al-Haram mosque
| al-Haram mosque | |
|---|---|
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| Coordinates : 21 ° 25 ′ 21.1 ″ N , 39 ° 49 ′ 34.2 ″ E | |
| place | Mecca |
| Laying of the foundation stone | 638 |
| Direction / grouping | Islam |
| Architectural information | |
| Details | |
| capacity | Two million (planned) |
| Property | 400,000 m² |
| Minarets | 13 (planned) |
| Minaret height | 89 m |
The al-Haram Mosque ( Arabic المسجد الحرام al-Masjid al-Harām , DMG al-masǧid al-ḥarām ), also known as the Holy Mosque and Great Mosque , in the Saudi Arabian Mecca is the largest mosque in the world. Even before the Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, it is considered the most excellent mosque in Islam . In their courtyard are the Kaaba , the central sanctuary of Islam, the Zamzam fountain and the Maqām Ibrāhīm. A special feature of the al-Harām mosque is that not only prayer and chutba take place here, as in other mosques , but also the tawāf , i.e. the ritual around the Kaaba. According to the Manāsik rules, anyone who enters the al-Harām mosque must first perform a tawāf to greet the Kaaba.
The building history of the al-Haram mosque goes back more than 1,300 years. The most important expansion steps took place in the early Abbasid period in the 8th to 10th centuries, during the Ottoman period in the 16th century and from 1955 under Saudi rule. The Masʿā, i.e. the ritual running route between as-Safā and al-Marwa , has also been part of the al-Harām mosque since the 1960s . The current structure extends over an area of 400,000 m² - including the inner and outer prayer areas - and can accommodate more than a million believers during the Hajj . The mosque is currently being expanded again; after completion of the construction work it will have a total of 13 minarets . Since the previous building was almost completely demolished during the Saudi redesign of the mosque, the earlier building history can only be reconstructed using text and a few image sources. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, depictions of the al-Haram mosque were a popular motif in Islamic art .
Numerous hadiths underline the high religious value of ritual prayer in the Holy Mosque. Its organization, however , has repeatedly caused problems and has been reformed several times due to the existence of different Islamic schools of instruction , which provide different ritual regulations for prayer and which sometimes compete with one another. In addition, the Holy Mosque has been a place for the cultivation of the religious sciences of Islam since the early days of Islam. The term Haram is also used as a short form for the al-Haram Mosque , but the actual Haram of Mecca is a considerably larger district, which covers an area of around 554 square kilometers around the city. The al-Haram mosque has been undergoing extensive renovation and expansion since 2007.
Building history
Earliest construction history: the layout of a building around the Kaaba
Regarding the earliest architectural history of the Holy Mosque, the Meccan historian al-Azraqī (died 837) quotes a report by the Meccan scholar Ibn Juraidsch (died 767). According to this, the Meccan sanctuary was originally not surrounded by walls, but enclosed on all sides by houses with gates between them through which one could get to it. The Banū-Shaiba gate, which was located in the courtyard of the mosque until the late 1950s and is named after the Kaaba guard Shaiba ibn ʿUthmān (died 677) and his descendants, marked the location of the most important of these passages. It is said to have been used by the Prophet Mohammed when he went to the Meccan sanctuary.
As the space in front of the Kaaba became too narrow for the people over time, the caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb (r. 634–644) bought some of the closest houses and tore them down. Since some owners did not give up their houses voluntarily, he expropriated them and deposited the money for them in the treasury of the Kaaba, where they gradually picked it up. He justified his actions to them by saying that the Kaaba had been there earlier and that they had wrongly built up their courtyard with their houses. ʿUmar also had a low wall built around the Kaaba. In doing so, he laid the foundation stone for the al-Haram mosque as an independent building. According to at-Tabarī , this took place in the Rajab of the year 17 (= July / August 638), when ʿUmar came to Mecca for the ʿUmra and spent 20 nights there.
As the number of visitors to the Holy Mosque continued to increase in the following years, the caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (r. 644–656) had their court expanded again. According to at-Tabarī, this took place in the year 26 of the Hijra (= 646 AD). Those who did not want to give up their houses and protested against the expropriation had ʿUthmān thrown into prison. At the intercession of the governor ʿAbdallāh ibn Chālid ibn Usaid, however, they were released again. Al-Azraqī quotes his grandfather as saying that the Holy Mosque at the time of ʿUthmān consisted only of a curtain wall without a roof. The people, he is supposed to have said, sat around the mosque in the early morning and in the evening and followed the shadow. When the shadow shortened, one rose.
ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair , who ruled from Mecca as caliph from 683 to 692, expanded the mosque on the eastern, northern and southern sides, for which he again bought the nearest houses. In a southerly direction he extended it to the wadi at as-Safā. The houses that were torn down included the house of the al-Azraq family, from whom the historian al-Azraqī was descended from. It bumped into the mosque and opened towards the gate of the Banū Shaiba. Anyone entering the Holy Mosque would have it on their left. ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair bought it from the family for more than 10,000 dinars . On the north side, ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair extended the wall behind the Dār an-Nadwa , so that it was now inside the mosque and its door opened towards the cream . It is possible that ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair already built a simple roof over the mosque. As al-Azraqī reports, this belonged to his grandfather. The mosque was now so spacious that some people could sleep in it. However, it was smaller than Kufa's . Zādān Farrūch, who kept the land register for al-Hajjaj ibn Yūsuf , is quoted as saying: "The mosque of Kufa has nine jaribs , that of Mecca only a little more than seven."
The Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik , who ruled Mecca from 692, had the wall of the mosque raised and covered with a teak roof . His son al-Walīd (r. 705–715) tore down what his father had built after al-Azraqī and rebuilt the mosque, equipping it with marble columns for the first time. He had the building clad with marble slabs, covered with a roof made of decorated teak and equipped with battlements . The capitals of the columns were covered with gold plates and the areas above the column arches were decorated with mosaics .
The building of al-Mansūr: extension on the west and north sides, addition of minarets
The Abbasid caliph al-Mansūr (r. 754-774) had the mosque expanded on the north and west sides and provided with minarets for the first time . The west side was laid out in such a way that it reached from the Banū-Jumah-Gate to the Banū-Sahm-Gate, where the one minaret was erected. The north side was designed as a single-row arcade , which led past the house of Zubaida, the Dār al-ʿAdjala and the Dār an-Nadwa and extended to the house of Schaiba ibn ʿUthmān, where another minaret was built. This north side was decorated with mosaics because it served as the front of the mosque. This north side was then laterally connected to the east side of the building from al-Walīd. The expansion doubled the size of the mosque. The construction work lasted from the Muharram of the year 137 (= July 754) to the Dhū l-Hiddscha 140 (= April / May 758).
The building of al-Mahdī: expansion on the east and south sides, construction of three-row arcades
Al-Mansūr's son al-Mahdī (ruled 775–785) came at the beginning of his reign to make a pilgrimage to Mecca and had the mosque extended to the east. He gave the order for this to the Qādī of Mecca Muhammad al-Machzūmī, nicknamed al-Auqas. He had the houses adjoining the mosque bought and demolished and placed the Masʿā further east. He also had three-row arcades with marble columns built on the east and west sides . The marble blocks required for this were transported by ship from Syria and Egypt to Jeddah and from there on wagons to Mecca. On both sides, grid-like foundations were laid out of walls, the spaces between which were filled with mortar, ashes and rubble. The columns were then placed on the intersections of the grid. Around 780 al-Mahdī came to Mecca again for an ʿumra . On this occasion he noticed that the Kaaba was not in the center of the mosque. So he gave the order to expand the mosque again, this time in a southerly direction, where the waterway was, over which the flash floods ran off when it rained. To make the expansion possible, he had the waterway moved further south and the houses that stood there demolished. Al-Mahdī also had this side furnished with columns made of marble that were brought from Syria and Egypt. When al-Mahdī died in 785, the building was not quite finished. The construction work was now accelerated, but no longer continued with the same care as before.
The extension of the mosque was now 404 cubits in an east-west direction and 304 cubits in the north-south direction (in the middle) and 278 cubits (at the edges). According to the Meccan historian Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī (died 1429) it was each hand cubit (= 0.4512 m). Accordingly, the dimensions of the mosque were converted into the metric system 182 × 137 or 125 meters. Of the 484 columns that enclosed the mosque in three rows, 103 were on the east side, 105 on the west side, 135 on the north side and 141 on the south side. Each pillar was ten cubits high and three cubits around. Some pillars were a little larger and thicker. The distance between the pillars was six cubits and thirteen inches. A total of 498 arches were stretched across the pillars . 321 pillars had a gilded base . Most of the columns were made of marble, but the 44 columns that al-Hādī had added after al-Mahdī's death were made of simple stone.
The walls of the mosque were 18 to 22½ cubits high on the different sides. There were 272 battlements on its outside . On the inside there were stone benches with arches on the north and south sides. Ibn Battūta (died 1354) reports that he saw an inscription on the top of the wall on the western side that dated the expansion of the mosque by al-Mahdī to the year 167 of the Hijra (= 783/84 AD). Towards the mosque there were 46 arches with 174 battlements on the east side, 46 arches with 147 battlements on the north side, 45 arches with 150 battlements on the south side and 29 arches with 94 battlements on the west side. The roof consisted of an upper and a lower roof. The upper roof was covered with wood from the Yemeni gut tree, the lower roof was made of beautiful teak, was decorated with gold and inscribed with verses from the Koran, blessings for the prophet and supplications for the caliph al-Mahdī. There was a gap of two and a half cubits between the two roofs. The building had a total of 24 gates (see the overview below). Al-Mahdī also provided the mosque with two further minarets, which he erected at the other corners of the building and equipped with battlements.
The layout of the two outer courtyards
The caliph al-Muʿtadid bi-Llāh (ruled 892-902) had the Dār an-Nadwa , the old town hall of Mecca, on the north side of the mosque , torn down and the mosque extended in this direction. The new building, which was erected on the site of the Dār an-Nadwa, was equipped with the same columns, arches and halls as the mosque. To connect this extension (ziyāda) with the rest of the mosque, six new gates were broken on its outer wall. In 918, Muhammad ibn Mūsā, the governor of the caliph al-Muqtadir (r. 908-932), had the wall between the extension and the mosque courtyard torn down and replaced with stone pillars, so that now all who are in the “Dār-an -Nadwa Extension ” (Ziyādat Dār an-Nadwa) who could see the Kaaba. He also provided the extension with its own minaret. As an outer courtyard, the Dār-an-Nadwa extension became an integral part of the Holy Mosque.
In 918, Muhammad ibn Mūsā also had the gate of the grain traders and the gate of the Banū Jumah demolished on the west side of the mosque and set up a colonnade-lined mosque courtyard behind it, which he connected with the great mosque. On the outside of this mosque yard, which was 57 cubits long and 52 cubits wide, he built a new gate called the Ibrahim Gate. The namesake was not Abraham , but a tailor named Ibrāhīm, who had his seat long in front of the gate. The pillars in this western extension were made of plaster.
The fire of 1400 and the repairs that followed
On the night of the 28th Schauwāl 802 (= June 22nd, 1400) a fire broke out in the mosque, in which about a third of the building was destroyed. The trigger for this was that a resident of Ribāt Ramuscht, who was lying on the west side of the Hazwara gate and adjoined the mosque, left a burning light in his cell. A mouse, it was said, had pulled this lamp towards its hole, causing the cell to catch fire. The flames soon burst out of the window and set the roof of the mosque on fire. Since people could not reach up that far because of the height of the building and could not extinguish the fire, the fire spread over the entire west side and soon reached the north side as well. There it reached the ʿAdjala Gate, where a fortunate coincidence prevented it from spreading further: a flood that occurred at the beginning of the same year knocked down two pillars there, causing the roof above to collapse had been brought. This vacant lot stopped the fire and saved the rest of the building from destruction. A total of 131 columns melted into lime in the fire , and the rubble was so high that the Kaaba could no longer be seen behind it. The Meccans viewed the conflagration as a warning omen for a great event that occurred shortly afterwards, namely the bloodshed that Timur caused on the Muslim civilian population there during his campaigns through Syria and Anatolia .
The Egyptian Sultan Faraj (r. 1399–1405) commissioned the leader of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan, Baisaq az-Zāhirī, to clean and rebuild the mosque. That is why he stayed in Mecca after the Hajj in 803, which fell on July 1401. He first cleaned the mosque of rubble and then made new columns from granite , which he had broken on the Schubaika mountain near Mecca. He equipped the west side of the mosque with these columns, each with a marble capital. He built the columns on the north side from pieces of white marble, which he connected with iron bolts . At the end of Shabān 804 (= March 1402), Baisaq was able to complete the repairs; Only the repair of the roof he had to postpone because of the lack of suitable timber. In 807 (1404/05 AD) he returned to Mecca to repair the roof. For this he brought suitable timber from Asia Minor. He also had juniper wood brought in from the area of at-Tā'if . With these timbers he was able to complete the repair of the roof on the west and north sides.
The new Ottoman building with the domed roof
Major structural changes to the mosque did not take place again until the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century. In the 1570s, Sultan Selim II (r. 1566–1574) had a large part of the arcades of the Holy Mosque rebuilt. The reason for this was that the arcades on the east side of the mosque courtyard had sunk more and more, the roof on the other sides was rotten and eaten away by woodworms (araḍa) and, moreover, birds and snakes nested in the space between the upper and lower roof had. As the contemporary historian Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī (died 1590) reports, Selīm II gave the order to the Hijra (= 1571/72 AD) in 979 to open the entire mosque from all four sides “to the best and most beautiful way ” (ʿalā aḥsan waǧh wa-aǧmal ṣūra) , whereby firmly bricked domes should be put in place of the double wooden roof . The Ottoman builder Amīr Ahmad Beg, who had previously carried out the final work for the ʿAin ʿArafāt water pipe in Mecca, was commissioned to manage the construction .
In the middle of Rabīʿ I 980 (end of July 1572) Ahmad Beg tackled the renovation of the arcades and began the demolition work. First he exposed the entire east side and examined the foundation. When he found it damaged, he had the foundation walls in the earth, which had the shape of a chessboard, completely removed. On the 6th Jumādā I 980 (September 14, 1572) the laying of the foundation stone of the new building was celebrated in the presence of the great personalities of Mecca. Since it became apparent that the earlier pillars were not strong enough to support the domes, he had pillars made of yellow local Shumaisī stone, four times as thick as the marble pillars, inserted between the white marble pillars. The Shumaisī stone was broken on two small mountains near Shumais on the western border of the Haram on the way to Jeddah . Ahmad Beg had a pillar made of Shumaisī stone follow every third marble column. As a result, enough marble was now available to adapt the western colonnade, which had been filled with granite columns after the fire of 1400, to match the other colonnades and also to provide them with marble columns again.
