History of the Mediterranean
The history of the Mediterranean is one of the oldest human cultures. The Mediterranean area is an intercontinental region that includes the Mediterranean Sea with its islands and the coastal mainland regions of three continents. In the Mediterranean area , along with other regions worldwide, a development from the prehistoric to the historical phase began at an early age. The climatic areas take on an important role, the Mediterranean climate is characterized as a macroclimate of the subtropics with dry, hot summers and rainy, mild winters and high sums of sunshine hours. This climate is also known as the winter rainy climate of the west sides.
The first advanced cultures arose around 5,000 years ago on the Nile and in the Levant . Both agriculture and urban culture have spread to Europe from there . Modern science , philosophy and the democratic state have their roots here, so that the region is now also the cradle of Western culture.
Prehistory and early history
Numerous paleoanthropological finds, for example from the cave of Arago near Perpignan , prove that Homo erectus already lived in the Mediterranean region. Around 75,000 years ago, the region was populated by Neanderthals , especially in the European part and in the Levant ; In the Levant, however, the ancestors of the "now humans" (cf. Archaic Homo sapiens ) also lived parallel to the Neanderthals . About 40,000 years ago the Cro-Magnon people immigrated to Europe via Anatolia , existed for a few thousand years parallel to the Neanderthals, but gradually displaced them to the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the Crimean Peninsula in the east. The most recent Neanderthal finds from these regions are dated to an age of around 30,000 years.
In the period stretching over several hundred thousand years, the polar ice caps repeatedly expanded, and glaciers covered the high mountains during the ice ages . The sea level was therefore at times up to 150 meters below today's level. The Strait of Gibraltar closed at times.
Finds from the cave of Franchthi in the Argolis in Greece, including melian obsidian and remnants of deep sea fish ( tuna ) prove early seafaring. The epipalaeolitic site of Aetokremnos on Cyprus could only be reached via the open sea. In the Epipalaeolithic there were seasonal settlements, and agriculture has been practiced since the Neolithic . The earliest traces of this are in the Levant from the PPNA . Ancient Egypt followed much later , where from 5000 BC. Chr. Agriculture was operated. Presumably early cattle breeders invaded the Nile valley from the increasingly drier Sahara (Western Desert). In Anatolia, sites of the PPNA and PPNB have also been documented; Cyprus was neolithised in 8300 BC. In Greece the first arable farmers are before 7,000 BC. To apply. The Aegean islands seem to follow later. A ceramic Neolithic is documented from Knossos on Crete . In the western Mediterranean ( Cardial culture ), the earliest Neolithic also dates back to approx. 7000 BC. It is assumed that the Neolithic cultures spread mainly over the coastal regions of the Mediterranean and began as early as 6,600 BC. Reach Switzerland. An oak dugout canoe from this cardial culture was found in La Marmotta, Bracciano (Italy).
The first megalithic complexes and temples were built around the same time on Malta and the Iberian Peninsula during the Neolithic Age .
The Metal Ages replaced the Stone Age in different regions. First copper spreads, then bronze. Metal-rich Spain began around 2300 BC. The Bronze Age ( El Argar culture ). Numerous fortified settlements were created. The first states emerged with the Pharaohs dynasties around 3000 BC. Chr. In Egypt . Almost simultaneously, the first city-states were formed on the Levant and Aegean coasts . The great empires of the early days - Assyria , Babylonia and the Hittites - temporarily expanded into the Mediterranean region.
The first high culture in Europe was formed in Crete under Levantine influence. The Minoan culture originated around 3000 BC. BC and possibly the first thalassocracy to peak a thousand years later. Huge palaces were built for the time and by European standards, the settlement was very dense and there must have been prosperity. The reason for the end of this culture in the 15th century BC Chr. Is controversial; older theories that the volcanic eruption on Santorini immediately wiped them out have been refuted. In contrast, a conquest of Crete by Mycenaean Greeks is very likely today .
Late Bronze Age to Antiquity
Late Bronze Age (approx. 1500-1000 BC)
The late Bronze Age (around 1500 to 1000 BC; see also Sea Peoples ) was characterized by increasing population density and the formation of states as well as increased trade activities, especially in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region. Overpopulation and the securing of trade connections were the main reasons for the onset of colonization , which was carried out from the areas of origin in Greece and the Phoenician cities of the Levant to all parts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea region. Mycenaeans made the start, followed by the Phoenicians , who were trading and seafaring people around 1000 BC. Appeared on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and their bases and settlements extended to North Africa and Spain.
