vehicle, which was designed for minimal production costs, did not become a design icon. Ultimately, it was not until the Renault 16, shaped by Philippe Charbonneaux, that flexibility fully merged with the conservatism of the middle class. The five-door vehicle with hatchback finally freed the Citoyen from the staid notchback sedan - and thus created a new vehicle concept that had a decisive influence on automotive design for decades.

Trapeze in motion

In the years that followed, manufacturers began to recombine the various design elements to create a brand-typical appearance. Giovanni Michelotti and BMW chief stylist Wilhelm Hofmeister succeeded in combining the trapezoidal line and the compact shape for the BMW 1500 . In doing so, they created the manufacturer's trademark, which is still valid today, and also managed to model the trapeze in motion. The design for the sports sedan was found - and it caught on.

David Bache mastered a similar exercise when designing the Rover P6 . It connected the sides of the fuselage in a light trapezoid with the parallelogram of the clear window band closed off by a wide C-pillar. "The P6 always looked a bit like it was moving, even when it was standing." William Lyons delivered the masterpiece in this discipline with the Jaguar XJ . With its rounded, softened trapezoidal shape and strong indentations, this sedan became a symbol of the timeless classic sports sedan in general.

For the men's driver, the designers also invented a GT version of the trapezoidal shape. The muscular, taut lines of the bodies reflected the ideal self-portrayal of their sport-loving owners, who nevertheless attached importance to a stylish appearance. Paul Bracq mastered this form exercise in an exemplary manner for the Mercedes-Benz SL Pagoda , Giorgio Giugiaro in the service of Bertone for the Alfa Romeo Giulia Sprint GT and Virginio Vairo on behalf of Vignale to design the Maserati Mexico . But Piero Castagnero created the "celebrated standard meter for coupé bodies" in the form of the Lancia Fulvia Coupé .

Architecture of power

In order to symbolize power and status, the designers developed a new two-dimensional design language at the beginning of the 1960s, which was supposed to exude a distinguished calm and emphasize the shoulders of the vehicles. Elwood Engel invented a kind of motorized tuxedo for the Lincoln Continental , which in its prudent line also made an essential contribution to overcoming the excesses of the tail fin. Pietro Frua modeled an absolute understatement effect in the body of the Maserati Quattroporte I , the 1963 fastest four-door and four-seater sedan. The low but pronounced waistline and the generously glazed structure created a distinguished but sporty appearance. In all its perfection but of was Paul Bracq drawn Mercedes 600 for the ultimate grand state limousines. Its body, kept in balanced, functional lines, demonstrated a " Palladian architecture of power".

Slim waist, round hips

Studebaker CEO Sherwood Egbert wanted his sports car to have a lasting, stunning shape - and star designer Raymond Loewy delivered the shell for the Avanti in record time . The sports car became a design icon, the formal myth of which was increased by the fact that it quoted the Coke bottle, which was also rounded with a mythical shape, with its narrow waist and wide hips, and made this hip curve usable as the Coke bottle line for automotive design. This tailored body shape, which was not free from erotic allusions, became a popular car fashion. The Buick Riviera sculpted by Bill Mitchell showed the elegant potential of the beautiful hip; However, the design, also known as slimline , was quickly abused to give thick bodies - such as the Opel Rekord C or the Ford Taunus TC in Germany - a sporty appearance.

Hip swing for the Casanova

For an elegant Playboy lifestyle, it had become common practice in the 1960s to use the sports car for conquest. The manufacturers competed to provide this attitude with a flat and sleek coupé, the aggressive style elements of which were associated with sharks and rays. Supposedly, the chief designer of General Motors, Bill Mitchell, came up with this analogy while deep-sea fishing, which Larry Shinoda immortalized in the body of the Corvette Stingray with gills, a mouth-like radiator and a throat-like fold in the back. Giorgio Giugiaro introduced the shark nose to the Maserati Ghibli , the appearance of which, with its boldly curved hood and cut-off tail, really electrified the audience. Finally, Leonardo Fioravanti formed the Ferrari 365 GTB / 4 Daytona for Pininfarina , whose macho shape is considered one of the best Ferrari bodies of those years. In order to allow the Germans to participate in the macho wave with a smaller wallet, Erhard Schnell created a kind of pocket-sized Corvette in the form of the Opel GT , which looked fast even when it was stationary.