The new construction of the mosque was only under the rule of Murād III. Completed in 984 (1576/77 AD). So that the pigeons could not sit on the arcades and pollute the mosque with their excrement, their cornices were shod with iron spikes all around . In addition, gilded crescent moons made of copper, which were made in Egypt on behalf of the local Beglerbeg Mesīh Pasha, were attached to the domes . Finally, in 985 (1577/78 AD) between the ʿAlī gate and the gate of the funeral procession an inscription with the names of Allah , Muhammad and the four rightly guided caliphs was placed. A total of 110,000 new gold dinars from the sultan's treasure were spent on the new building, including the canal systems to ward off floods (see below) . This did not include the cost of the lumber sent from Egypt to Mecca, the wooden poles for the building tools, the nails, the iron spikes, and the gilded crescent moons on the domes.
The renovation fundamentally changed the appearance of the central building complex in Mecca. In total, the building now had 152 domes and 232 "pans" (ṭawāǧin) . According to the Ottoman scholar Eyüb Sabri, the "pans" were also a type of domes, which were so named because of their shape. Qutb al-Dīn an-Nahrawālī praises the beauty of the new domes in his chronicle. In his opinion, they looked like the gold-decorated Üskuf hats of janissary officers who stand around the church in a closed row and with the utmost discipline and calm. The pillars in the four halls were also completely rearranged. In total, the new building had 311 marble columns and 244 pillars made of yellow Shumaisī stone.
Excursus: Pictorial Representations in Islamic and Western Art
After the Ottoman renovation, the Holy Mosque became a very popular motif in Islamic art. In particular, many Ottoman tiles are designed with representations of the building complex. Such tiles are usually referred to as "Kaaba tiles" in the history of oriental art, but the representation is usually not limited to the Kaaba alone, but includes the entire Holy Mosque. In addition, several works were created on the holy places in Mecca and Medina, which were illustrated with depictions of the Holy Mosque. This included in particular the book Futūḥ al-ḥaramain by Muhyī ad-Dīn Lārī (died between 1521 and 1527), of which there are numerous illustrated manuscripts from Turkey, Iran and India. Various Ottoman buildings are also decorated with depictions of the Holy Mosque. Many of these representations are labeled in Arabic with the names of the gates and buildings in the inner courtyard, so that they could also be used to explain the local conditions on site. In addition, the motif of the Holy Mosque is often found on Turkish prayer rugs from the city of Bursa . The mosque is shown from the east on almost all of the depictions.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the mosque was usually shown in a combination of floor plan and elevation , in such a way that the inner courtyard of the mosque was shown from above, while the arcades and the individual structures that stood in this courtyard were folded down were shown in side view. Well-known representations of this type can be found on various tiles from İznik , on two Futūḥ-al-ḥaramain manuscripts from Uzbekistan and India, and on one in the mihrāb of the mosque of the Black Eunuchs in the Topkapı Palace . The representation in the Topkapı Palace consists of a group of individual tiles and fills the semicircular back wall of the mihrāb. The minarets are shown on it disproportionately long. A very similar panel made of tiles , but flat, is in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo . It is dated to the year 1676 and has an area of 2.40 × 1.44 meters. With some early Ottoman representatives of this type of representation, a third type of representation is added because the Kaaba, the arcades and individual other parts of the building are depicted in perspective. This is the case with the images of the Holy Mosque in the Cevahirü'l-Garâib manuscript from 1582 in the Harvard Art Museums and in the Manāsik work by Bahtî from 1646 in the Berlin State Library .
- Representations that combine floor plan and elevation
İznik tile in Istanbul, around 1590
Futūḥ al-ḥaramain manuscript, Uzbekistan, end of the 16th century.
İznik tile in the Victoria and Albert Museum , 1666
Futūḥ al-ḥaramain manuscript, India, 1678
Mihrab in Topkapı Palace , 17th century
Cevahirü'l Garâib, Ottoman manuscript from 1582
Ottoman Manāsik factory in Berlin, 1646
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In the early 18th century, depictions of the Holy Mosque from a bird's eye view in oblique parallel projection became more common in the Ottoman Empire . In these representations, the mosque is usually surrounded by other stations of the pilgrimage and the mountains of Mecca, which are inscribed with their names. One of the earliest representations of this kind can be found in an Ottoman collective manuscript from 1709, which is kept in the Berlin State Library. An oil painting on canvas, acquired by the Swedish orientalist Michael Eneman during a stay in Turkey and bought by the library of Uppsala University in 1717, dates from around the same time . It depicts the mosque in a very realistic way. Other well-known depictions depicting the mosque in this way are a tile made in Tekfur Sarayı from 1720–30 in the Metropolitan Museum of Art , a tile panel made at the same location from around 1735 in the Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa Mosque in Istanbul, the interior painting of the lid of a Qibla indicator from 1738 in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art in Istanbul and a panel consisting of twelve tiles in Sabīl-Kuttāb by ʿAbd ar-Rahmān Katchudā in 1744 the al-Mu'izz street in Cairo. The depiction of the Holy Mosque on a copper engraving in the architecture book by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach , which was published in 1721, also follows this pattern, but in contrast to the Ottoman depictions, it is a depiction in vanishing point perspective .
- Illustrations from a bird's eye view
Illustration in Ottoman composite manuscript, 1709
Oil painting on canvas in Uppsala, before 1717
Tile from Tekfur Sarayı , 1720–30
Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa Mosque in Istanbul, ca.1735
Qibla indicator in Istanbul, 1738
Tiles in the Sabīl-Kuttāb of Katchudā in Cairo, 1744
Blueprint of a historical architecture , Fischer von Erlach , 1721
In the 19th century, depictions of the Holy Mosque embedded in the urban ensemble down from the mountain became more common. To some extent, this type of representation can already be found in the Ottoman oil painting from Uppsala and the drawing by Louis Nicolas de Lespinasse (see above), which is dated to 1787 and probably also had an Ottoman model. This type of representation can be found in full development in the panorama-like picture that the Indian painter Muhammad ʿAbdallāh, a grandson of the court painter of Bahadur Shah II , made in Delhi for one of the sheriffs of Mecca . Some of these representations also have photographic originals such as the one by Hubert Sattler from 1897, which is based on a photograph that Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje published in 1889. The French orientalist painter Etienne Nasreddine Dinet (1861–1929) made a similar view in 1918 .
- Panoramic representations down from the mountain
Watercolor painting of Muhammad ʿAbdallāhs, India
Oil painting by Hubert Sattler , 1897 ...
... and a photographic copy by Snouck Hurgronje , 1889
Oil painting by Etienne Nasreddine Dinet, 1918
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Extensions under Saudi rule
At the beginning of the Saudi rule, the inner courtyard of the al-Haram mosque was roughly in the shape of a parallelogram . The individual sides had the following dimensions: 164 meters (north side), 166 meters (south side), 108 meters (east side) and 109 meters (west side). The total area of the mosque was 17,902 square meters. From the outside it was about 192 meters long and 132 meters wide.
In the early 1950s, the Saudi King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Saʿūd commissioned the entrepreneur Muhammad ibn Lādin , who had previously directed the expansion of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, to plan a comprehensive expansion of the al-Harām mosque. Muhammad ibn Lādin, for his part, commissioned the civil engineer Fahmī Muʾmin, who had designed the mosque in Medina, to work out a design. Some time later he submitted the design for a new rotunda, which, however, was not approved by the king and his advisors. Thereupon Muhammad ibn Lādin commissioned the Egyptian civil engineer Muhammad Tāhir al-Dschuwainī with the elaboration of an alternative design, which provided a rectangular building. As the number of pilgrims rose to more than 200,000 in the mid-1950s, while the mosque could only accommodate around 50,000 prayers, the need to expand the building became more and more noticeable.
First expansion (1955–1969)
After the planning work was completed, King Saʿūd ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (r. 1953–1964) publicly announced his will to expand the al-Haram mosque on August 22, 1955. As the project made it necessary to demolish buildings in the area, the king set up a commission to assess the value of these buildings. The owners of the buildings were compensated according to their assessment. In September 1955 he set up a commission to oversee the construction project. It was placed under the direction of the then heir to the throne Faisal ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz . Construction work began on November 20, 1955 with the demolition of the two outer courtyards, the houses connected to them and the buildings and shops in the vicinity of the mosque. In March 1956, Muhammad ibn Lādin was commissioned to carry out the construction project. The ceremonial laying of the foundation stone took place on 23rd Schaʿbān 1375 (= 5th April 1956).
This officially began the project known as the “First Saudi Enlargement”. This comprised two phases:
- During the first phase (1957 to 1961) the Masʿā, i.e. the ritual running route between as-Safā and al-Marwa, was expanded into two floors. In addition, a dome was built over as-Safā and a new higher minaret next to it.
- During the second phase (1961 to 1969) the mosque was given a second floor and a basement and was connected to the Masʿā. In addition, the buildings in the courtyard of the mosque were (see below) demolished to the surface for the circulation around the Kaaba to increase, and the Zamzam was moved to the ground.
Overall, the area of the mosque was increased to 161,327 square meters through the expansion. A large part of the newly created areas was accounted for by the masʿā, which was considered an integral part of the mosque after the expansion, as well as the cellars built under the arcades. The mosque building could now accommodate a total of 400,000 prayers. The total cost of expanding the mosque during King Saud's reign was one billion Saudi riyals . This amount also included nearly 240 million riyals, which were paid as compensation to the owners of the 1,700 buildings, apartments and businesses that were demolished in the course of the mosque's expansion.
Second expansion (1969–1976)
Under King Faisal ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (ruled 1964–75) the second Saudi expansion of the mosque began. The blueprint of the architect Muhammad Tāhir al-Juwainī actually intended that the old mosque should be completely removed. In 1968/69, however, Faisal changed this plan by decreeing in a royal order that the arcade courtyards from Ottoman times with the domed roof should be preserved, repaired and connected to the new building. The second Saudi enlargement will also be divided into two phases:
- During the first phase (1969 to 1972) the exterior of the mosque was redesigned and a ramp was built at the Safā gate that connects the mosque's ground floor with the Masʿā. In addition, the floor of the mosque was paved with marble slabs, and two new minarets were built on the northwest side by the ʿUmra Gate.
- During the second phase (1973 to 1976) the old building of the mosque with the domed arcade courtyards from the Ottoman period was restored and the north side of the mosque was redesigned. Two new minarets were built on the northeast corner, and two new gates were built on the northwest and northeast sides.
The two outer courtyards of the old mosque building were removed as part of this expansion. In order to improve the flow of traffic and make it easier for pilgrims to access the mosque during peak hours, five spacious spaces with parking spaces were created around the building. The new mosque building comprised almost 70 new prayer rooms and at the end of the second expansion could accommodate a total of more than 600,000 prayers.
Third expansion (1988–1993)
A third expansion of the mosque took place during the reign of King Fahd ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (r. 1982-2005). The solemn laying of the foundation stone for this extension, named after King Fahd, took place on September 13, 1988. In the course of this extension, which again required the demolition of numerous buildings, a new annex was built on the western side of the mosque, with its own Main entrance and two minarets received. It has two floors and a basement. The outer walls have a uniform height of 22.57 meters. Inside there are 492 columns with a diameter of 81 and 93 centimeters. Three domes 15 meters in diameter and seven meters high were erected on the roof of the new extension. They tower over the central hall of the new building.
In order to improve the use of space in the building, the roof of the mosque and the new annex were made accessible, covered with marble and designed into a contiguous prayer area of 61,000 square meters, which was later covered with prayer rugs. Overall, the prayer area of the mosque was increased to approx. 400,000 square meters and the capacity of the building was increased to more than a million people.
Inside, the mosque building was equipped with 13 escalators , a network of fire protection stations and a modern central air conditioning system. The air conditioning system is supplied with district cooling , which is brought in via an underground pipeline from a refrigeration machine six kilometers away . Numerous water dispensers have also been set up in the mosque , from which visitors to the mosque can draw chilled Zamzam water.
In 1990, on royal orders, a program began to beautify the squares around the mosque, with the aim of making them usable for prayer during rush hours during pilgrimages and Ramadan . A new two-story building with sanitary facilities was built on the square west of the Masʿā, comprising 1,440 toilets and 1,091 places for ritual washing. The square in front of the mosque to the south-west was also provided with underground sanitary facilities and freed from traffic by building a 661-meter-long tunnel. This Sūq-as-Saghīr tunnel connects the area of the Holy Mosque with the eastern quarters of Mecca. In order to reduce traffic in the mosque area, a park-and-ride system with large parking lots in the districts of Kudai and al-ʿAzīzīya, which have around 12,000 parking spaces, was established. From there, pilgrims can get to the mosque in ten to 20 minutes by bus. In May / June 1993 work on the third extension of the mosque was completed.
Fourth expansion (from 2007)
The fourth expansion of the mosque began in 2007 during the reign of King Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz (ruled 2005–2015). In order to allow the building complex to expand in a northerly direction, the district of asch-Shāmīya was demolished in 2008. A total of 5,882 buildings were demolished over an area of 300,000 square meters. For the planning of the extension, the Saudi government commissioned 18 international architects and architectural offices, including Zaha Hadid , Tadao Andō , Norman Foster , Santiago Calatrava , Shigeru Ban and Atkins Design , to develop drafts. Most architects could only find out about the site through photos and satellite images, since as non-Muslims they were not allowed to enter Mecca. The designs were presented to the King of Saudi Arabia at the end of November 2008. In the end, a draft from King Saud University prevailed . The designs of the other architectural firms were published in a book by the Saudi Ministry of Culture and Media in 2012.
After the completion of the construction work, which was originally planned for 2020, the building should offer space for 2,000,000 believers. Furthermore, the number of minarets is to increase to 13. The cost of the project is 80 billion Saudi riyals (approx. 20 billion euros). The expansion was justified, among other things, by the fact that by 2025 an increase in the number of pilgrims to up to 17 million annually is expected. Simultaneously with the start of the expansion of the Holy Mosque, the high-rise towers of Abraj Al Bait , which are up to 601 meters high, were built in the immediate vicinity . They now tower above the Holy Mosque, which has fundamentally changed its appearance. The construction management for both projects lies with the Saudi Binladin Group . Workers from various Islamic countries work on the construction sites. Most of them live in very confined conditions on the Saudi Binladin Group's premises.