The extensive trade especially in the Eastern Mediterranean is usually explained using the following models:
- centralized political control or thalassocracy (Crete, Canaan)
- Control by individual centers ( Enkomi , Knossos , Ugarit ) and the networking of these centers by ambassadors and emissaries
- Free trade by private individuals
- Ceremonial trade or the exchange of gifts in the Mauss sense
In some cases, it was argued for largely independent dealers. Even George Bass has, based on the analysis of the findings from the shipwreck of the Cape Gelidonya argued against Mycenaean thalassocracy. According to Bass, the late Bronze Age metal trade, from Sardinia to the Levant, was largely dominated by the Phoenicians . He accepted Phoenician foundries in Cyprus, where the typical ox-skin-shaped bars were produced. Indeed, Egyptian wall paintings almost without exception show northern Syrians as the bearers of the oxhide bars.
In several inscriptions of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III. the "Upper Sea of Sunset" is mentioned, the term is apparently used for both Lake Van and the Mediterranean Sea . It seems that the term "Upper Sea" was transferred from Lake Van to the Mediterranean after the time of Tiglat-pileser. Shalmaneser III. describes the Mediterranean as the "Upper Sea of Amurru ". The Assyrians did not have their own Mediterranean fleet, but instead used Phoenician and Cypriot ships.
Antiquity
Since the archaic period, i.e. from 800 BC BC , ancient Greece also acted as a trading power and increasingly competed with the Phoenicians. The Greeks settled as far as the Rhône ( Massilia ) and the Crimea and set up offices and factories as far as Egypt.
The Tuscany was the area settled by the Etruscans , which even the rich iron deposits of Elba controlled. This culture developed from the local Villanova culture , later under strong Greek and Syrian ("oriental") influence. With the founding of Rome in central Italy, the initially slow but steady rise of the Romans began, which began around 500 BC. Chr. Finally emancipated by the Etruscans and the Republic , founded. The south of the Apennine Peninsula was shaped by the Greek colonies ("Magna Graecia"). At the same time, the Persian empire expanded to Egypt and the Bosporus , subjugating the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. The time of the great Persian expansion coincided with the prosperity of Greece, which was able to repel the Persian invasions in several battles (490 to 479 BC). Athens , the leading Greek city-state next to Sparta , initially joined forces with Sparta and other poles to ward off the Persian threat, but founded it in 477 BC. For the purpose of the liberation of the Greeks of Asia Minor, the Attic Sea League , which soon developed into an instrument of power of Athens ( thalassocracy ).
While the Greeks established colonies in large parts of the northern Mediterranean coast, the Phoenicians - after ( Tire ) lost its independence, built Carthage in North Africa as a new power base and also established trading posts in Spain ( Cádiz ), Morocco, Corsica and Sardinia. Because of its rich resources and its location, Sicily was contested between the great powers of the time.
In the Iberian Peninsula, the Iberians developed an increasingly hierarchical society (fortifications and oppida ). Many researchers assume a Celtic immigration from the north. These Celts mixed with the local population, Strabos Celtiberians . Celtic conquests ( Brennus ) also led to northern and central Italy and Greece (plundering of the oracle of Delphi). Northwest Africa was dominated by nomadic and sedentary Berber tribes , with Greek and Phoenician colonies on the coast.
In the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC The Greek city-states lost their supremacy through internal disputes and wars such as the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta (431 to 404 BC). This enabled Macedonia to expand in northern Greece. Alexander the Great used the turmoil of the Persians and the power vacuum in Greece to conquer a previously unseen empire from the Danube to the Indus and to completely reshape the political situation in the eastern Mediterranean. Even if this empire did not last, its generals (the so-called Diadochi ) continued after his death in 323 BC. For a long time BC Greek traditions continued in the successor kingdoms and established the age of Hellenism . In some regions like Egypt this epoch lasted until the turn of the times.