After the mid-engine racing cars had proven their superiority on the racetracks, the designers were faced with the challenge of packaging the mid-engine concept in a street sports car. Both the Porsche 904 and the Ford GT40 had received road approval for homologation reasons; its shape, however, had only been found with a view to racing. Ferruccio Lamborghini , meanwhile, wanted to see this original concept of automobile macho transferred to a sports car and therefore had the young Marcello Gandini clothe the extreme proportions of the Miura at Bertone . The Miura was not intended as a vehicle for the racetrack, but rather a vehicle for the boulevard, dressed in an aesthetic of sensuality and thus an extravagant and radical sex symbol: a "testosterotic toy". For the more elegant macho, Giorgio Giugiaro , then at Ghia , tailored the extravagant suit to the chassis of De Tomaso Mangusta . The Dino 246 , which was not allowed to be called Ferrari , received its gently curved mid-engine line from Aldo Brovarone from Pininfarina , who thus created an icon of Maranello.

Pony car

The strong and sporty attitude of the baby boomers found their congenial automotive realization in the Ford Mustang . This vehicle, conceived by Ford board member Lee Iacocca and shaped by designers Joe Oros and David Ash , established the new class of pony cars almost overnight . The long bonnet and the short rear created a new proportion of the sporty vehicle, which, according to the designer, "women love it so much that men love it too." The concept was quickly copied. In Germany, the Ford Capri, stretched with youthful enthusiasm by Phil Clark, showed a slimmer European appearance of the pony car idea, which the Opel Manta , formed by Chuck Jordan - originally developed as a Kadett Coupé - interpreted through and through half-strongly.

Consistent objectivity

A pioneer of the straightness was the responsibility of Fiat development boss Dante Giacosa shaped 124 . Fiat established the new vehicle class of the international family sedan: full-fledged, powerful and versatile - but with incorruptible and well-planned objectivity. The 124 became the first world car, which as Lada Schiguli also made a career as a Soviet people's mobile. Giacosa himself had only limited sympathy for the design and internally Fiat had long favored the more progressive alternative Type 123 with front-wheel drive and even clearer body lines. This model, rejected as too modern for Fiat, was eventually marketed as the Autobianchi A111 . With that of Jan Wilsgaard drawn Volvo 140 showed the Swedes, like a vehicle with no-nonsense lines can be designed, while maintaining its own character.

The Wankel Revolution

The rotary piston engine developed by Felix Wankel was considered a revolution. Therefore, the large sedan, which was first constructed around such an engine, should also radiate a revolution. With these specifications, Claus Luthe developed the body of the NSU Ro 80 presented in 1967 . In fact, the sedan showed many forward-looking design elements: the low front, which the flat rotary engine allowed; the tall stern that looked like it had been sculpted in the wind tunnel (which it wasn't); the rectangular headlights that form a unit with the radiator grille; the large, dome-shaped windows; and the subtle, circumferential hip fold in a car body designed with virtuoso lines. The Ro 80 didn't really have a wedge shape, but it made a lasting contribution to a fundamental reorientation of automotive design. However, the vehicle was not granted economic success; it is considered a flop with only 40,000 units sold.