The expansion project has met with a lot of criticism in the meantime. Hatoon al-Fassi , a professor of history at King Saud University who comes from a respected Meccan family, accused the Bin Ladin Group of wanting to turn Mecca into a Las Vegas . Ziauddin Sardar criticized the “brutalism of hideously ugly right-angled steel and concrete structures” that now surround the Holy Mosque. They would look like downtown office complexes in some US city. It was also criticized that the remaining Ottoman portico should be removed. After protests from the Turkish side in 2013 and subsequent Turkish-Saudi negotiations, the Saudi king finally gave the order to preserve the portico and commissioned the Turkish company Gürsoy Group to investigate and restore it. The company removed the pillar porch in 2015, restored it on a site near ʿArafāt and partially rebuilt it at a greater distance from the Kaaba. However, the original Ottoman brick and stucco domes could not be preserved. The renovation significantly increased the capacity of the inner mosque courtyard. While before 2013 only about 10,000 people per hour could do the tawāf per hour, this has been possible for 30,000 people since the renovation.
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In order to maintain the capacity of the mosque during the renovation period and to enable as many people as possible to circulate around the Kaaba at the same time during the Hajj, a temporary matāf bridge made of carbon fibers was erected in the courtyard of the mosque between 2014 and 2016 . On September 11, 2015, one hour before the evening prayer and about ten days before the start of the Hajj, a large crawler crane with articulated boom ( Liebherr LR 11350 ) fell backwards onto the mosque in heavy rain and gusts of wind at speeds of up to 83 km / h and hit the mosque with it a hall roof on the third floor for the guy arms. The top of the mast buckled into the courtyard beyond. At least 107 people were killed and 238 injured.
History of individual components and the infrastructure
The goals
Almost all Meccan historians provide lists of the gates of the Holy Mosque in their works, including al-Azraqī (early 9th century), Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī (early 15th century) and the modern historian Husain Bā-Salāma, the describes the situation in the early 20th century and evaluates the earlier literature. As can be seen from their lists, the number of gates decreased from 24 in the 9th century to 19 in the 15th century and finally increased again to 26 in the early 20th century. The names of the individual gates have also changed several times over the years. In the 9th century, many of the gates were named after the Quraishite clans who lived around the Kaaba in pre- and early Islamic times (e.g. Banū Schaiba, Banū Sahm, Banū Machzūm, Banū Jumah). In later times these tribal names were replaced by other names.
The individual gates were of different sizes: some had multiple arches, others only one. The Al-Safa gate through which the pilgrims usually left the mosque when they after Tawaf for Mas'ā went, was with five arches, the largest gateway. In the 15th century, the mosque had a total of 35 archways. In each archway there was a door with two door leaves . Several gates were also provided with a slip gate . It stayed open when the gate was closed at night.
Since the mosque was about three meters lower than its surroundings on all sides, most of the gates were provided with steps that led down to the mosque. The number of steps for the individual gates varied between nine and 15. However, the surface shape of the mosque had been basin-like since the late Middle Ages: the edges of the mosque were also raised compared to the outside environment. So if you wanted to enter the mosque, you first climbed a few steps up and then down several steps again. This basin-like edge of the mosque was laid out in 1426/27 and served to protect against flooding (see below).
As can be seen from Ibn Jubair's travelogue , it was the rule in the 12th century that pilgrims who came to the ʿUmra in Mecca entered the mosque through the Banū-Shaiba gate, circulated seven times and then through the as-Safā Gate. It later became common for ʿUmra pilgrims to enter the mosque through the Banū Sahm Gate. That is why this gate was called ʿUmra Gate from the 14th century.
|
al-Azraqī (d. 837) |
Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī (d. 1429) |
Husain Bā-Salāma (d. 1940) |
Number of archways |
Remarks | picture |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| East side (from north to south) | |||||
| 1. Banu Shaiba Gate | 1. Salam Gate | 1. Salam Gate | 3 | According to al-Azraqī, the gate was called Banū-ʿAbd-Shams- Gate in pre- and early Islamic times . At the beginning of the 10th century the front was decorated with a mosaic. Ibn Battūta writes that the caliphs used to enter the mosque through this gate. It is not clear why the gate was later called the Salām Gate (Bāb as-Salām) . At the beginning of the 20th century, pilgrims entered through this gate when they wanted to complete the arrival circuit (ṭawāf al-qudūm) . | |
| 2. Dār-al-Qawārīr Gate | 2. Gate of the Qā'itbāy Madrasa | 1 | The Dār-al-Qawārīr ("House of Crystal Glasses"), after which the gate is named, was a palace originally built for himself by the Barmakid Jafar ibn Yahyā. It was later confiscated by the Meccan governor Hammād al-Barbarī, who rebuilt it for Hārūn ar-Raschīd and equipped it with crystal glasses (qawārīr) inside . Around 1480 the Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy was built there. Early 20th century the gate consisted only of a small hatch. | ||
| 3. Prophet's Gate | 2. Gate of the funeral procession | 3. Prophet's Gate | 1/2 | The name “Prophet's Gate” (Bāb an-Nabī) comes from the fact that Mohammed is said to have used it when he went from his house to the mosque. The later name “gate of the funeral procession” (Bāb al-Ǧanāʾiz) is explained by the fact that the funeral procession left the mosque through this gate or was carried through this gate into the mosque so that the funeral prayer could be said about them. The gate was enlarged from one to two arches in the Middle Ages. | |
| 4. al-ʿAbbās gate | 3. al-ʿAbbās gate | 4. al-ʿAbbās gate | 3 | The name of the gate came from the fact that al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muttalib had his house nearby. The fronts and interiors of the three arches were decorated with mosaics in the early 10th century, and the walls were made of white, green, and red marble, as well as gold-plated marble. | |
| 5. Banū-Hashim Gate | 4. ʿAlī gate | 5. ʿAlī Gate | 3 |
|
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| South side (from east to west) | |||||
| 1. Banū ʿĀ'idh Gate | 1. Bāzān Gate | 1. Gate of the bier | 2 | The name Bāzān-Tor was derived from the fact that the water basin stood here, which was supplied with water by the ʿAin Bāzān . The later name “gate of the bier” (Bāb an-Nuʿūš) comes from the fact that the bier was carried out through this gate to the Jannat al-Muʿallā . | |
| 2. Banu Sufyan Gate | 2. Baghla Gate | 2. Baghla Gate | 2 | It was named after the Banū Sufyān ibn ʿAbd al-Asad. | |
| 3. as-Safā gate | 3. as-Safā gate | 3. as-Safā gate | 5 | The gate was directly at as-Safā and was the largest gate of the mosque. After al-Azraqī, the gate was also called Banū-Machzūm-Tor, after the Quraishite clan of Banū Machzūm, who lived at the gate, or Banū-ʿAdī-ibn-Kaʿb-Tor. The front and the inside of the arches were decorated with mosaics at the beginning of the 10th century, the two pillars of the middle arch were provided with gold-colored inscriptions. The walls of the gate were made of gold-plated marble as well as white, green, and red lapis lazuli-colored marble. |
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| 4. Banū Machzūm Gate I | 4. Small Ajyad Gate | 4. Small Ajyad Gate | 2 | ||
| 5. Banū Machzūm Gate II | 5. Mujāhidīya gate | 5. Ajyad Gate | 2 | In the time of al-Fāsī, it was also called the Gate of Mercy (Bāb ar-Raḥma) . The name Mujāhidīya comes from the fact that a madrasa was founded here by the Rasulid ruler Mujāhid (r. 1322-1363). |
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| 6. Banū Machzūm Gate III | 6. Gate of the Adschlan Madrasa | 6. Gate of the Adschlan Madrasa | 2 | In the time of al-Azraqī it was also called the Banū Taim Gate. Later the madrasa of the Sherif ʿAdschlān ibn Rumaitha (r. 1361-1375) gave the name. In the early 17th century it was called the Sherif Gate ( Bāb aš-šarīf ) because the house of the Sherif Surūr was across from it . In the early 20th century, the gate was named after the Egyptian hospice ( Takīya Miṣrīya ) in front of it, also Takīya-Tor. | |
| 7. Umm Hānī Gate | 7. Umm Hānī Gate | 7. Umm Hānī Gate | 2 | It was named after Umm Hānī, a daughter of Abū Tālib ibn ʿAbd al-Muttalib . It was also called the Malāʿiba Gate in the time of al-Fāsī. In the sixteenth century, this is the gate used by Mecca to enter the mosque. In the early 20th century, the gate was also called Hamīdīya Gate, after the Hamīdīya, the seat of the provincial government, which was located here. |
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| West side (from south to north) | |||||
| 1. Hizāmīya Gate | 1. Hazwara Gate | 1. Farewell gate | 2 | In the time of al-Azraqī, it was also called the Banū-Hakīm-ibn-Hizām Gate or Banū-Zubair Gate. Hazwara was the former market of Mecca. It later became customary for pilgrims to exit the mosque through this gate when they were leaving. Hence the name "Farewell Gate " (Bāb al-Widāʿ) | |
| 2. Grain Merchants Gate (Bāb al-ḥannāṭīn) | 3 | Was demolished in 914 during the expansion of the mosque. | |||
| 2. Ibrāhīm Gate | 2. Ibrāhīm Gate | 1 | The Ibrāhīm Gate, which had a very large arch, was only built in 914 when the mosque was being expanded. It was named after a tailor Ibrāhīm who sat here before it was built. | ||
| 3. Banu Jumah Gate | 2 | The gate had been built by the caliph al-Mansūr, who had a mosaic attached to the front. In 914 it was demolished when the western outer courtyard was being built. | |||
| 3. Nameless Gate | 1 | On the northern side of the Ibrāhīm extension | |||
| 4. Abū-l-Buchturī Gate | 4. Gate of the Ghālib Madrasa | 1/2 | The gate was extended to two archways. | ||
| 5. Nameless Gate | 5. Gate of the Dāwūdīya Madrasa | 1 | |||
| 6. Banū Sahm Gate | 3. ʿUmra Gate | 6. ʿUmra Gate | 1 | This gate was usually from the umra , used -Pilgern, who went out to Tan'im when entering and leaving the mosque. | |
| North side (from west to east) | |||||
| 1. Gate of ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀs | 1. Sudda Gate | 1. al-ʿAtīq Gate | 1 | Named after a notable named Ibn ʿAtīq who lived here. | |
| 2. Nameless gate, locked |
2. Gate of the Zimāmīya madrasa | 1 | |||
| 3. Dār-al-ʿAdjala Gate | 2. Dār-al-ʿAdjala Gate | 3. Bāsitīya Gate | 1 | The Dār al-ʿAdschala, after which the gate was first named, was a palace that ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair had built on this site. The later name Bāsitīya goes back to a madrasa that stood here and was donated by ʿAbd al-Bāsit, an officer of the Mamluk Sultan al- Ashraf Barsbay (r. 1422-38). | |
| 4. Quʿaiqiʿān Gate | 1 | It was also called the Hudjair-ibn-Abī-Ihāb-Tor. In 894 it was demolished in the course of the expansion of the mosque. | |||
| 3rd nameless gate | 4. Qutbi Gate | 1 | On the western side of the Dār-an-Nadwa extension, which was only built in 894. The name Qutbī-Tor is derived from the fact that it was located near the madrasa ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Qutbīs, the nephew of Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī . | ||
| 5. Gate of Dār an-Nadwa | Was demolished in 894 during the expansion of the mosque. | ||||
| 4. nameless gate | 5. Ziyāda Gate | 2/3 | On the western side of the Dār-an-Nadwa, which was only built in 894 mosque. The gate was expanded from two to three arches in the 16th century. In the 16th century it was known as the Suwaiqa Gate. | ||
| 6. Gate of the Shaiba ibn ʿUthmān | 1 | Was demolished in 894 during the expansion of the mosque. | |||
| 6. Court Gate | 1 | Was created during the construction of the Madāris Sulaimānīya . Since one of the schools later became the seat of the court, it was called the court gate (Bāb al-Maḥkama) . | |||
| 7. Sulaimānīya Gate | 1 | Around the middle of the 20th century it was also called the Library Gate ( Bāb al-Kutubḫana ) because it was used to get into the library of the Holy Mosque. | |||
| 5. Duraiba Gate | 8. Duraiba Gate | 1 | So called because through this gate a small path ( darb ) led to Suwaiqa. | ||
During the first Saudi expansion, the old gates of the mosque were torn down and new main gates were erected at three corners, each with three entrances, the King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Gate in the southwest, the dasUmra Gate in the northwest and the Salām Gate in the northeast ( today Fath Gate). The individual entrances are 5.38 meters high and 3.10 meters wide. Each main gate is preceded by a large vestibule, which is followed by a wide passage through which one can get into the interior of the mosque. In addition to these main gates, numerous smaller gates were built, so that the number of gates of the mosque after the first expansion was 61. Some of the old gate names have been retained. As the fourth main gate in the style of the existing gates, the King Fahd Gate was added to the new extension on the western side during the third expansion.
The minarets
The first two minarets of the al-Haram mosque were built at the end of the 8th century by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur on the north side of the mosque. While the minaret in the northeast corner was demolished during the expansion of his son al-Mahdī, the minaret in the northwest corner at the Banū-Sahm gate remained. Under al-Mahdī, the mosque received three more minarets, which were erected at the other three corners of the building and equipped with battlements . The southeastern minaret was called the Meccans Minaret . For a long time, an ascetic named Abū l-Hajjāj al-Churāsānī lived on the northeastern minaret and prayed there day and night. He only came down on Fridays to attend Friday prayers . In 918, Muhammad ibn Mūsā had a fifth minaret built on the outer courtyard of the Dār-an-Nadwa extension.
Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Isfahānī (died 1164), the vizier of ʿImād ad-Dīn Zengi , had the minaret built by al-Mansūr over the Banū-Sahm- Renew gate. Ibn Jubair , who visited the mosque in the late 12th century, describes that in his time it had seven minarets, four in the four corners, two in the outer courtyards and another small one above the as-Safā gate, which indicated its location , but could not be climbed because of its narrowness. The individual minarets were designed individually, but the lower half consisted of a square base made of finely hewn stones and the upper half of a column made of fired bricks. In the middle and at the top there were two finely crafted wooden balustrades.
The two minarets above the Ibrāhīm gate and the as-Safā gate were later demolished, so that the mosque only had five minarets in the 14th century. The minaret above the Hazwara Gate in the southwest corner collapsed in 1369 without harming people. Al-Ashraf Shabān , Sultan of the Mamluks in Egypt from 1363 to 1377, had it rebuilt the following year. In February 1407, the minaret above the Banū-Shaiba gate in the southeast corner also collapsed. This time, the repairs were carried out by Sultan Faraj ibn Barqūq . It could be completed by April 1409. A new sixth minaret was built by Sunqur al-Jamālī over the Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy around 1480 . In May 1504 it was partially destroyed by a lightning strike in a storm, but it was restored in the same year.