Meanwhile, the Romans grew so strong that they were in 280 BC. BC already controlled the entire Italian mainland. In the central Mediterranean region, for example, there was a dualism between the Romans and the Carthaginians, which was initially expressed in friendly coexistence, later in rivalry, and finally led to armed conflicts. The Punic Wars , which lasted from 264 to 146 BC. And ended with the complete annihilation of Carthage and with it the Phoenician state. After Rome had become the hegemonic power in the western and central Mediterranean, it inexorably expanded the territory. The weakened Hellenistic empires in the east were gradually placed under Roman protectorate and finally annexed. While Julius Caesar expanded the empire mainly into Gaul , Augustus , the first Roman emperor and founder of the principate , and his successors succeeded in bringing the last coastal areas around the Mediterranean under control through targeted colonization and conquest. For the following 400 years the entire Mediterranean area was a political unit (see Roman Empire ). This had never been the case before or since.
Migration of Nations and the Early Middle Ages
In late antiquity the slow Christianization of the Roman state began, which was to have far-reaching consequences, such as the suppression of paganism (see Constantine the Great and Theodosius I ); At the same time, Rome also had to fight for survival during this period: the actual migration of peoples began around 375 , triggered by the invasion of the Huns . The Eastern Roman Empire , which emerged from the (factual) division of the entire Empire in 395, was able to withstand the pressure of the Germanic tribes from the north, which were looking for new settlement areas . The politically, economically and militarily more unstable West, on the other hand, disintegrated rapidly at the end of the 5th century . The Ostrogoths occupied Italy from 489, the Visigoths and Suebi Iberia, the Franks invaded Gaul and were supposed to establish the longest-lived of the Germanic successor states there. The vandals who migrated as far as North Africa and Sicily covered the longest distance . These tribes each founded sovereign empires that lasted for different lengths of time. The last emperor Justinian I , still regarded as late antique, pursued an aggressive restoration policy and recaptured large parts of western Rome, benefiting from the weakness of the Germanic empires. After his death in 565, however, the empire crumbled again and Italy was largely lost to the Lombards , while in the east it had to defend itself against the Sassanids and later the Arabs (see Herakleios and Islamic expansion ). Called the Byzantine Empire in modern times, the legal successor to the Roman Empire was supposed to last for another 1000 years, but was largely on a permanent retreat from aggressive neighboring peoples until Byzantium finally fell in 1453.
In the early Middle Ages , two new great powers rose in the 7th and 8th centuries: the Franconian Empire and the Arab Caliphate. While Islam spread over the Levant and North Africa within a very short time from the 630s onwards ( Islamic expansion ), the Franconian Empire dominated the north-western part of the Mediterranean region between northern Spain and Italy in particular. Under pressure from the Arab caliphs , the Levantine and then the African possessions of the Eastern Roman Empire fell. From 711 the subjugation of the Visigoths began . The Arabs advanced as far as Narbonne and were only finally stopped by Karl Martell in 732 . When the Reconquista was initiated from the Iberian territories that had remained Christian , the northern border of Islam slowly retreated, but here too it was to take the entire Middle Ages until the last bastion, the Moorish principality of Granada , fell into the hands of the Christians in 1492. Nevertheless, the seven centuries meant tremendous economic and cultural progress for Spain, since the occupation coincided with the heyday of Islam , from which North Africa and the Middle East also profited sustainably. Religious tolerance as well as medical, cultural and technical advances laid the foundation for a community in the caliphates that prospered for centuries. With the Islamic expansion, the religious division of the Mediterranean area was sealed, which continues to this day: From then on, the northern part remained largely Christian, the southern part Islamic.
High Middle Ages
With the division of the Frankish Empire in the Treaty of Verdun , the eastern part from the developed Ottonen 962 for the Holy Roman Empire . This had been preceded already with Pippi's gift 756 the establishment of the Papal States in central Italy. Southern Italy, on the other hand, remained contested for a long time: Sicily was first conquered by the Saracens, before the Normans made the whole of southern Italy their domain around 1000 . Cultural integration into the Holy Roman Empire was only achieved under Frederick II , but this did not last long.