Family in the trapeze

In the 1970s, automobile manufacturers began to emancipate themselves from design styles. In contrast, they modeled their own design language, which was no longer geared towards the fashions of a product line, but rather towards the brand. BMW became the pioneer for the shapely brand personality . The German manufacturer combined the design features of the trapezoidal shape and the compact shape in a brand-typical way to a wedge-shaped arrow front, which was added to the so-called Hofmeister kink (the counter -swing on the C-pillar) and a gently sloping rear. The brand endured this design language for a long time - and the designers who were asked to design new cars (including Marcello Gandini , Paul Bracq , Manfred Rennen ) bowed to this dictation. Marketing also formed the type designations and invented the model series (3, 5, 6, 7) subdivided into ranking numbers. No manufacturer was able to exercise a similarly profiled design line as perfectly Prussian as BMW - but many brands used it as a benchmark.

The box design (from the early 1970s)

Structured areas

In the transition to the 1970s, automobile designers felt the need to transfer the rational concepts of architecture to vehicle design. Glass and sheet metal should be geometrically ordered and delimited with edges, the volumes should be structured more neatly. The designer Paolo Martin , who works for Pininfarina , created a first design milestone in the shape of the Fiat 130 Coupé . The simple and straight, almost minimalist architecture has been recognized as a "masterpiece of simplicity and elegance". She went to school. For example, a 130 Coupé was in the Ford design studio in Cologne when the team led by Uwe Bahnsen was working on finding the shape for the Ford Granada II . The Peugeot 604 and the Rolls-Royce Camargue showed that it was a special challenge even for masterful designers to give the large surfaces a geometric tension . Both were made at Pininfarina; however, the judgment on their formal language was inconsistent.

Form for the landed gentry

With the Range Rover , Rover created the epoch-making symbol of the longing for country life as early as 1970. The off-road and luxurious model defined a new vehicle architecture that was both immensely useful and poised. It fused the innovative pragmatism of British with its deeply romantic nature. The Range Rover was primarily the work of Rover chief engineer Charles Spencer King - and chief stylist David Bache could only smooth out the details. It was probably not clear to any of the shapers involved that they had found the shape for the ultimate SUV that would last for more than four decades. The Range Rover has had time to mature into a status symbol in its niche. It was not until 14 years later that the Jeep Cherokee , which was considered a "masterpiece" by AMC head of design Richard A. Teague , opened the way to large numbers in this new vehicle segment.

Triumphant advance of the third door

The large tailgate and saying goodbye to the notchback were seen as breaking a taboo - it wasn't until the beginning of the 1970s that this body shape, which is so typical today, achieved triumph. The pioneering example of the so-called two-box design was the stylishly tidy Renault 5 and the Fiat 127 with its minimalist, simple lines . Both super-compact all-rounders were designed with two bodies: one formed the engine compartment. The second combined the passenger compartment and trunk into a variably usable interior that is accessible via a large tailgate. Both vehicles - although produced millions of times - have not been registered as design icons; nevertheless, they each bear the typical signature of a creator of form, both of whom tragically never experienced the result of their work. Michel Boué , who had drawn the friendly, charming look on the Renault 5, died of cancer. The young designer Pio Manzù had a fatal accident when he was on the way to explain the balanced, sober design of the future 127 to the Fiat board of directors.

On German territory in the GDR in 1966, the preliminary draft of an objectively designed three-door model in the form of the Trabant 603 succeeded , but the series launch of the vehicle was politically halted. Once in the glass a little more successful three-door model appeared in 1966, German producers were only years later with that of Marcello Gandini shaped and Claus Luthe finalized Audi 50 and Ford with that of Tom Tjaarda drawn Fiesta after. Less than a decade later, Gerard Welter , the chief stylist at Peugeot , achieved the feat of shaping a small car with the 205 that looked sporty, masculine and feminine at the same time. The million seller thus became the reference in its class and also saved the Peugeot group.