In 1524/25 the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I had the two minarets in the north-west and south-east corners, which were built in the style of the Egyptian minarets, torn down and rebuilt in Ottoman style with a point. A new seventh minaret was built in 1565/66 by the Ottoman builder Qāsim Bey from yellow Shumaisī stone over the Madāris Sulaimānīya . It was also in Ottoman style, had three balconies and was considerably higher than the other minarets. According to their locations, the seven minarets were called 1. Umra Gate Minaret, 2. Salām Gate Minaret, 3. Alī Gate Minaret, 4. Farewell Gate Minaret, 5. Ziyāda Gate Minaret, 6. Sultān-Qā 'itbāy Minaret and 7th Sulaimānīya Minaret. In the early morning, a long series of litanies and praises were usually recited by the muezzins on the minarets. At the end of the morning the call to prayer followed .
During the Saudi expansion of the mosque, the old minarets, which were of different heights, were replaced by seven new minarets in other locations with a height of 95 meters and a uniform appearance. Six of these were put together in pairs at the corners of the mosque, where they flank the three main entrances, the Fath Gate, the ʿUmra Gate and the King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Gate, the seventh gate being next to the dome of as-Safā built. The minarets were clad with marble slabs on the outside and each have two octagonal balconies, a larger one in the middle and a smaller one at the top, both of which are covered by a canopy with green roof tiles. Inside there are spiral stairs that lead to the balconies. Two more minarets were later built over the King Fahd Gate, increasing their number to nine. Overall, the number of minarets is to be increased to 13 in the course of the expansion currently taking place.
The buildings in the inner courtyard
The central building in the inner courtyard of the mosque was and is the Kaaba with the black stone and the hijr, in which Ishmael's tomb is said to be. In front of the corner with the black stone, the building of the Zamzam fountain was located on an area covered with marble slabs until the middle of the 20th century. This was expanded in 1541/42 by the Ottoman official Emir Hoschgeldi. Since then it has had a second floor with a ceiling made of decorated wood. Above it was a hipped roof with a small dome in the middle.
To the east of the Kaaba were the building of the Maqām Ibrāhīm, the Banū-Shaiba gate and the minbar for the Chutba until the middle of the 20th century . The Banu Shaiba Gate consisted of an arch that rested on two marble pillars. On it the Quranic claim “Enter into them safely and in peace” (Sura 15:46) was appropriate. In addition, pavilions were set up around the Kaaba, where the believers from the four different Sunni schools of law performed in separate prayer groups (see below). In the time of Ibn Jubair these consisted of two wooden pegs each, which were connected to each other like a ladder by rungs and were fixed on plaster plinths that barely rose from the ground. A crossbeam was nailed to the top of this structure, to which iron hooks for the glass lamps were attached. In between there was a prayer niche . At the beginning of the 15th century, the pavilions were expanded and the wooden pegs were replaced by stone pillars. The upper level of the Hanafite pavilion, which was particularly large, served during the Ottoman time also as a stand of the so-called mukabbirūn , the mosque employees who during prayers from an elevated location from the Takbeer so that the praying more distant knew the Imam according repeated, when to continue with their prayer movements.
On the eastern side of the Zamzam building, a qubba-shaped building was built in the fourth century of the hijra (= 10th century AD) , which was used to store equipment. Candles, cushions for the minbar, candlesticks and copies of the Koran were kept here. The building is already mentioned by Ibn Jubair as the "Jewish Qubba", but it is not explained how this name came about. Later this building was called Qubbat al-farrāšīn ("Qubba the carpet -broader "). Behind this qubba another qubba was built in 1404/05, which was called the ʿAbbās potion (siqāyat al-ʿAbbās) . Inside it was a basin that was connected to the Zamzam building by a pipe. The zamzam water was poured into this pipe so that people could drink it in the potion. However, this custom was abandoned in the 17th century. Immediately behind this building was another smaller building, in which devices for lighting and extinguishing the lamps, the monthly lamp oil and additional lamps, which were lit on the maqam on especially holy nights, were kept. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Ottoman master builder Hasan Pascha built a new building near the Baghla Gate to store the lamp oil and the lamp lighters. From then on, the original building for their storage was used for the storage of the Surr, i.e. the donations for the residents of Mecca, for several years. However, this reorganization did not prevail.
During the rule of the Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid I (r. 1839–1861), the ʿAbbās trough was converted into a small library and furnished with valuable books. The other Qubba building was used for timing and star observation. After a flood severely damaged the two Qubba buildings and the items they contained, they were demolished in 1883/84. In this way, more space was created for those praying at the same time. The books of the ʿAbbās potions were moved to the library of the Madāris Sulaimānīya .
The other buildings near the Kaaba were demolished in the middle of the 20th century during the extensive expansion of the mosque under King Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz, as the Matāf, i.e. the place on which the circulation around the Kaaba The Maqāme of the Hanbalites, Malikites and Hanafis were removed in 1957, the building of the Zamzam Fountain, on which the Maqām of the Shafiites was located at that time, in 1963, and the gate of the Banū Shaiba in 1967. The Zamzam fountain was relocated to an air-conditioned basement room under the matāf, which had an area of about 100 square meters, had separate entrances and areas for men and women, and was accessible via a staircase from the eastern part of the mosque courtyard.
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As a replacement for the Hanafi maqām, which had also served as a stand for the Mukabbirūn, the Mukabbirīya was built in 1967 on the south side of the mosque as a new rectangular building with two floors. It also served as the starting point for the transmission of the call to prayer and as a broadcasting center for the transmission of radio and television programs from the Holy Mosque to the Islamic world. In order to increase the area for the tawāf again, the entrance to the Zamzam cellar was relocated again in 1979 to the eastern edge of the mosque courtyard. In this way, the area of the Matāf was increased from 3298 to 8500 square meters. The Zamzam basement was expanded at the same time to an area of 1210 square meters so that it could now accommodate 2500 people.
The minbar
After al-Azraqī, Muʿāwiya ibn Sufyān was the first to equip the mosque with a minbar. He is said to have brought this minbar, which had three steps, with him from Syria when he went on a pilgrimage. When Hārūn ar-Raschīd went on a pilgrimage later, his governor in Egypt, Mūsā ibn ʿĪsā, gave him a new, large carved minbar with nine steps, which from then on served as the minbar of Mecca, while the old minbar was brought to ʿArafāt. Later, various Abbasid caliphs had new wooden minbars built for the mosque. However, when in 1077 the vizier al-Muqtadīs sent a new splendid minbar to Mecca, on which was engraved that al-Muqtadī was the "commander of the believers", this was burned in Mecca because the Sherif of Mecca shortly before Assumed Fatimids . Ibn Jubair , who visited the Holy Mosque at the end of the 12th century, describes that the minbar was in front of the Maqām Ibrāhīm and stood on four wheels. Other new wooden minbars were donated by the Mamluk rulers of Egypt in the 14th and 15th centuries. Around the middle of the 15th century, the Chutba was kept on a minbar that al-Mu'aiyad Sheikh had sent to Mecca along with a Kaaba staircase during the Hajj in 1416.
All of these wooden minbars were movable. For the Chutba they were pushed directly against the Kaaba wall between the Black Corner and the Yemeni Corner. After the end of the Chutba, they were pushed back to their place next to the Zamzam well. In 1558/59 Sultan Suleyman then sent a very finely crafted marble minbar to Mecca, which was firmly anchored in the ground. It remained in the mosque courtyard until the middle of the 20th century. In 1963 it was moved seven meters further outwards as part of the expansion of the Matāf. It was dismantled and reassembled at the new location. In 1977 or 1978 he was transferred again when the Matāf was expanded, this time to the area outside the mosque courtyard. Finally, it was badly damaged during the occupation of the Holy Mosque in 1979 . The remains have been deposited and are to be exhibited in the Haram Museum in the future. A small wooden minbar on wheels was then used as a replacement, which, as in pre-Ottoman times, was pushed near the Kaaba for the Chutba. In 2002/2003 King Fahd had a new marble minbar built on wheels with seven steps and a two-winged door. It has been used in the Holy Mosque ever since.
Flooring
As the Meccan historian al-Fākihī (9th century) reports, the floor of the mosque was littered with pebbles for an amount of 400 dinars or less annually until the middle of the 9th century . Taking any of the pebbles from the mosque was not allowed. The Meccan scholar Mujahid ibn Jabr (died 722) is quoted as saying that one should shout when someone violates this commandment. After the Tālibide Ismāʿīl ibn Yūsuf had instigated an uprising in 865, the annual sprinkling of the ground with pebbles ceased. Only when a certain Bishop al-Chādim came to Mecca in 870, this maintenance measure was carried out again. However, the gravel floor was completely washed away in 875 after rains that flooded the mosque. A certain Muhammad al-Lutfī, who had camels in Mecca, then had new gravel brought in from a place called ʿAly and covered the floor of the mosque with it. Al-Fākihī reports that when people settled in the mosque they usually spread felt mats (lubūd) or velvet rugs (ṭanāfis) among themselves.
When Ibn Jubair visited Mecca in the late 12th century, the place where the tawāf was performed was covered with smooth, interlocking stones of various colors (black, brown and white) that looked as beautiful as marble. The rest of the floor of the mosque with the porticoed halls was covered with white sand. In 1426/27 the two Egyptian officials Saʿd ad-Dīn al-Fūwī and Shāhīn al-ʿUthmānī had the entire floor of the Holy Mosque plowed with cattle. The earth was cleared, piled in piles and taken to the lower part of Mecca by workers on donkeys. The floor of the mosque was then re-covered with finely sieved gravel from Dhū Tuwā in the lower part of Mecca and from Wadi at-Tunbudāwī.
In 1594 the matāf, i.e. the place where the tawāf was performed , was paved with real marble. In addition, four walkways were laid that connected the Matāf with the Peace Gate, Safā Gate, ʿUmra Gate and Hazwara Gate. When Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Mecca in 1814, the number of these sidewalks had already increased to seven. They were wide enough for four to five people to walk on them, and were about nine inches above the ground. Like the floor in the arcades, they were paved with plaster stones.
On the ground between the sidewalks, which was still covered with pebbles, jugs of Zamzam water lay in long rows during the day. The water that came out of these jugs caused grass to grow in places. The gravel was also often soaked with cleaning water. As the afternoon prayer approached, the Mutauwifs spread kilims and prayer rugs on the gravel for the pilgrims to perch on. However, some people also sat directly on the gravel and spent several hours on it while they waited for the Friday prayer and the chutba . It was not until 1979 that the mosque courtyard was completely paved with stone slabs, so that now its entire area could be used for the tawāf.
Flood prevention devices
A climatic peculiarity of Mecca is that it often comes to heavy rains with floods of great extent. Many of these floods also submerged the Holy Mosque. It was particularly prone to such floods because it is located at a particularly low point in the city, which belongs to a wadi , the so-called Wādī Ibrāhīm. As can be seen from the Chronicle of al-Azraqī , there were already several flash floods (suyūl) triggered by rainfalls in early Islamic times , which submerged the Holy Mosque.
The mosque's susceptibility to flooding increased when, when al-Mahdī expanded the mosque to the south in 780, the original water bed, over which these flash floods ran, was covered and incorporated into the mosque. As al-Azraqī reports, the builders had therefore raised strong objections to the plan to expand the mosque in this direction, but the caliph disregarded these concerns. In order to keep the damage as low as possible, the gates for the expansion of the mosque were laid out in such a way that in the event of flash floods coming from the Wādī Ibrāhīm from the north, the water could flow through the mosque as far as possible without touching the Kaaba: It was supposed to flow in through the Banū-Hāshim gate and drain through the Hizāmīya gate on the opposite side. Later, a canal was built below the Banu Jumah Gate through which the water could drain underground. This underground canal continued to exist after the western outer courtyard was built and was renewed several times, for example at the beginning of the 16th century. The Egyptian official Shāhīn al-ʿUthmānī also had steps built from the outside at the gates of the mosque in 1426/27 to protect the mosque from flooding. The flood protection of the Holy Mosque often did not work, however, because the lower, western part of Mecca was flooded by another torrent during heavy rainfalls, so that the water could not flow away in this direction and was stuck in the mosque. This resulted in severe flooding of the Holy Mosque roughly once every ten years, which required extensive cleaning and repair measures.
Another problem was that during floods, the street south of the mosque, through which the floodwater flowed, was regularly covered with mud, which over time caused a sharp rise in the ground here. Of the 15 steps that you originally had to climb to the mosque, only about three were visible in the 1570s. So it happened that during a heavy rain on 10th Jumādā I 983 (= 17th August 1575) the Holy Mosque was flooded again, even before the Ottoman work on its redesign was completed. The water penetrated into the mosque courtyard and rose so far that it covered the black stone . The water in the mosque yard stood for a day and a half, so that no prayers could be held there during this time. In order to avoid future floods, the Ottoman master builder Ahmad Beg had the floor of the street on the south side of the Holy Mosque, which served as a drainage channel for flood water, lowered at his own expense. In addition, the houses and madrasa schools standing there , which obstructed the drainage of the water, were demolished in order to enlarge this canal . One of the buildings that fell victim to this action was a ribāt belonging to the Bahmani Sultan of Gulbarga . Ahmad Beg also had a wide underground canal called al-ʿInaba built on the north side of the mosque at the Ziyāda gate, where the rainwater from the mountains Quʿaiqiʿān, al-Falaq and al-Qirāra, which drains the water from them when there is a flood Bergen drained underground to the Ibrāhīm Gate, from where it could then flow into the lower part of Mecca. This was to prevent water from entering the mosque from this side during flash floods.
Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī, who witnessed these construction works, pointed out in his chronicle the need to inspect the two drainage channels every two or three years and to clean them of accumulated soil in order to prevent future flooding of the Holy Mosque. He also recommended that the Ottoman Sultan stipulate this in a law so that he would not have to reorder it every time. Apparently, his recommendations were not followed, because in the period that followed, the Holy Mosque was repeatedly flooded. One of the worst floods occurred in 1630. During this flood, the Kaaba was badly damaged and some of it collapsed. After a flood in 1681 that flooded the Holy Mosque again, the steps on the outside of the mosque were raised to prevent water from entering the mosque in the future. But this measure did not have much effect either. Other severe flash floods that submerged the Holy Mosque occurred in 1696, 1861, 1909 and 1941.
During the first Saudi expansion of the mosque, a new covered drainage channel was built to ward off floods. It is five meters wide and four to six meters high and directs the water of the flash floods coming from the Wādī Ibrāhīm south of the mosque.