In the east of the Mediterranean, the Byzantine Empire suffered further defeats. A request for help from Emperor Alexios I led to the proclamation of the first crusade in 1095 , the character of which went far beyond military aid: Jerusalem was to be recaptured for the Christians and the Holy Land was to be wrested from the so-called infidels. Due to the divided Islamic rulers, the first crusade led to extensive land gains and the establishment of the so-called crusader states , the largest of which stretched from the south coast of Asia Minor to the Gulf of Aqaba . However, their existence should not last long: Although at least nine crusades were undertaken in the Middle East, the last Christian bastions had to be cleared 200 years later after many losses. The Fourth Crusade, which was directed against Byzantium itself in 1204, proved to be particularly fatal , so that the city was plundered and largely destroyed for days. This not only led to the lasting disruption of the relationship between western and eastern Christians, but also to the final decline of the Byzantine Empire, which could no longer counter the advance of the Muslims from the east. The early and high Middle Ages, despite, or perhaps because of, the conflicts between Orient and Occident, contributed a great deal to intercultural exchange, from which Western societies in particular benefited.
Late Middle Ages
The late Middle Ages were marked by a sustained upswing in the Italian region. The Republic of Venice in particular expanded its trading activities far into the eastern Mediterranean from 1204 at the latest, replacing Byzantium as the leading trading power. The Republic of Genoa acquired Corsica and established itself in the Aegean Sea, Pisa , which had only small territories on the mainland, largely controlled maritime trade in the western part. At the same time, the new kingdoms that had formed on the Iberian Peninsula in the course of the Reconquista strengthened: The Aragon Crown extended its sphere of influence to southern Italy, and Castile and Portugal also enlarged their sphere of influence. These States were, in which the cities came early to new heights: from the 11th century, a true wave of new sat universities and the accumulation of capital began in the 14th century to early capitalism with the emergence of modern monetary economy, one civilian Building boom to train wealthy citizens and patronage in the arts. The Holy Roman Empire largely lost control of Italian territories.
In the Islamic sphere of power, the Almohads in the Atlas region and in Andalusia , the Fatimids and Mamelukes in Egypt and the Seljuks , and later the Ottomans in Asia Minor, represented power factors. The Ottoman Empire subsequently expanded into the Balkans and Greece and expanded throughout the whole Near East. The end of the Middle Ages is associated with a number of decisive events: in 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottomans, in 1492 the Reconquista was ended, the Renaissance took off in Italy as early as 1430 and soon replaced feudal structures with new state philosophies. With the discovery of America in 1492, the Mediterranean region as a whole was to experience a dramatic loss of importance, as the trade in exotic goods and raw materials, which had flourished until then, was hit hard by the Atlantic sea trade.
Early modern age
The most important maritime powers of the early modern period continued to be Venice and Genoa , which dominated trade with the Arab world and thus with Southeast Asia. They also owned numerous colonies in the eastern Mediterranean (see Genoese colonies , Venetian colonies ).
In the 16th century , the Mediterranean region experienced a shift in its political and economic focus to the west and, with the unification of Castile and Aragonese, Spain was born and became a world power. Charles V , in particular , who was the first Habsburg to rule both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire and the new American colonies, embodied unimagined power in an empire "where the sun never sets". This was evident in the Tunis campaign undertaken by Charles V in 1535. Even if the personal union was dissolved soon afterwards, Spain remained an enormous power factor in the Mediterranean for over 200 years. Charles's son Philip II even ruled Portugal in personal union. At the same time, France gained strength after the end of the Hundred Years War . Italy remained fragmented and the individual principalities and republics lost political power, but remained economically stable. Venice held out for a long time along the Adriatic coast and the northern Italian principalities fought off French expansion efforts in a series of Italian wars, inflicting heavy defeats on the French army of knights. The Ottoman Empire continued to expand its radius of action until the first siege of Vienna in 1529 . By this time Suleyman the Magnificent had led the empire to the height of its power; Large parts of North Africa were already under the rule of the Ottomans. The second siege of Vienna in 1683 marked the beginning of the Ottoman decline and the Habsburg-Austrian lands began to expand into the Mediterranean.
At sea, however, the Ottoman Empire was able to maintain a strong position despite the naval battle of Lepanto lost in 1571 , also thanks to the corsairs from the barbarian states of the Maghreb . These hijacked European ships throughout the Mediterranean and abducted the crews and passengers in order to extort ransom or to sell the prisoners on slave markets (see also Mediterranean slave trade ). Again and again the corsairs attacked smaller and medium-sized port cities of the Christian neighboring states in order to kidnap their inhabitants, whereby they had an easy game due to the element of surprise and their numerical strength. Many stretches of coast in southern Europe therefore remained sparsely populated for centuries and the mere rumor of corsair sightings could trigger mass panics. But the Order of Malta also did profitable business with piracy and brought in numerous Ottoman and occasionally European ships.