wedge

In the transition from the 1960s to the 1970s, the wedge shape developed into a radical new interpretation of automobile aesthetics. It could be justified with aerodynamic arguments: with increasing speed, streamlined vehicles threaten to take off because lift forces develop. A high rear with a spoiler lip, on the other hand, can develop downforce like a spoiler. At the same time, however, the wedge shape became a symbolic message for a new-found dynamic and an "ultimate form of victory." Marcello Gandini , who worked for Bertone , developed into a revolutionary pioneer for this new aesthetic . After approaching the wedged design language with concept vehicles - the Lamborghini Marzal (1967), the Alfa Romeo Carabo (1968) and the Lancia Stratos 0 (1970) - he transferred it to the Lamborghini Countach in 1971 . The aesthetic elemental force of this vehicle "condemned the classic automobile shape to death." Gandini invented smaller versions of the wedge shape in the form of the Lancia Stratos HF and the Fiat X1 / 9 . The radical modernity of the wedge aesthetic even tempted Ferrari to have the shape of the Ferrari Dino 308 GT modeled by Bertone - and not by long-term design partner Pininfarina. Giugiaro showed with the show car Maserati Boomerang (1971) and the derived Maserati Bora and Lotus Esprit that he also knew something about wedges.

As much as the wedge aesthetic caused a sensation in sports cars, it proved difficult to transfer them to other vehicle categories. It is recognized that Giorgio Giugiaro succeeded in using the wedge shape for a coupe - the Alfetta GT . Ermanno Cressoni modeled the wedge shape in the shape of the Alfa Romeo Giulietta for a sedan, the short and high rear of which was judged to take some getting used to. For Aston Martin, William Towns invented the Lagonda luxury sedan with a double wedge, which went down in automotive history more as a curiosity than as a pioneer. With the Triumph TR 7 Harris Mann showed what a British wedge can look like and thus provoked the traditionalists. The flat fronts of the vehicle wedges - often without a radiator grille and with pop-up headlights - meant that the cars no longer had a face. Therefore, the pure wedge shape found only limited use.

Aesthetics of Rationality

Giorgio Giugiaro developed the foundations of modern automotive architecture in the early 1970s. He is testing his new concept of rational automobile design with the Volkswagen Golf , which, as a million-seller, is shaping the style of the entire Golf generation . It is an icon of modesty, with straight lines and flat surfaces, but whose proportions represent a design with the highest substance. This uncompromisingly technical design language has been recognized as "rational architecture on wheels": as Bauhaus design with a portion of Italian esprit. The Lancia Delta received a striking evolution of this design concept , whose pronounced angular contours were rated as the most timeless of all Giugiaro designs of the 1970s. Later, the Seat Ibiza and Renault 19 showed a mature further development of the rational Giugiaro style.

Banality of the box shape

Structured surfaces and rational structures became the predominant design principle in automobile design in the course of the 1970s. To treat the edges and folds, many designers also used the origami design introduced by Giorgio Giugiaro , in which the sheets look as if they were folded from paper thanks to their sharp tricks. Particularly with respectable notchback sedans, the combination of these elements led to the maligned box shape: The vehicles were "shrunk to factual forms of arbitrariness." Vehicles such as the Opel Rekord E , the Volkswagen Santana , the Fiat Regata and the Talbot-Simca Samara met at the "Festival of Banality" . Only Jan Wilsgaard demonstrated with the Volvo 760 how the same inspirations can be combined into a straightforward, precise geometry; but it still earned him the friendly nickname "Swedish brick".

Design of the home appliance

Giorgio Giugiaro himself created the "incarnation of the box" in 1980, in which he modeled the Fiat Panda . With it he designed both the last true Volkswagen and his "masterpiece." The vehicle, the development of which began in 1976, was intended to combine "maximum space for driver and passengers at the lowest possible cost". Apart from that, the designers had a free hand. They created an angular shopping trolley on wheels because curves cost space and invented the dashboard, which can be easily adapted to right-hand and left-hand traffic, and the easily foldable rear seat bench as an upholstery mat on two adjustable tubes. Giugiaro himself considers the panda - a "household appliance on wheels" - to be his best creation to this day: "The most beautiful are the designs that were particularly difficult and set a new direction. But the most beautiful in this sense is perhaps the panda was the most difficult and conceptually most radical. "