The flood of 1630 with the damaged Kaaba, from Eyüb Sabri
The 1941 flood
Flood in the 1960s
lighting
The Meccan historian al-Azraqī reports that his ancestor ʿUqba ibn al-Azraq was the first to introduce lighting for those who went around the Kaaba at night. He was able to do this because his house was right next to the Kaaba. He put a large lantern on the wall. The caliph Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān (r. 661-680) then regularly allocated lamps and oil to the mosque from the state treasury. When Chālid al-Qasrī took over the governorship of Mecca under ʿAbd al-Malik, he installed a lamp at the Zamzam spring and at the same time forbade the ʿUqbas family to continue lighting their house.
The early Abbasids attached much greater importance to the lighting of the mosque: It was now illuminated at night with a total of 455 hanging lamps. The caliph al-Wāthiq (r. 842–847) had ten long brass pillars built around the Kaaba on which lamps for the people who performed the tawāf were hung. They came from the castle of the Bābak in Armenia, where they had lit the courtyard of his house. After the execution of Bābak in 838 they were sent to Mecca by al-Muʿtasim (r. 833-842). Al-Wāthiq also had eight brass chandeliers hung in the Holy Mosque, two on each side. They were only put into operation in Ramadan and during the pilgrimage season.
Around the middle of the 14th century, 32 new columns were erected around the Matāf, the place where the Tawāf was performed. 18 of them were made of plaster-covered bricks, 14 of finely chiselled stone. Wooden poles were attached to these pillars from which lamps were hung. Overall, however, the illumination of the mosque at this time was considerably more modest than in the early Abbasid period. Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī (died 1429) reports that in his day it was only lit with 93 lamps. Thirty of them hung on the pillars around the Matāf, eleven on the north side of the mosque, eight on the south side and seven on the east and west sides respectively. Five more hung on each of the four maqāme (see below ), four on the maqām Ibrāhīm, three in the Dār-an-Nadwa outer courtyard, one in the outer courtyard on the west side and one from the outside at the Banū-Shaiba gate. In Ramadan and during the pilgrimage season, however, the number of lamps was increased. For example, 30 additional lamps were hung on the pillars of the Matāf. In the last ten nights of Ramadan, the night before the festival, as well as in the new moon nights of the months Rajab and Rabīʿ I , torches were also lit on the four maqāmen.
In the year 932 (= 1525/26 AD) Sultan Suleyman I had the stone columns around the Matāf replaced by a series of thin copper columns. The pillars were now connected to each other by wire to which the lighting was attached. In the Ottoman period, the mosque seems to have been illuminated more strongly again. As the Meccan historian ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd al-Qādir at-Tabarī (died 1660) reports, there were again 450 lamps in the mosque during his time. 224 of them were on the edge of the Matāf, the rest were in the arcades. The 224 lamps of the Matāf were grouped in 32 candlesticks of seven lamps each. Five of the lamps were lit only for ' Isha ' prayer and then extinguished. The other two burned until morning. When the Fajr prayer was called to prayer , the remaining five were lit again. After the prayer of the Hanafi prayer group, all lamps were then extinguished. In addition to the lamps, 24 candles were lit each night, two for each of the four maqāme and the others around the matāf. On the full moon nights around the middle of the month, however, these candles were not used. The daily consumption of the lamps of the Holy Mosque was 32 to 40 ratls of oil. However, this also included various lamps in religiously significant places outside the mosque. The oil for this was brought from Egypt.
The Meccan historian Muhammad as-Sabbāgh (died 1903) reports that in the late 1830s the mother of the Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I sent six brass columns to Mecca that were five cubits long and had a palm-shaped top. They were distributed in the Holy Mosque and placed on stone pedestals. Six lamps were attached to each column. These lamp holders, called “trees” (šaǧar) , remained in the mosque until the early 1940s. In addition, all the domes of the roof were fitted with chains that were lowered and from which glass pots with lamps were hung. Abdülmecit also had iron crossbars attached to the front pillars of the arcades, each with five lamps. These burned from the beginning of the month of Ramadan until the 20th Dhū l-Hiddscha . There were a total of 600 lamp pots. There were also 384 lamps in the porticoes, 283 lamps around the matāf and the lamps on the maqāmen, the domes, the gates, the lamp trees and the minarets. In the time of Abdülhamid II (reigned 1876–1909) a total of 1872 lamps were lit in the mosque during the Hajj .
According to Muhammad Tāhir al-Kurdī (died 1980) the lamps used in the Holy Mosque consisted of hemispherical glass vessels with a small base and a wide upper opening without a lid that was easily accessible by hand. A glass was placed in the cavity of each of these vessels, half of which was filled with water and a quarter filled with oil, with the oil floating on top. In the middle of the glass was a fine wick that was lit when night fell. At the edge of the opening of the vessel were three handles with chains attached to hang the lamps.
After the Sherif Husain ibn ʿAlī had made himself independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1916, he replaced the oil lamps in the mosque with kerosene lamps from the Joseph Lucas & Son company . In 1920 he introduced electric lighting in the mosque by illuminating the matāf with 105 light bulbs . They were powered by a generator with an output of 3 kilowatts , which was installed in the Umm-Hānī-Madrasa. In 1921 this generator was replaced by a generator that was twice as powerful and could supply a total of 300 lamps in the mosque with electricity. In 1927 an Indian trader from Rangoon donated a new generator with 30 kilowatts to the mosque, which went into operation that same year. Since its output was insufficient to supply 1000 lamps with electricity as planned, another generator with 13½ HP was purchased in 1930 on the orders of the Saudi King Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud . In 1934, the Indian Zamindar Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan (died 1935) finally donated a new generator to the mosque, which was powered by a 52 hp engine. She was picked up by the Meccan electrical engineer Ismāʿīl Dhabīh in India. He also brought cables, lamps, chandeliers, and spotlights that Muslims from Lucknow , Kanpur, and Karachi had donated to the Holy Mosque. The new plant was put into operation at the end of 1934. The output of the new generator was sufficient to operate 1,300 electric lamps. They had the luminosity of around 35,000 candles and thus illuminated the mosque 20 times more than the oil lamps that had been in use 20 years earlier.
After the Saudi Electricity Company was founded by the Juffali brothers and a general electricity network was set up in Mecca, the al-Haram Mosque was connected to this electricity network on Safar 14, 1373 (= October 23, 1953), thereby creating the possibilities for electrical power Illumination of the building complex was once again enlarged. During the third expansion after 1988, the mosque was fitted with chandeliers, lanterns and fluorescent lamps inside , and particularly powerful spotlights were attached to the edges of the roof to illuminate the inner courtyard and roof surfaces, “which turns night into day”.
Sun protection devices
Since the solar radiation is particularly strong in Mecca, efforts have been made again and again to shield the mosque courtyard with shady elements. For example, as early as the late 7th century, the companions of ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair pitched tents in the mosque courtyard to protect them from the sun . And during the caliphate of Hārūn ar-Rashīd (r. 796–809), sun protection devices for the muezzins were installed at the mosque . So far, they had been sitting in the sun on the roof of the mosque during the Friday service in summer and winter. Hārūn ar-Rashīd's governor ʿAbdallāh had a shade roof (ẓulla) built for them on the roof , from which they could sound the call to prayer while the Imam was on the minbar. The caliph al-Mutawakkil had this shade roof torn down during a renovation of the mosque in 854/55 and rebuilt in a larger form.
The Meccan historian ʿUmar Ibn Fahd (died 1480) reports that in 1406 the Sultan of Cambay in Gujarat sent a number of tents as a gift to the Sherif of Mecca . In an accompanying letter, he said that he had heard that the people in the Holy Mosque on Friday would not find anything that could give them shade while listening to the Chutba . Since a number of scholars would have found it good that people could take this opportunity to protect themselves from the sun, he sent the tents. The Sherif had the tents pitched around the Kaaba for a short time. Then there were complaints because people stumbled over the tent ropes, whereupon they were brought to him. In the early 15th century, some pilgrims put up tents again in the mosque yard to protect themselves from the sun. However, since there were mixed societies of men, women and children in these tents, some of whom were very noisy, the tents were banned.
The setting up of tents in the mosque courtyard was briefly revived at the beginning of the Saudi rule. When the number of pilgrims was particularly high in the Hajj of 1927, which fell in June, and the space in the mosque became narrow, the Saudi king had such tents set up in the mosque courtyard so that the prayers could be protected from the prayers during the midday and afternoon prayers Could find sun. More than 10,000 pilgrims prayed in these tents. In the years that followed, ʿAbd al-Azīz had awnings set up on the four sides of the courtyard during the pilgrimage season to provide shade for the pilgrims from the midday heat. They were removed after the pilgrims left. After the first expansion of the Holy Mosque, these sun protection devices were completely removed.
Buildings adjacent to the mosque
In order to offer accommodation to pilgrims who stayed in Mecca after the end of the pilgrimage to study religious sciences in the Holy Mosque, various Muslim rulers and private individuals had madrasas built on the sides of the mosque from the 13th century . Among the most significant madrasas that were built around the Holy Mosque were three dedicated to the four Sunni disciplines , namely:
- the Ghiyāthīya madrasa in the southwest corner of the mosque. It was founded in 1410 by the Bengali sultan Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Aʿzam Schāh (r. 1390-1410).
- the Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy between the mosque and the Masʿā, i.e. the running route between as-Safā and al-Marwa . It was founded in 1480 by the Mamluk sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy (r. 1468-1496) and received a sabīl , a minaret, a ribāt and a library .
- the Madāris Sulaimānīya on the north side of the mosque between the northeast corner and the Bāb az-Ziyāda. It was built between 1565 and 1570 by order of the Ottoman sultan Suleyman I (r. 1520–66).
Evliya Çelebi (died 1683) mentions that in his time there were a total of forty madrasas on the four sides of the Holy Mosque. However, these facilities soon lost their function as educational institutions because they were misused as hostels or their foundation assets were misappropriated. Administrators and officials made their own homes in the buildings, renting out the apartments, valued because of their proximity to the mosque, to distinguished pilgrims or wealthy residents of Mecca, so that only the names remained of these institutions. When Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje stayed in Mecca for several months at the end of the 19th century, many Meccans advised him on arrival to rent one of the available madrasas in whole or in part. He sums up the situation of the Meccan madrasas in his time with the words:
“ All in all , the word madrasah in Mecca has therefore acquired the meaning of an elegant house adjoining the mosque, without the population thinking of its original purpose. [...] Scientific life in Mecca does not receive the slightest nourishment from the Madrasahs ; as before, the mosque is also a university building [...] "
Most of the madrasas in the vicinity of the Holy Mosque could be reached directly from it via small passages in the mosque wall. In addition, there were doors in the mosque wall that led to depots and shops of mosque servants and Zamzam sheikhs, who sometimes used them for bathing and ritual washing of important pilgrims with Zamzam water.
The name al-masǧid al-ḥarām
The expression al-masǧid al-ḥarām , with which the al-Harām mosque is now used in Arabic, seems to have been known in Arabia as early as pre-Islamic times. So swore Qais ibn al-Chatīm, the most important poet in pre-Islamic Yathrib , in a poem "in Allah , the Lord of the Masjid Haram, and that which has been covered with Yemeni substances" (wa-llâhi di l-masǧidi l-Harami wa-mā ǧullila min yumnatin) . It is very likely that this meant the Meccan sanctuary with the Kaaba covered by the kiswa .
Statements in the Koran
The expression al-masǧid al-ḥarām occurs a total of 15 times in the Koran , six of them in Sura 2 , three times in Sura 9 and two times in Sura 48 . Rudi Paret usually translates the term as "holy place of worship", Hartmut Bobzin as "holy place of worship" or "holy place of prayer". The earliest mention comes from the Mediterranean Meccan period . In Sura 17: 1 God is praised for letting his servant travel at night from the “holy place of prayer” (al-masǧid al-ḥarām) to the “most distant place of prayer” (al-masǧid al-aqṣā) .
In Sura 2: 117 it is branded as a great sin that the opponents of Muhammad keep the believers away from the Masjid Haram. In Sura 8:34, Meccans who behave in this way are threatened with divine punishment. Three passages in the text (Sura 2: 144, 2: 149 and 2: 150) define the Masjid Haram as the new Qibla . Sura 2: 191 forbids believers to fight their opponents at the Masjid Haram if they are not attacked by them themselves there. Sura 22:25 affirms that God established the Masjid Haram for people, both for those who live there and for those who live in the desert. Anyone who engages in heresy there is also threatened with punishment. In Sura 5: 2, believers are warned not to act violently out of hatred of those who keep them from the Masjid Haram. In Sura 48:25 the listeners are reminded that it was the unbelievers who kept them from the Masjid Haram, in Sura 48:27 they are promised that - if God wills - they will enter the Masjid Haram in safety, with hair clipped or trimmed without fear.
The three passages in sura 9 probably come from the time after the capture of Mecca in January 630. Sura 9: 7 mentions a contract that the believers made with the associates at the Masjid Haram . Sura 9:19 emphasizes that the maintenance of Masjid Haram is not on the same level as belief in God and jihad in God's way . This is the reason for the prohibition in the two preceding verses (Sura 9: 17f) that in the future co-sellers will no longer be allowed to maintain places of worship. Sura 9:28 pronounces the prohibition that after a year the co-customers are no longer allowed to approach the Masjid Haram, and justifies this with the fact that they are unclean . Sura 2: 196 lays down rules of atonement for those who do not live in the Masjid Haram when the state of consecration is interrupted during pilgrimage.
There is broad agreement among Muslim Koran exegetes that the expression al-Masjid al-Haram , which is used in the Koran, does not mean the al-Haram mosque as a building, because it did not exist at the time of Muhammad, but that Meccan sanctuary. In doing so, however, they drew the boundaries differently. The Basrian Koran exegete Qatāda ibn Diʿāma said that the Masjid Harām mentioned in Sura 22:25 meant Mecca. Al-Māwardī (died 1058) was of the opinion that the Haram was meant in all the Koranic passages in which al-Masjid al-Harām is mentioned. In his opinion, a proof of this was sura 17: 1, because it is known that the starting point of the ascension of Muhammad , to which the verse is supposed to refer, was the house of Hadidja bint Chuwailid . In his opinion, the only exception was the statement in Sura 2: 144 "Turn your face in the direction of the holy place of worship", because the Kaaba is meant here . In modern science, too, it is assumed that the expression al-Masjid al-Haram does not mean the al-Haram mosque. Arent Jan Wensinck suspected that the Koranic statements in which the Masjid Haram is mentioned refer generally to Mecca.