The War of the Spanish Succession in 1713 brought about a reorganization of the western and central Mediterranean region. The French expansion was initially stopped, Spain was reduced to the mainland and the Balearic Islands and the Italian area was redistributed among the ruling houses. The main winner was the Habsburg-Austrian line, which also won southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Milan . This situation did not last long, however: the Spanish-Bourbon royal family soon regained control of the Italian territories. Meanwhile, most of the Maghreb was ruled by Berber tribes who escaped control of the Ottoman Empire but neglected the economy. Morocco and Algeria were marginalized economically, which invited the Spaniards to invasions. The bases in Ceuta and Melilla are still under Spanish control.
19th century
After the rest of the century had passed off peacefully, there was the beginning of the 19th century to the great Napoleonic expansion. Until 1812 France controlled the entire Mediterranean area between Portugal and Montenegro, either directly or through vassal states (ruled by the Napoleonids) . Napoleon briefly incorporated Catalonia , half of Upper and Central Italy and Illyria into the mother country, smashed the Papal State after over 1000 years of existence and degraded Rome to the status of a departmental capital.
After Napoleon's failure and exile, most of the old borders were restored in the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and Austria regained considerable influence over the Adriatic and northern Italy. France, now again under Bourbon rule, began in 1830 with a large-scale colonization of North Africa. The Algerian part of the Mediterranean was even declared part of the French metropolitan area in 1848 . This also put an end to the hustle and bustle of the North African corsairs, who had already been weakened by the wars with the USA . Meanwhile, the Ottoman weakness and the idea of the nation state strengthened the Balkan countries in their striving for freedom. After Montenegro made the start, Greece emerged as a new state. By the end of the century, the Ottomans had to withdraw almost entirely from Europe.
In 1860 the long-awaited unification of Italy took place , which now also emerged as a nation state. Giuseppe Garibaldi began his march from Sicily and united almost the entire Apennine peninsula behind his idea. In 1870 the remaining Papal States followed, which should now finally no longer exist. As a relic, the Vatican City, the smallest state in the world, has remained to this day.
20th century
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , North Africa had been declared completely colonies by European powers: Spain controlled the Rif , France the rest of the Maghreb, Italy the Tripolitan area (now Libya) and England Egypt. After the Balkan Wars, Albania was formed and Bulgaria had gained access to the Mediterranean, which it was to lose to Greece as early as 1920 . The western Balkans (except Albania) united in 1919 to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . At the end of the world war, the Ottoman Empire had finally perished. The part of Asia Minor became a republic under the name of Turkey in 1923 ; France and Great Britain divided the parts of the Middle East into two: Lebanon and Syria became French, Palestine and Jordan became British protectorates . The borders between the Mediterranean countries that were drawn at that time have largely remained to this day.
The Second World War carried the fighting mainly in the central Mediterranean area: First, fascist Italy attacked neighboring Albania, later Germany invaded the Balkans and France. In the Mediterranean part of France, the Vichy regime ruled , a puppet government by the grace of Germany. In France and the German-occupied part of Greece, the local Jews were deported and murdered. In 1942 the British stopped the German advance in North Africa in three battles near El Alamein, in 1943 the Allies landed in Sicily and Mussolini , who was still allowed to lead a pseudo state under Hitler's protection in northern Italy, was deposed as head of government. Syria and Lebanon had gained independence between the wars. After the unconditional surrender of the Germans in 1945 , Italy had to surrender the Dodecanese and Istria . The British-controlled Middle East areas gained their independence, with European Jews being granted an area in the former Protectorate of Palestine for settlement. In 1948 the State of Israel was founded.