Affine and homogeneous

The manufacturers began to develop a design language typical of the brand in order to decouple themselves from the fashionable design lines. The design language should increasingly create an appropriate expression for the core typical of the brand. The design strategy formulated in 1980 by Bruno Sacco , chief designer at Mercedes-Benz , was groundbreaking . According to this, all vehicles of the brand should show a "vertical affinity and a horizontal homogeneity": the vehicles of the different series should be similar and, in addition, the newly introduced model should not make its predecessor look outdated. With the Mercedes 190 , the E-Class (W 124) and the S-Class (W 126) , Sacco also delivered a perfect implementation of his strategy. The W 124 in particular is regarded as an example of perfect design, in which you cannot immediately recognize anything special. The S-Class (W 140) presented in 1991 , with its criticized large surface area, however, also showed the dangers of an excessively tight corset. Nevertheless, the design typical of the brand by Mercedes was considered exemplary; many other manufacturers tried to create their own corporate design. The independent Turin design studios lost their influence as a result.

Search for space

In order to be able to offer the passengers more interior space with the given external dimensions, the designers developed different ideas for high-roof cars. With a raised roof, the seats can be installed in a more upright position. This creates more legroom for every passenger. The first concept vehicle based on these ideas was the Stout Scarab in 1932 . Lloyd built the six-seater LT based on his small car. At the IAA 1965, Fritz B. Busch showed the Autonova Fam, which remained a one-off. Giorgio Giugiaro designed his Lancia Megagamma in 1978 , which the specialist audience in Europe received rather distantly. In Japan, however, Nissan adopted the idea and introduced the Nissan Prairie in 1982 . Nissan's designers largely copied Giugiaro's angular concept car, which was shaped in sharp sheet metal creases, but without being able to imitate its balanced proportions. The Nissan thus became the first high-roof car - but not a market success. In the public eye, the Renault Espace and the Dodge Caravan ( marketed in Europe as Chrysler Voyager ) therefore vied for having paved the way for the minivan . The Espace, the only one that was really designed as a one- box vehicle, "was a radical car in which futurism and common sense merged." It went back to a design idea that the young designer Fergus Pollock had originally put on paper for Chrysler Europe in 1977 and which Matra then took over.

The Megagamma remained the one-off, the non-realization of which pained Giugiaro most. After all, he was able to use essential inspirations on a smaller scale in the development of the Fiat Uno . This vehicle, which was originally developed as the Lancia Lambda, brought the design change into the small car class: the interior of a larger sedan became possible thanks to the greater height.

Myth of the Cw value

The engineers felt challenged by the oil price shock and looked for effective but marketable aerodynamics in the design of the vehicles. This gave rise to the "myth of the Cd value", through which the quality of an automobile design should be objectively assessable. The Ford design team around Uwe Bahnsen found a rounded, streamlined shape (Cw value 0.34) for the Ford Sierra that fully embodied the design philosophy of the 1980s. However, the customers - especially those in England - reacted in shock and for Patrick le Quément , who played a key role in the design, this meant a career breakdown . In Germany, the Audi 100 C3 modeled by Hartmut Warkuß showed how evolutionary design on a staid notchback also leads to a record-breaking Cd value (Cd value 0.30). Gaston Juchet mastered this exercise a little better for the Renault 25 ( Cd value 0.28) and, moreover, without having to resort to bloated, rounded shapes.

Beading in the wind

In order to overcome the banality of box design, the designers looked for new forms of expression. The concept car Ferrari Pinin , presented by Pininfarina as early as 1980, was groundbreaking and featured a sportily shaped body for a classic notchback limousine with circumferential beading. Enzo Ferrari liked the sedan but couldn't bring himself to series production. Pininfarina later profaned the design ideas when creating the Alfa Romeo 164 and Peugeot 605 . The surrounding beads gave the aerodynamically modeled shapes edges and gave the viewer a visual hold. At the same time, the gently sloping wedge shape demonstrated sporty dynamism. Marc Deschamps , chief designer at Bertone , invented an extravagant variant of the beads inclined into the wind for the exalted hatchback Citroen XM .