From Sanctuary to Mosque: Discussions on Expression in Early Islamic Times
Al-Azraqī reports that there were discussions among early Islamic scholars about the meaning of the term al-masǧid al-ḥarām . While Meccan scholars such as ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbbās (died 688) and ʿAtā 'ibn Abī Rabāh (died around 732) continued to take the view that this term referred to the entire district of the haram of Mecca, others have now drawn the boundaries of the Masjid Harām closer. The companion of the Prophet ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAmr (died around 684) is quoted as saying: "The foundation of the Masjid Harām that Abraham laid extends from al-Hazwara to the Masʿā to the outflow of the flood of Ajyād". Al-Hazwara was the former market of Mecca. The Masʿā is the road between as-Safā and al-Marwa , and Adschyād, a low-lying area west of as-Safā, where the water ran off during floods. ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAmr identified al-Masjid al-Harām with the newly constructed mosque building. Abū Huraira thought that this meaning of the word could even be found in the Koran. He is quoted in Al-Azraqī as saying: "We find in the Book of God that the boundary of the Masjid Harām extends from al-Hazwara to the Masʿā."
A hadeeth narrated by the Meccan scholar Ibn Juraidsch (died 767) from ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbbās says that “the house”, i.e. the Kaaba, is the qibla for the people of the masjid, the masjid is the qibla for the people of the haram, and the Haram, the Qibla for the rest of the earth's inhabitants in the east and west from the Islamic Umma . This shows that the Masjid of Mecca was no longer identified with the Haram at this time, but was viewed as a narrower district that immediately surrounded the Kaaba.
For later generations of Muslims it was taken for granted that al-masǧid al-ḥarām is the name of the mosque around the Kaaba. For example, the Shafiite legal scholar az-Zarkaschī (died 1392), who discusses the various Koranic meanings of al-masǧid al-ḥarām in his mosque book, explains that they are all limited to the Koran only, but after the ʿUrf with al -masǧid al-ḥarām means the mosque in which the tawāf is performed. One could also say: "We were in the Masjid Harām, we have left the Masjid Harām, we have performed the Iʿtikāf in the Masjid Harām , we have stayed in it."
Religious meaning
Hadith on the high value of prayer in the al-Haram mosque
In the first generations of Muslims, numerous hadiths were disseminated about the high value of prayer in the mosque of Mecca. A hadith narrated by Abū Huraira and also included in the Saheeh al-Buchari says that prayer in the Prophet's mosque is a thousand times better than a prayer elsewhere, with the exception of the Holy Mosque. From this the Muslim scholars have concluded that the otherworldly reward for worship in the Holy Mosque is greater than in the Prophet's Mosque.
In the Meccan chronicles of al-Azraqī (died 837) and al-Fākihī (late 9th century) traditions are given with even more specific information about the value of a prayer in the Holy Mosque. In a hadith quoted by al-Azraqī, it is stated that prayer in the Holy Mosque is 25,000 times better than prayer in other mosques. ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair is quoted as saying that the Prophet said that the prayer in the Holy Mosque of Mecca is a hundred times better than that in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. A hadith, which is traced back to the Prophet via Anas ibn Mālik , describes a multilevel hierarchy of places with different values for prayer: According to this, a man's prayer at home has the value of a prayer; if he prays in a tribal mosque, as was customary in early Islamic times, it counts as 25 prayers; his prayer in a Friday mosque counts as 500 prayers, his prayer in the al-Aqsā Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque counts as 50,000 prayers, and his prayer in the Holy Mosque counts as 100,000 prayers.
In a hadith cited by al-Fākihī after ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbbās , even higher numbers are given: a prayer performed individually in the Holy Mosque is said to be worth 100,000 ordinary prayers, a prayer in a group is worth 1,500,000 prayers. Wahb ibn Munabbih is quoted as saying that he saw written in the Torah that God credits 12.5 million prayers to those who offer his five prayers in the Holy Mosque. The companion of the Prophet ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd , who otherwise thought that it was best for women to pray at home, regarded prayer in the Holy Mosque as the only exception because, in his opinion, it was also better for women than praying at home Home.
Chidr stories were also spread to highlight the high value of prayer in the Holy Mosque . According to a well-known tradition, which is traced back to the Syrian traditionalist Shahr ibn Hauschab (died 718), al-Khidr prayed in the Holy Mosque every Friday. Only in the Maliki school of law , in which the teaching tradition of Medina has been preserved, was the value of prayer in the Holy Mosque judged differently. Here it was thought that the prayer in the Prophet's Mosque was more deserving than the prayer in the Holy Mosque.
al-Masjid al-Haram as the oldest place of prayer on earth
According to a hadith that was included in various collections, including the Saheeh al-Buchari , Abū Dharr al-Ghifari reported that he once asked the Messenger of God what was the first place of prayer (masǧid) that was established on earth . Thereupon the Messenger of God replied: "al-Masjid al-Haram". When Abū Dharr asked what was the second oldest place of prayer, he replied: “al-Masjid al-Aqsā”, and when asked, stated that it was built forty years later.
The Muslim scholars understood this hadith to mean that "al-Masjid al-harām" is the name for the Meccan sanctuary built by Abraham and "al-Masjid al-Aqsā" is the name for the Jerusalem temple built by Solomon . The only problem they were faced with was that, according to the history books, the distance between the two rulers was considerably greater than forty years. The Meccan scholar Abū Bakr ibn ʿAlī Ibn Zahīra (died 1484) solved the problem by assuming that both buildings had an even older history: the Meccan sanctuary was built by Adam and the Jerusalem sanctuary by one of his descendants . Abraham and Solomon would then only have renewed the buildings.
Another hadith, which is traced back to the Prophet via Abū Huraira , says that one should travel alone to three shrines, the "al-Masjid al-Harām" in Mecca, his Masjid in Medina and "al-Masjid al-Aqsā" in Jerusalem. As Meir Jacob Kister has shown, the real intention of this three mosque hadith is to demonstrate the equality of Jerusalem with the two shrines of the Hejaz , about which early Muslim scholars had doubts. The high rank of the sanctuary of Mecca, on the other hand, was undisputed.
The al-Haram mosque as the burial ground of the prophets
In the early Islamic period there were also various traditions according to which the graves of well-known prophets or their relatives are located in the Holy Mosque. ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair is said to have said of a bulge behind the northern corner of the Kaaba that it contained the graves of the virgin daughters of Ishmael . ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbbās is quoted as saying that the tombs of two prophets were located in the Holy Mosque, namely the tomb of Ishmael in the hijr and the tomb of Shuʿaib . The Meccan scholar Muhibb ad-Dīn at-Tabarī (died 1295) later cited traditions according to which the graves of Hūd , Noach and Sālih are said to be in the Holy Mosque. A total of 99 prophets are buried in the mosque.
History of religious life
Determination of prayer times and calls to prayer
In the early 9th century, the times of prayer in Mecca were proclaimed by the time handler ( ṣāḥib al-waqt) . He used the minaret in the northwest corner for this. How the times of prayer were determined is not known.
In the 12th century Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Isfahānī (died 1164), the vizier of ʿImād ad-Dīn Zengi , the founder of the Zengid dynasty, had a sundial installed next to the building of the Zamzam fountain to determine the times of prayer. It was called Mīzān aš-šams ("sun balance") in the early 15th century . At this time the head of the muezzins (raʾīs al-muʾaḏḏinīn) heard his call to prayer from the minaret above the Peace Gate, whereupon the other muezzins followed him. In the 16th century, the head of the muezzins only used this minaret for the call to the Sahūr on Ramadan nights, as well as for praise and litanies. On the other hand, he heard the call to prayer for the five prayers from the roof of the Zamzam building. This is also where the sundial was moved in the 16th century. In May 1669, the Maghreb scholar Muhammad ibn Sulaimān ar-Rūdānī (died 1683) set up a horizontal sundial with a head -high pole at the Peace Gate . The drawings on the clock face were on the pavement of the Peace Gate.
At the beginning of the 20th century there was still a sundial by the Zamzam building. It was placed on the south side, was a gift from a man from Marrakech and gave the times very precisely. The sheikh of the muezzins (šaiḫ al-muʾaḏḏinīn) and timekeepers (mīqātī) continued to sound his call to prayer from the roof of the Zamzam fountain, followed by the muezzins of the seven minarets with their calls to prayer.
The organization of prayer and the schools of law
A special feature that distinguishes the Holy Mosque from all other mosques is that here the prayers do not pray in straight rows, but the prayer rows are led in a circle around the Kaaba. The first to introduce this order of prayer is said to have been Chālid al-Qasrī , who was governor of Mecca under the Umayyad caliph al-Walīd . The Meccan legal scholar ʿAtā 'ibn Abī Rabāh (died around 732) is said to have authorized this form of prayer. When asked whether he thought it would be better if the number of prayers were small if all prayers prayed behind the Maqām Ibrāhīm or formed a line around the Kaaba, he decided on the latter and referred to the Koranic statement in Sura 39 : 75 “And you see the angels surrounding the throne on all sides”.
The establishment of separate prayer groups
In the course of the Middle Ages, an order of prayer was established in the Holy Mosque, in which the followers of the various legal schools said their prayers in different zones in separate prayer groups. It is not clear when this order of prayer came into being. The first known reference to them comes from the year 1104, when Abū Tāhir as-Silafī went on Hajj . In his Muʿǧam as-safar he tells of a Shafiite scholar in Mecca who, as the imam of Maqām Ibrāhīm, was the first to pray before the imams of the Malikites , Hanafis and Zaidi . The Hanbalites were not yet represented in the Meccan order of prayer at that time. They did not get their own imam until the middle of the 12th century. Ibn Hubaira (died 1165), the vizier of the caliphs al-Muqtafī and al-Mustanjid , had his own pavilion built for him in the Holy Mosque for prayer. Marjān, the servant of al-Muqtafī, who hated the Hanbali madhhab , had this pavilion torn out again during a pilgrimage and eliminated the Hanbali imamate.
By the end of the 12th century, however, the four Sunni imams were firmly established in the Meccan order of prayer. The first author to provide a more detailed description of this order of prayer is the Andalusian pilgrim Ibn Jubair , who visited Mecca in 1191. He reports that at his time there were five imams in the Holy Mosque, namely four Sunni and a fifth for the "sect" (firqa) of the Zaidi , to which the Sherif of Mecca belonged. The locations of the Sunni prayer leaders were marked by more or less large devices that were arranged in a circle around the Kaaba. The Hanafis prayed on the northwest side of the Kaaba, the Malikites on the southwest side, the Hanbalites on the southeast side and the Shafiites on the northeast side at Maqām Ibrāhīm. The different prayer groups (ǧamāʿāt) prayed one after the other according to a fixed order. The Maliki scholar Ibn Farhūn (died 1397) reports in his Manāsik work that at the beginning of the 13th century one of the Abbasid caliphs gave the order to hold the prayer in the Holy Mosque in this way, and was chosen from among a number of Maliki scholars Alexandria confirmed in a fatwa that the four sides of the mosque each had the status of a separate mosque with an associated imam.
In the course of time the order of prayer was changed again and again. At the time of Ibn Jubair, the Shafiite imam began the prayer, followed by the Maliki and Hanbali imams at the same time, followed by the Hanafi imam. Only during the evening prayer , which is said shortly after sunset and for which only a very short period of time is available, did all four imams pray at the same time. The Zaidis prayed separately. In 1326, however, the maqam of the Zaidis was abolished by order of the Mamluk sultan and their imam was forcibly expelled. A little later, the Sherif of Mecca went over to the Shafiite madhhab themselves. In the 1390s the Hanafi Imam was preferred to prayers, so the order was now: Shafiit, Hanafit, Malikit, Hanbalit.
A particularly difficult problem was the organization of the evening prayer. Since all prayer groups prayed at the same time, there was always general confusion because the voices of the various imams and the mukabbirūn , who conveyed their words to the back rows of those praying, mixed with one another. The Meccan historiographer Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī said at the beginning of the 15th century:
“Because of the fact that they pray at the same time, those who pray make many mistakes because the voices of the transmitters are mixed, but the movements of those who pray are different. This matter is truly an aberration in religion. "
The Tunisian scholar Ibn ʿArafa (died 1401), who was one of the most important scholars of the Hafsid Empire and who came to Mecca for Hajj in 1390, ruled that such a mode of prayer was inadmissible. Because of the severe criticism from scholars, various rulers also dealt with this problem. The Egyptian Mamluk ruler Faraj ibn Barqūq made a first attempt at reform, who ordered for the pilgrimage of 1408 that the Shafi'i imam alone should pray the evening prayer. His successor al-Mu'aiyad Sheikh , however, restored the old order six years later because the other schools of law felt that they were being left out. Later the evening prayer was limited to the Hanafi and Shafi imams, who prayed at the same time. Since there was again confusion with this way of performing prayer, the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman decreed in the mid-1520s that the simultaneity of the prayer groups should be abolished and a new regulation should be found. The Ottoman governor of Jeddah then held a meeting with the Qādīs of Mecca at which it was agreed that the Hanafi and then the Shafi imam should pray during the evening prayer. Nothing was changed in this regulation until the beginning of the 20th century.
In the 17th century the order of morning prayers was: 1. Shafiit, 2. Malikit, 3. Hanbalit, 4. Hanafit. Maliki and Hanbali prayer groups were only held at morning prayers all year round. Only during the Hajj season were they extended to the other three prayer times, with the Malikit then praying first. Later the Hanafi Imam was placed in front of the prayer for midday, afternoon and night prayers, so that these prayers were in order: 1. Hanafit, 2. Shafiit, 3. Malikit, 4. Hanbalit. A Hanbali prayer group continued to exist all year round only for morning prayer, for the three other prayer times it was only reintroduced at the end of the 19th century.
The rivalry between Shafiites and Hanafis
Although this order of prayer was fundamentally pluralistic, it did not place all Sunni schools on the same level. The Shafiite prayer group was privileged because it was allowed to perform the prayer at the Maqām Ibrāhīm, a place that was identified with the prayer place of Abraham mentioned and recommended in the Koran (Sura 2: 125). The position of the Hanafi imam was also highlighted: his prayer place was opposite the hijr and the gutter of the Kaaba. The Maliki maqam, on the other hand, was on the back (dubur) of the Kaaba. As can be seen from Ibn Jubair's travelogue, the prayer areas were equipped very differently even in his day. The Hanafi prayer area was marked by a particularly magnificent wooden pavilion with a mihrāb and was particularly brightly lit at night by candles and lamps. Ibn Jubair explains this with the fact that the entire Persian Empire (ad-dawla al-aʿǧamīya) - probably meaning the Seljuq state - followed this madhhab . The Shafiites also owned a richly decorated wooden pavilion. The prayer places of the two other Sunni schools, on the other hand, looked rather modest: the Malikites had only a simple stone mihrāb, which was barely lit at night and "resembled those erected on the streets", and the Hanbalites who joined it For a while, they prayed in two different places, one had no device at all, the other only a dilapidated pavilion.