Decolonization gave rise to Libya in 1951, Morocco in 1956, Tunisia in 1957 and Algeria only after a long, dirty war in 1962 . 1960 reached Cyprus independence and in 1964 as the last state of Malta. Since then, there have been repeated conflicts among the Mediterranean countries, some of which have continued to the present: In 1974 , after attacks by the Greek military, Turkey occupied Northern Cyprus, dividing the island. The Middle East conflict has persisted since the end of the world war. Egypt, which was a major player at the time, now plays more of a mediator between Israel and Palestine. In 1975 the internal conflict in Lebanon escalated into civil war, whereupon Syrian troops occupied the country and did not begin a slow retreat until 2005 . The breakup of Yugoslavia Von 1992 - 1995 led to cruel wars in which almost exclusively civilians, mainly Bosniaks suffered.
literature
General information can be found in the various history manuals, e.g. E.g .: Fischer Weltgeschichte , Cambridge History ( The Cambridge Ancient History , New Cambridge Medieval History , Cambridge Modern History).
- David Abulafia : The Great Sea. A Human History of the Mediterranean. Oxford University Press, Oxford u. a. 2011.
- Peter Fibiger Bang, Walter Scheidel (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013.
- Fernand Braudel : The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Epoch of Philip II. 3 volumes. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-518-40597-7 (French first 1949).
- Cyprian Broodbank: The Birth of the Mediterranean World. From the beginning to the classical age. CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3406713699 .
- Averil Cameron : The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity AD 395-700. 2nd Edition. Routledge, London / New York 2011, ISBN 978-0-415-57961-2 .
- Hans-Joachim Gehrke , Helmuth Schneider (ed.): History of antiquity. 4th, enlarged and updated edition. Metzler, Stuttgart / Weimar 2013, ISBN 978-3-476-02494-7 .
- Peregrine Horden, Sharon Kinoshita (Ed.): A Companion to Mediterranean History. J. Wiley, Chichester 2014, ISBN 9780470659014 .
- Peregrine Horde, Nicholas Purcell: The corrupting Sea. A Study of Mediterranean History . Blackwell, Oxford et al. 2000, ISBN 0-631-21890-4 .
- Ernst Kornemann : World history of the Mediterranean area. From Philip II of Macedonia to Muhammad . Published by Hermann Bengtson . 2nd Edition. CH Beck, Munich 1967, (Also: ibid. 1978, ISBN 3-406-06775-1 , ( Beck'sche black series 175)).
- Jane Schneider : Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies. Ethnology, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan., 1971), pp. 1-24 [1]
- Michael Herzfeld: Honor and Shame: Problems in the Comparative Analysis of Moral Systems. Man, New Series, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Jun., 1980), pp. 339-351 [2]
- Carolyn Osiek: Women, honor, and context in Mediterranean antiquity. HTS 64 (1) 2008, pp. 323–337 [3]
- David D. Gilmore: Anthropology of the Mediterranean area. Ann Rev. Anthropol. (1982) 11: 175-205 [4]
Web links
Remarks
- ↑ Hans-Peter Hebel: The Mediterranean. History and culture. BücherWerkStatt, Munich 2013, p. 18
- ↑ S. Picozzi: Le palafitte di Trevignano. Il Subacqueo 5.23, 1977; http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001550.html , http://discovermagazine.com/2002/nov/cover
- ↑ J. Diamond, P. Bellwood: Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions (2003), Science 300 (5619): pp. 597-603.
- ^ A. Bernard Knapp: Thalassocracies in Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean trade: Making and breaking a myth. In: World Archeology, 24/3, 1993, p. 332.
- ↑ George F. Bass: Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age shipwreck. In: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57/58, 1967, p. 165; George F. Bass: A Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun (Kaş): 1984 campaign . In: American Journal of Archeology 90, 1986, pp. 269-296, here p. 296.
- ↑ George F. Bass: Cape Gelidonya and Bronze Age maritime trade . In: HA Hoffner (Ed.): Orient and Occident. Old Orient and Old Testament 22. Verlag Butzon and Bercker, Kevelaer 1973, pp. 29–38, here p. 36.
- ↑ S. Wachsmann: Aegeans in Theban Tombs. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 20. Peeters, Leuven 1987.
- ↑ HF Russell: Shalmaneser's campaign to Urartu in 856 BC and the historical geography of Eastern Anatolia according to the Assyrian sources . In: Anatolian Studies 34, 1984, pp. 171–201, here p. 193.
- ↑ HF Russell: Shalmaneser's campaign to Urartu in 856 BC and the historical geography of Eastern Anatolia according to the Assyrian sources. In: Anatolian Studies 34, 1984, pp. 171–201, here p. 194