Wedge on quantities

After the wedge shape was initially rejected by large groups of buyers in the 1970s, aesthetic perception had developed further by the end of the 1980s. The pronounced wedge in the form of Pinky Lai subscribed BMW 3 Series (E 36) was recorded still considered radical innovation in 1990 - but has developed into a sustainable sales success. The general public could now make friends with the low, tight bow, the steeply sloping side line and the high stern as an expression of sporty dynamism.

Molded body (since the mid-1990s)

Niche vehicles

Many new vehicle classes emerged in the 1990s. The roadsters experienced a comeback, heralded by the Mazda MX-5 introduced in 1989 , which was the first newly designed roadster in decades and was a surprise success. From the mid-1990s, the Mercedes-Benz SLK , the BMW Z3 and the Audi TT also came onto the market. In 1994, Toyota launched the first SUV, the RAV4 . SUVs in particular became very popular after the turn of the millennium. There were also innovative vehicle concepts such as the smart .

  • Best-selling roadster: Mazda MX-5, 1989

  • First SUV: Toyota RAV4, 1994

  • Two-seater: Smart, 2008

Brand faces

Typical brand variants of car design were, for example, the cab-forward design from Chrysler and the new edge design and kinetic design from Ford. This brand identity has led to strictly limited forms of brand design, which are primarily dedicated to recognizability. Elements typical of the brand, such as the radiator grille , were also emphasized. The vehicles of one brand are very similar, but their appearance is clearly different from the vehicles of other brands. Clear-glass headlights and advances in LED technology have resulted in more sophisticated designs in headlights and taillights. With the adoption of the sporty-looking wedge shape, the safety requirements and the trend towards SUVs and vans, the beltline of the vehicles increased. This has led to smaller window areas and poorer all-round visibility. This should be technically compensated for by reversing cameras and warning systems.

  • Mercedes front with a big star

  • BMW kidney

  • With a large radiator grille: Audi A6, 2004

Retro design

A trend towards retro vehicles has been evident since the turn of the millennium . The purpose of retro design is to revisit design elements of historic vehicles in a post-modern design language , which should arouse nostalgic feelings and draw attention to the company's history. In 1994, the VW Concept 1 study was presented at the Detroit Motor Show as a modern reinterpretation of the VW Beetle , which went into series production in 1998 as the VW New Beetle . The Mini followed in 2000 and the Fiat 500 in 2007 . Both vehicles became popular with the public. The retro design can also just refer to a certain design element, for example the tail fins on the Lancia Kappa Coupé or the Coke bottle line on the Nissan Juke . The retro trend is criticized for inhibiting progress in automotive design by resorting to old-fashioned lines.

Automobile sculptures

From the 1990s onwards, design has also become the most important sales-relevant criterion in the automotive industry. With many brands, designers therefore have to adhere to customer requirements.

Chris Bangle's design philosophy, on the other hand, was to create as unmistakable a car as possible that stood out from its surroundings and was proportioned like a sculpture . As chief designer at BMW, Bangle therefore broke with the usual brand design and introduced a new design language, which was particularly criticized in the design of the rear of the BMW 7 Series (E65) presented in 2001 . The E65 nevertheless developed into the best-selling model in the seven series.

  • Unconventional: BMW 7 Series, 2001

  • "like a baroque church": Nissan Juke, 2011

  • BMW Z4, 2005

Evil look

Current automobile design often gives the impression of an evil eye in the front end . The effect is created by the headlight design, but also the standard strong spoiler in the area of ​​the front apron and an overall very squat appearance. Such design elements were previously reserved for the tuning scene to achieve a particularly sporty and aggressive impression. Designing cars as standard in this way sometimes meets with criticism from traffic psychologists. The aggressive impression is reinforced by the enlarged dimensions of the increasingly popular SUVs .