Shafiites and Hanafis had a prominent position in the prayer order of the Holy Mosque from the beginning and rivaled each other. This rivalry intensified over time as various rulers who followed the Hanafi madhhab expanded the Hanafi and maqam ("location"). In 1399, for example, the Circassian Mamluks of the Burjiyya dynasty replaced the earlier wooden structure with a building on four stone pillars with a roof decorated with gold and lapis lazuli . However, several Shafiite scholars disapproved of the new structure. Among other things, the high cost of its construction and the danger that people would seek diversion there because the building offered them protection met with disapproval. The Egyptian scholar Zain ad-Dīn al-Fāriskūrī (died 1406) wrote his own treatise on this, and the two scholars Sirādsch ad-Dīn al-Bulqīnī (died 1403) and his son Jalāl ad-Dīn al-Bulqīnī (died 1421), who were among the most important muftis in Egypt, ruled in a fatwa after 1399 that the Hanafi maqām had to be demolished and anyone who declared this building permissible in a fatwa would commit an offense and would have to be reprimanded. The responsible head in Egypt then ordered the building to be demolished, but this plan was abandoned due to protests. Hanafi scholars defended the building by saying that it offered protection from the heat of the sun, rain and cold and had the same position as the arcades of the mosque. The emir Sūdūn al-Muhammadī provided the building with a dome made of walnut wood in 1432, which was covered with plaster on the outside.
The Ottomans had the previous building of the Hanafi Maqām demolished shortly after they established their supremacy over Mecca in 1517 and replaced it with a high domed structure made of yellow and red Shumaisī stone. The Ottoman official Muslih ad-Dīn, who carried out this construction work, justified it at a meeting with Meccan scholars and notables by saying that “the greatest imam” (al-imām al-aʿẓam) Abū Hanīfa was worthy of being in the saint Mosque had a place for the gathering of the people and followers of his madhhab, which was larger than the previous maqam. In the 1520s, the Ottoman Sultan also had the Maqāme of the Malikites and Hanbalites expanded. After the renovation, they consisted of rectangular buildings that rested on four pillars with a gable roof. Since the Hanafi maqām met with much rejection because of its pompousness and the large space it occupied in the mosque, the sultan had it torn down in 949 (1542 AD) and replaced with a more modest building. The new Maqām consisted of a rectangular building with two floors and a lead-coated hip roof and had as the other Maqame inside a mihrab . From then on , the upper floor also served as a stand for the mukabbirūn , who coordinated the prayer in the Holy Mosque (see above). The Shafiite Imam also had a prominent position in that he prayed either behind the Maqām Ibrāhīm or on the upper floor of the Zamzam fountain building.
The reform of the order of prayer in the 20th century
The ritual prayer, which is separated according to schools of law, was repeatedly criticized by various Muslim scholars during the Ottoman period, who viewed this practice as an unlawful innovation . The Yemeni scholar asch-Shaukānī (died 1834) ruled:
“The building of the maqāme in Mecca is, according to the consensus of the Muslims, a bidʿa [...] Any reasonable person who has devoted himself to the study of Sharia knows that corruptions have occurred because of these teachings , which separate the groups of Islam from one another which religion and its followers were captured. The most dangerous and worst of these for Islam is what has now occurred in the sublime Haram of Mecca, that the groups have separated and each group stands by one of these maqāme as if they were followers of different religions and Sharia. "
Even Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (died 1792), the founder of the Wahhabi doctrine, the division of praying in the Holy Mosque had criticized. Therefore, the abolition of segregated prayer by law schools was one of the first measures taken by the Wahhabi Ichwān and Saudi troops who took Mecca in October 1924. The administration of the city was initially entrusted to Chālid ibn Lu'aiy, a Sherif who had joined the Saudi king ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Saʿūd and had accepted the Wahhabi doctrine. He forbade prayer in separate prayer groups in the Holy Mosque and ordered that from now on prayer should only be held in a prayer group led by a Hanbali imam. Since many Meccans stayed away from prayer, he instructed that men who did not come to prayer should be severely punished. Due to the protests of the Meccan population, after his arrival in Mecca in December 1924, Ibn Saʿūd restored the four prayer groups, but ordered that they always hold the prayer one after the other, with the Hanafi imam beginning the prayer. Everyone in the mosque had to pray behind him. When he finished the prayer, the Shafi'i imam held the prayer, praying with all those who missed the first prayer. Then the Maliki and Hanbali imams held their prayers.
In October 1926 a number of Saudi scholars came together and decided to reorganize prayer in the Holy Mosque, in which the prayer groups were again united into one. For this purpose, three imams were chosen from the Shafiites, Hanafis and Malikites and two imams from the Hanbalites. From then on, these took turns in the five daily prayers. This regulation meant that, unlike in the past, those who prayed in the Holy Mosque often had to pray behind an imam who belonged to a different madhhab than they themselves. In July 1929, however, this system was also revised: from then on only two imams were more Salafist leaders Align the five daily prayers. As part of the expansion of the Holy Mosque between 1957 and 1963, the maqāme of the four law schools were torn down.
The Friday sermon
Ibn Jubair reports that there was a special ritual for the Chutba in the Holy Mosque . First, the mobile minbar was pushed to the side of the Kaaba between the Black Stone and the Iraqi Corner. Then the Khatīb entered the mosque through the Prophet's gate. He usually wore a black, gold-interwoven robe and a turban in the same style that the Abbasid caliph had sent him. As he entered the mosque, he was accompanied by two muezzins waving banners. In front of him ran a person who cracked his whip loudly so that everyone inside and outside the mosque could hear it. In this way, the beginning of the Chutba was signaled to the people inside and outside the mosque. The Chatīb first went to the Black Stone, kissed him and said a supplication to him . Then he went to the minbar, led by the head of the muezzins in the haram, who was also dressed in black. He carried a sword over his shoulder, which he girdled around the Khatīb when he climbed the first step of the minbar. Now the banners were attached to the side of the minbar. Then the Khatīb climbed the steps of the minbar, hitting the first three steps and the last step with the leather sheath of his sword once audibly. Then he said a soft supplication, greeted people on the right and left and waited until they had returned his greeting. After the muezzins had started the adhān , the chatīb began with its chutba. In this context he also said a supplication for the caliph and the emir of Mecca. After completing the chutba, he said the prayer. Then he left the mosque, accompanied by the two standard-bearers and the man with the whip running ahead of him.
This pompous ritual seems to have existed for a very long time. The Egyptian pilgrim guide Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Bāschā (died 1935), who served several times as the leader of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan at the beginning of the 20th century, reports that it was still carried out in his day. One of the few differences to the situation in the 12th century was that the banners were waved not by muezzins but by the eunuchs ( aġwāt ) of the Haram. In addition, the minbar was firmly anchored in the ground at that time. Another report mentions that in the Ottoman period during the Chutba a mosque servant stood halfway up the Minbar and whenever the Khatīb mentioned the Prophet Mohammed, his companions or the caliph, he said the corresponding eulogies or supplications. The Khatib was dressed slightly differently in the Ottoman period: Usually, he wore a breitärmelige Dschubba with a turban of white muslin , which was wrapped in a special way, the al-Madradsch called. After the Sherif Husain ibn ʿAlī had made himself independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1916, nothing was changed in the ritual of the Friday sermon, but a special supplication was said for Husain at the end of the sermon .
After the Saudi takeover in 1924, the centuries-old ritual that was performed at the Friday sermon was abolished and replaced by a very simple procedure. It consists of the Khatīb going to the minbar alone after the call to prayer, climbing it and holding the Chutba. Like the rest of the mosque staff, he wears an abaya and a ghutra . The name of the Saudi ruler is not mentioned in the Chutba.
The Tarāwīh prayers and the Chatma in Ramadan
The Tarāwīh prayers on the nights of Ramadan are of particular importance in the Holy Mosque . The Umaiyad governor Chālid al-Qasrī introduced a special rite for them in the early 8th century, in which two rakʿas with Koran recitation were followed by a seven-fold circling of the Kaaba.
As can be seen from Ibn Jubair's descriptions of religious life in Mecca, this rite continued into the 12th century, but there were five Tarāwīh prayer groups at that time (Shafiites, Hanbalites, Hanafis, Zaidites, Malikites). A Koran reciter sat in every corner of the mosque praying with his group. In this way the whole mosque was filled with the babble of voices of the various reciters and the atmosphere was very emotionally charged. The Shafiites were particularly zealous in following the worship exercises. They first performed ten taslīms (= 20 rakʿas) and then performed a tawāf . After circling seven times and doing one rakʿa, the Imam cracked his whip, signaling the return to the Tarāwīh prayers. When the group had prayed two more taslīms, they performed another seven tawāf. They continued in this way until they had prayed ten more taslīms. At the end they prayed the Witr and the Schaf prayer. The Hanafi scholar Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī (died 1450), who worked as Muhtasib in Mecca and wrote a treatise listing various customs practiced in the Holy Mosque, also mentions these Tarāwīh customs. He reports that the reciters usually tried to outdo each other in volume during the prayers and that behind them there were mukabbirun who raised their voices very loudly. The sessions were usually also attended by women, who dressed and perfumed themselves for it.
During the last five odd nights of the month (21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th, 29th Ramadan), a chatma, i.e. a solemn recitation of the entire Koran, took place in the Holy Mosque, for which many men and women gathered . The sons of prominent Meccan personalities took over part of the recitation. After the recitation, they held a solemn chutba on a minbar . In front of them on the steps of the minbar sat men who interrupted the chutba at certain times with loud heckling "O Lord, O Lord" (yā Rabb, yā Rabb) . He then sat down and remained silent, whereupon the Koran reciters recited further parts of the Koran. After the ceremony was over, the boy's father invited them to a solemn dinner in his house. These customs are also mentioned by Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī. According to him, the celebrations peaked on the 25th and 27th of Ramadan when the Bedouins from the area flocked to Mecca and attended the gatherings. Ibn ad-Diyā 'complained that it was very loud at these meetings, that men and women mixed and that “temptations” (fitan) occurred between them .
As can be seen from the descriptions of Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje , there were still numerous Tarāwīh prayer groups on Ramadan nights in the Holy Mosque in the 19th century. Some of them were led by 12 to 15-year-old boys who had just graduated from the Koran school and who used the Tarāwīh prayers to perform a chatma as a trial over 20 to 30 nights. After the chatma was over, sweets were served.
Today there is only one prayer group left during the Tarāwīh prayer in the Holy Mosque. The official imams pray 23 rakʿas along with the witr prayer and conclude the recitation of the Koran a day or two before the end of the month. The imam leading to the completion of Quran recitation in the last rak'ah of Tarawih prayers supplication through. In the last ten days of the month, the Tarāwīh prayer is followed by a Tahajud prayer with ten rakʿas. The witr prayer is then combined with it. Usually two imams take turns with the Tarāwīh.
Funeral prayers
Al-Azraqī reports that in his day there were three gates at which prayer was said for the dead , the al-ʿAbbās Gate, the Banū-Shaiba-Gate and the as-Safā-Gate. At the al-ʿAbbās gate and at the as-Safā gate there were also places where the corpses were washed. Al-Azraqī also reports that in the past the funeral prayer had been said for well-known personalities in the Holy Mosque itself.
In later times it became custom again to bring the dead to the mosque for prayer. The Hanafi scholar Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī (died 1450) reports that in his time the funeral prayer was said for all the dead in the Holy Mosque, and it was said for famous personalities and notables (aʿyān) at the door of the Kaaba . In earlier times this was a privilege of the Sherif and the Quraish tribesmen . The dead were then carried out through the “gate of the funeral procession” (Bāb al-Ǧanāʾiz) , which is why it takes its name. The Sherif used to carry the dead around the Kaaba seven times at the time of Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī, which the author himself considered an ugly bida . For the poor and the outcast, the funeral prayer was said at the Hazwara Gate. As the Meccan historian Muhammad as-Sabbāgh (died 1903) reports, in his day the funeral prayer was performed at the door of the Kaaba for all people, men and women, free and slaves, scholars and sheriffs. The funeral procession left the mosque through the Banu Shaiba Gate or some other gate. However, the dead were no longer carried around the Kaaba.
Other popular customs
In addition, various other festive occasions were celebrated in the Holy Mosque in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period. These included the Lailat ar-raghā'ib at the beginning of the month of Rajab , the night in the middle of the month of Shabān and the night before the prophet 's birthday on the 12th of Rabīʿ al-auwal . On all these nights religious gatherings took place in the Holy Mosque, during which it was very noisy and the sexes mixed. On the night of the Prophet's birthday , the carpet- spreaders ( farrāšūn ) gathered with candles and lanterns in the Holy Mosque and brought the Khatīb in a festive procession from the Holy Mosque to the mosque at the Prophet's birthplace, during which fireworks were also shot down. The additional lighting on the four maqamas on the holy nights meant that there were loud boisterous gatherings with laughter and shouting. It was also very happy when it rained in Mecca. As Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī reports, it was then customary for adults and children, including many slaves, to come barefoot with hoses, jugs and jugs into the Holy Mosque and these vessels with water out of the mosque to a great din and shouting Fill up the rain gutter of the Kaaba.
Other popular customs related to the expectation of meeting al-Khidr in the Holy Mosque. This expectation existed because there were various reports that al-Khidr regularly visits the Holy Mosque. The Meccan scholar ʿAlī al-Qārī (died 1606), who wrote a treatise on al-Chidr, reports that in his time on the first Saturday of the month of Dhū l-Qaʿda, women and men met at the time of the evening prayer at the Hazwara Gate used to gather, assuming that the first to come out of the Holy Mosque at that time would be al-Kidr. This idea was probably connected with eschatological expectations, because, as the author reports in the same treatise, it was said in his day that Chidr met the Mahdi and Jesus every Friday in the Holy Mosque .
History of social life: the different groups of people
The administration: from the “Sheikh of Haram” to the General Presidium
Until the Mamluk period, the administration of the Holy Mosque was in the hands of the governors of Mecca or the Sherif emirs of Mecca , when they gained greater independence from the Islamic dynasties exercising supremacy. During the time of the Ottoman rule over Mecca (1517-1916) the administration of the Holy Mosque was entrusted to the Ottoman governor in Jeddah . He carried the title of " Sheikh of Haram" (šaiḫ al-ḥaram) and was responsible for all the pious foundations for the maintenance of the Holy Mosque.