Training and activity as an automobile designer

In the United States, the first design schools were established in the 1930s. Today, well-known schools include the Center for Creative Studies in Detroit and the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena . In Europe, the Royal College of Art in London and the Instituto Europeo di Design in Turin are among the most frequently mentioned training institutions. The Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences offers one of the most famous major fields of study for transportation design in Germany.

Automobile designers find employment in the design departments of automobile manufacturers, automobile suppliers or in design studios, which are often medium-sized. There are also numerous independent design offices. The most famous freelance designers are probably Marcello Gandini and Paolo Martin .

→ List of vehicle designers

See also

literature

  • Otl Aicher : Criticism of the car - Difficult defense of the car against its worshipers. Callwey Verlag, Munich 1984, ISBN 3-7667-0747-7
  • Bruno Alfieri: Form. Mercedes Benz. The roots and aspirations of beauty, Milan 1996
  • Hans-Hermann Braess, Ulrich Seifert (eds.): Automobile design and technology: shaping, functionality, technology, Wiesbaden 2007
  • Marcus Caspers: Lines of Reason - Curves of Desire. On the dialectic of functional and symbolic design in automobile design, pdf Diss.University of Duisburg-Essen, 2009
  • Markus Caspers : designing motion, automobile designer from 1890 to 1990, Basel 2016
  • Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, From Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fiskers BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008
  • Ralf Kieselbach (Ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998
  • Ralf Kieselbach: Technique of Elegance, A History of Automobile Design in Germany up to 1965 using the example of Auto Union and its predecessor companies, Berlin 1999
  • Udo Klose: Autoform, the car in design, art and teaching, Stuttgart 1984
  • Joachim Petsch: History of Auto Design, Cologne 1982
  • Bernd Polster, Phil Patton: Automobildesign International, Brands, Models and their Makers, Cologne 2010
  • Hartmut Seeger: Basic knowledge of transportation design, requirements - solutions - evaluations, 15 lectures and an application example, Wiesbaden 2014
  • Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011
  • Frank Wendler: auto mobile modern, a history of automobile design, exhibition catalog Focke-Museum, Bremen State Museum for Art and Cultural History 1997
  • Othmar Wickenheiser, Audi Design. Automobile design from 1965 to the present, Berlin 2005, ISBN 978-3-89479-160-5
  • Othmar Wickenheiser, automotive design since its invention until the end of the 20th century, in: Design im Dialog, Stuttgart days on automotive and company history. Scientific series of the Mercedes-Benz Archives and Collection, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-86852-064-4 , pp. 123–162
  • Othmar Wickenheiser, Mini Design. Past, Present, Future, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-613-03123-4
  • Beverly Rae Kimes (Editor), Henry Austin Clark Jr.: Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805–1942. 3. Edition. Krause Publications, Iola WI (1996), ISBN 978-0-87341-428-9 ISBN 0-87341-428-4

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Wolf-Heinrich Hucho: Design and aerodynamics - interplay between art and physics, in: Ralf Kieselbach (ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 188
  2. ↑ Lutz Fügener, Professor of Transportation Design, FH Pforzheim, http://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/kulturgeschichte-der-autogestaltung-das-ende-des-retro-designs-1.827851-3
  3. ↑ Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 4
  4. ↑ Bernd Polster, Phil Patton: Autodesign International, Brands, Models and their Makers, Cologne 2010, p. 13f
  5. ↑ Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 24
  6. ↑ Ralf Kieselbach: Cultural History of Car Design from the Beginnings to the 1970s; in: Ralf Kieselbach (Ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 30.
  7. ↑ Bernd Polster, Phil Patton: Autodesign International, Brands, Models and their Makers, Cologne 2010, p. 13f
  8. ↑ Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 4
  9. ↑ quoted from George Mason : Patrick le Quément, Renault Design (Car Men 6), Milan 2000, p. 51
  10. ^ Rob de la Rive Box : Cadillac, The American Dream Car , Vienna 1993, p. 20
  11. ↑ Odo Klose : Autoform, the car in design, art and teaching, Stuttgart 1984, p. 40ff.
  12. ↑ “which should never have been built” Bruno Sacco in conversation with Joseph Ernst, Manfred Schmid and Axel Wolf, November 2005. http://sterntwiete.mparschau.de/html/ponton_flosse.html .
  13. ↑ Prof. James Kelly, Head of Transportation Design FH Pforzheim , in: Ralf Kieselbach (Ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 104f
  14. ↑ George Mason: Patrick le Quément, Renault Design (Car Men 6), Milan 2000, p. 50f
  15. ↑ Giorgio Giugiaro in conversation with Radical-Mag, http: //www. Zwischengas.com/de/FT/diverses/Auf-den-Fiat-Panda-bin-ich-besonders-stolz-im-Gespraech-mit-Giorgetto- Giugiaro.html
  16. ↑ http ://www. Zwischengas.com/de/FT/diverses/Auf-den-Fiat-Panda-bin-ich-besonders-stolz-im-Gespraech-mit-Giorgetto-Giugiaro.html
  17. ↑ 20 years of Fiat Panda: "Household Appliances on Wheels" - Mobility. In: Spiegel Online . March 13, 2000, accessed June 9, 2018 .
  18. ↑ Wolf-Heinrich Hucho: Design and aerodynamics - interplay between art and physics, in: Ralf Kieselbach (ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 188
  19. ↑ Phase structure according to Wolf-Heinrich Hucho: Design and aerodynamics - interplay between art and physics; in: Ralf Kieselbach (Ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 191ff
  20. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, From Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fiskers BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, p. 198
  21. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, From Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fiskers BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, p. 202
  22. ↑ Odo Klose: Autoform, the car in design, art and teaching, Stuttgart 1984, p. 72ff
  23. ^ Wolf-Heinrich Hucho: Design and aerodynamics - interplay between art and physics; in: Ralf Kieselbach (Ed.): The drive to design, history, training and perspectives in car design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 193
  24. ↑ Hartmut Seeger: Basiswissen Transportation Design, Wiesbaden 2014, p. 6 ff.
  25. ↑ after Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 12 f.
  26. ↑ Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 24ff
  27. ↑ Paolo Tumminelli: Car Design Europe, Myths, Brands, People, Kempen 2011, p. 31
  28. ^ Ralf Kieselbach: The drive to design, history, training and perspective in automobile design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 38ff
  29. ↑ Encyclopedia of the Automobile, Augsburg 1989, p. 110
  30. ↑ Alexander Marczak: autosalon edition Peugeot, Meckenheim 2000, p. 23
  31. ↑ Ralf Kieselbach: The drive to design, history, training and perspective in automotive design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 30
  32. ↑ Ingo Seiff: Bugatti, Elegance on Wheels, Success 1993, p. 119ff
  33. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, from Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fisker's BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, pp. 16ff, 26ff
  34. ^ HG Isenberg: Roth-Händle Raritäten '80, the car show of the year, exhibition catalog, p. 60f
  35. ↑ Jürgen Lewandowski, Halwart Schrader: Roth-Händle Raritäten, Die Autoshow des Jahres 1979, exhibition catalog, p. 25
  36. ^ Ralf Kieselbach: The drive to design, history, training and perspective in automobile design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 45f
  37. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, from Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fisker's BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, p. 202
  38. ^ Ralf Kieselbach: The drive to design, history, training and perspective in automobile design, Stuttgart 1998, p. 45f
  39. ↑ Odo Klose: Autoform, The car in design, art and teaching, Stuttgart 1984, p. 31
  40. ^ Carroll Gantz: John Tjaarda, http://www.industrialdesignhistory.com/taxonomy/term/298
  41. ↑ Ralf Kieselbach: Ford Design: They do something, in: Ford moves, Bielefeld 2000, p. 76f
  42. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, from Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fisker's BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, p. 41
  43. ↑ Larry Edsall: Triumphs of Automobile Design, from Darrins Rolls-Royce Phantom to Fisker's BMW Z8, Wiesbaden 2008, p. 40
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