From the 18th century onwards, the governor of Jeddah regularly appointed an authorized representative for the interests of the Holy Mosque, who was confirmed in his office by the Emir of Mecca . This office of "Haram plenipotentiary" (nāʾib al-ḥaram) remained limited to one family until the middle of the 20th century. The Haram Commissioner was responsible for the entire staff of the Holy Mosque. These included the imams, the chatībs, the eunuchs (aġawāt) , the law enforcement officers (mušiddūn) , the Zamzam sheikhs (zamāzima) , the carpet- spreaders (farrāšūn) , the sweepers (kannāsūn) and all other servants.
In the 19th century, the Ottomans set up a foundation authority with its own director, who was referred to as the "director of the foundations" (mudīr al-auqāf) . He was responsible for the administration of the foundation's assets and the payment of the salaries of the mosque staff as well as for the distribution of the annual food rations that were brought from outside to Mecca. He kept lists on which the individual entitled persons were recorded. The Kaaba porters from the Banū Schaiba family were also on this list. The foundation authority was administratively subordinate to the Sheikh of Haram, but fiscally it belonged to the foundation administration of the Sublime Porte in Istanbul. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were a total of around 700 officials at the Holy Mosque. Most of the offices were hereditary.
After the Saudi capture of the Hejaz , King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz confirmed the “Haram Plenipotentiary” (nāʾib al-ḥaram) as-Saiyid Hāschim ibn Sulaimān ibn Ahmad in his office and made the Haram subordinate to him as the newly created authority for the administration of the Holy Mosque -Directorate (maǧlis idārat al-ḥaram) . From then on, the salaries of the mosque employees were paid by the Saudi state. After the first expansion of the mosque and the increase in the number of pilgrims, the necessity of a reorganization of the administration and services arose Holy Mosque ” (ar-riʾāsa al-ʿāmma li-l-išrāf ad-dīnī li-l-masǧid al-ḥarām) responded. On 6th Dhū l-Qaʿda 1397 (= 19 October 1977) the responsibility for the Holy Mosque was transferred to the newly created “Administration of the Two Holy Places” (Idārat al-ḥaramain aš-šarīfain) by royal order , which also the Administration of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina was transferred. This authority was established on 7 Jumādā II 1407 (= 7 February 1987) in the “General Presidium for the Affairs of the Holy Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque” (ar-Riʾāsa al-ʿāmma li-šuʾūn al-masǧid al-ḥarām wa-l-masǧid an-nabawī) . The authority has been headed by ʿAbd ar-Rahmān as-Sudais since 2012 . He has been the Imam and Chatīb of the Holy Mosque since 1984.
The cultic staff
The ritual staff of the Holy Mosque included the imams, the chatībs, the muezzins, the eunuchs (aġawāt) , the zamzam sheikhs (zamāzima) , the carpet- spreaders (farrāšūn) and the sweepers (kannāsūn) . As the Meccan historian al-Fāsī (died 1429) reports, the servants of the mosque received a salary ( ǧāmakīya ) from Egypt in his time . In 1537 there were seven Shafiite imams at the Holy Mosque, three Hanafi and three Maliki imams and two Hanbali imams. In the 17th century the number of Hanafi imams rose to a total of 14. The sharp increase is explained by the fact that the Ottoman Empire followed the Hanafi teaching direction.
The various ritual offices in the mosque were largely reserved for certain long-established families. The office of chatībs, for example, was passed on in only three families in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Tabarīyūn, the Zahīrīyūn and the Nuwairīyūn. At the beginning of the 17th century, however, the number of chatībs from these families was so large that each of them was only given a turn about every four months.
The eunuchs are also mentioned in Ali Bey's travelogue , which describes the situation in Mecca at the beginning of the 19th century. He reports that forty black eunuchs belonged to the Holy Mosque, who served as the guards and servants of the house of God and wore a long white caftan as a sign of identification . At the beginning of the 20th century there were a total of 122 imams and Chutba preachers at the Holy Mosque (including 79 Hanafis, 24 Shafiites, 14 Malikites and five Hanbalites), 52 eunuchs, 41 muezzins , eight lamp lighters, twelve carpet-spreaders and 20 sweepers.
Gatekeepers and other security forces
Numerous gatekeepers are employed at the Holy Mosque to maintain order. One of the earliest evidence for the existence of these gatekeepers is a decree of the Mamluk Sultan Barsbay from 1427. It stipulates that the previous gatekeepers, who were qadis and legal scholars (!), Should be dismissed and new gatekeepers appointed, who were none Handicrafts and no other trade or profession and belonged to the needy themselves. Each of them was given a goal for which he was responsible from now on. The gatekeepers had to stay at their respective gate day and night and were only allowed to leave in an emergency. They had to sweep, sprinkle and clean their gate regularly and had to prevent dogs, slaves carrying water hoses and camels from entering the mosque and using it as a passageway. The Sultan set an annual salary of ten Ashrafis for each gatekeeper, which was paid from the Haramain foundations in Egypt and sent with the caravan of pilgrims. The Ottomans also assigned gatekeepers to the individual gates. You should ensure that no dogs or other animals enter the mosque. However, they probably did not do their job well enough. ʿAlī at-Tabarī (died 1660) reports that he often saw dogs roaming around the mosque at night and even in broad daylight. At the beginning of the 20th century, 30 gatekeepers were employed at the Holy Mosque. Most of them were Yemenis, two were Kurds.
In the 15th century there were various people who engaged in Hisba activities with the approval of the authorities in the Holy Mosque . One of them was the Turkish emir Taghrībirmisch ibn Yūsuf (died 1420), who enforced various bans in 1415. For example, muezzins were no longer allowed to recite poems of praise to the prophet from the minarets at night; Lobdichter (maddāḥūn) were allowed in the times in which usually many people gathered in the mosque, recite poems any more; During the Chatma ceremonies on Ramadan nights, boys were no longer allowed to give speeches; and torches were no longer allowed to be lit on the maqamas of the four schools of law on Holy Nights, because these practices resulted in noisy gatherings that disturbed those who were circulating or praying at the time, and also men and women on these occasions mingled. Ibn al-Diyā 'al-Makkī (died 1450), who worked in Mecca as Qādī and Muhtasib , wrote a treatise during this period in which he listed a number of customs and behaviors practiced in the Holy Mosque that he believed were forbidden because they were associated with an inadmissible raising of the voice (rafʿ aṣ-ṣaut) . The treatise had the title "Preservation of the Holy Mosque from the inadmissible innovations of the ignorant masses" (Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm) and is only available in a short version (muḫtaṣar) . Among the “reprehensible things ” (munkarāt) that Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī lists in his treatise were the religious meetings that take place in the Lailat ar-raghā'ib , in the middle of the month of Shabān and at night took place on the prophet's birthday. Some of Ibn ad-Diyā's descriptions are of great everyday historical value. Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī devoted much of his treatise to proving that raising one's voice is forbidden in the Holy Mosque. To this end, he cites statements from the Koran and Sunna as well as from prophetic companions and scholars of the four Sunni schools of law.
At the beginning of the 20th century there were a total of ten mušiddūn and 30 gatekeepers at the Holy Mosque . King Husain ibn ʿAlī equipped the Holy Mosque with its own police unit in 1918, which had the task of stopping thieves and criminals and collecting and reporting found things. This “Police of the Holy Mosque” ( šurṭat al-masǧid al-ḥarām ), which still exists today, was expanded under the Saudi rule and strengthened by forces of the “Committee for the Areas of Right and Prohibition of the Reprehensible ”, which is also in the Holy mosque are scattered. The emergency services of the two units work together to ensure order, keep an eye on pickpockets and other criminals and arrest them if necessary.
Islamic scholarship
The Holy Mosque has been a place for the cultivation of the religious sciences of Islam since the early days of Islam. In the 15th century it was also common for boys to be taught in the mosque, although it was sometimes very noisy. When classes were at night, students usually brought wind-shielded candles to put in front of them in the classroom so that they could read their books.
The Ottoman scholar Eyüb Sabri Pascha reports in his work about Mecca, published in 1884, that there were 120 teachers in the Haram at his time. 60 of them were paid, with annual salaries ranging from 100 to 500 piastres. The 15 people who received the highest salary of 500 piastres included the muftis of the four Sunni disciplines. As Snouck Hurgronje reports, the scholars of the mosque were led by the “ Sheikh of the Scholars” (šaiḫ al-ʿulamāʾ) , who was appointed by the government “with more or less consideration for the wishes of the scholars”. Mostly the Shafiite Mufti held this office. The sheikh received the gifts intended for the scholars and distributed them among them, made decisions about the filling of salary positions, issued the licenses necessary to be allowed to give lectures in the mosque, and also took examinations for them. Scholars who had just passed their teacher exams usually gave a celebratory meal in their homes when they were wealthy.
At the beginning of the 20th century, teaching seems to have got into a crisis. In 1913, the Sherif Hussain ibn ʿAlī commissioned the “chief of scholars” (raʾīs al-ʿulamāʾ) ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbd ar-Rahmān Siraj, to choose 15 scholars, a secretary and two inspectors and to fix a monthly salary for them, “so that through them Science Revived in the Holy Mosque ”. The reason for the measure was that many scholars had previously had to give up their teaching activities in the Holy Mosque due to financial difficulties. At the same time, the Sheikh was commissioned to work out new regulations for teaching in the Holy Mosque. The new order, which comprised 23 articles and was adopted and signed by the 15 scholars and the four muftis of Mecca on November 28, 1913, was entitled aṭ-Ṭawāliʿ as-sanīya fī niẓām at-tadrīs al-ǧadīd bi-masǧid Makka al-maḥmīya ("The shining stars about the new teaching order in the well-protected mosque of Mecca").
According to these regulations, the two inspectors had to monitor the teaching activities in the mosque and ensure that the paid teachers fulfilled their teaching obligations and that the books from which the unpaid teachers read did not contradict Sunni teaching and morality. The inspectors had to report violations to the head of the teachers. Classes in the Holy Mosque were generally held in Arabic, but teachers were allowed to explain the contents of the books they read with them in their language to non-Arabic students. Permitted subjects were tawheed , Koran exegesis , hadith , fiqh , usūl al-fiqh , hadith theory, Arabic grammar and morphology , semantics, rhetoric, tropics , logic, history, early Islamic biographies and mathematics. Students who wanted to obtain a license to teach in the Holy Mosque themselves had to take an examination in the six subjects of fiqh, grammar, morphology, semantics, rhetoric and tropical studies.
In the 1920s there were a total of 107 teachers in the Holy Mosque. 44 of them were paid and received a salary of 100 to 500 piastres . The other teachers were volunteers. There were several hundred students, most of whom were from Southeast Asia. They worked in their spare time to make a living. Under the Saudi King ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz, the supervision of the teachers of the Holy Mosque passed to the Scientific Commission ( haiʾa ʿilmīya ), which was placed under the authority of the Chief Qādīs ( raʾīs al-quḍāt ) of Mecca. In 1928 this commission also organized a special religious training program for pilgrimage guides ( muṭauwifūn ) working in Mecca .
Gender order: women and men
In early Islamic times it was common for women to mingle with men when walking around the Kaaba. The Umaiyad governor Chālid al-Qasrī ordered in the early 8th century, however, that men and women should henceforth be separated when circulating. Guards were posted at every corner of the mosque to monitor this gender segregation. They were equipped with whips to separate men and women. This order was maintained at least until the early Abbasid period. Ibn Jubair describes that in his day the tawāf of women took place at the far end of the stone-paved square around the Kaaba. ʿAlī ibn al-Hasan al-Hāschimī, who was appointed governor of Mecca in 869/870, introduced the innovation that the seats for women and men in the mosque were also separated. He had the pillars by which the women used to sit tied with ropes. The women sat behind these ropes when they wanted to sit in the mosque, the men on the other side.
The organization of prayer also tightened over time. In early Islamic times it was still common for women to pray in the Holy Mosque. Even the companion of the Prophet ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd , who otherwise ruled that it would be best for women not to pray in the mosque but at home, advocated the prayer of women in the Holy Mosque because, in his opinion, this mosque was an exception . Up until the 19th century, women prayed together with the men in the Holy Mosque, although the men prayed in front while the women prayed behind the boys in the back. The Sherif ʿAun al-Rafīq (r. 1882-1905) first introduced a separation between the place of prayer for men and women. He had an area in the courtyard of the mosque separated by a two-meter high partition, so that an enclosure was created. The Egyptian caravan leader Rifʿat Bāshā saw this partition in 1903. The Meccan scholar Muhammad Tāhir al-Kurdī (died 1980) even judged that it is generally better for women in the present because of the “great viciousness” ( kaṯrat al-fasād ), not in the Holy Mosque, but to pray at home, which he opposed the view of ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd.
But women could and can receive instruction in the Holy Mosque. Snouck Hurgronje reports, for example, that in the years 1884/85 a scholar from the Hadramaut named Muhammad Bā Busail gave women lessons in Fiqh , doctrine, Hadith and Adab . Even today there are special courses for women in the Holy Mosque.
Traders and beggars
For a long time, tradespeople and beggars were part of the appearance of the Holy Mosque. As Ibn Battūta reports, the stone benches on the north side of the Holy Mosque were often occupied by Koran reciters, copyists and tailors who offered their services here. The Hisba treatise Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkīs shows that in the 15th century the sale and purchase of goods was very common in the Holy Mosque, especially during the Hajj season. Other behaviors common in the Holy Mosque, which Ibn ad-Diyā 'al-Makkī said should be fought, were begging people by arms, shouting loudly from water carriers giving people to drink in the mosque, the sitting of tailors on the sides of the mosque, who were often involved in loud verbal arguments there, and the passage of porters who sold goods and food to visitors to the mosque.
As John Lewis Burckhardt reports, at the beginning of the 19th century Arab women sat on straw mats in the mosque courtyard and sold millet and barley grains to the pilgrims who used them to feed the haram pigeons . Burckhardt says that some of these women were “public women” who only used the sale of grains for the “holy doves” as a pretext to show themselves to the pilgrims and to negotiate with them.
The Egyptian scholar Muhammad Labib al-Batānūnī (died 1938), who in 1910 traveled to Mecca reported that in his time in the western exterior courtyard of the mosque on Ibrahim Gate thousands (sic) impoverished pilgrims from West Africa, India and the Maghreb were who lived there on the alms of the mosque visitors. Many of them were disabled and unable to move. According to al-Batānūnī, most of these invalids were former slaves of Meccan households who had been put on the street by their masters after they were no longer able to work for reasons of age or an infirmity.
Raids and desecrations
The Holy Mosque has been raided several times throughout history. Thus fell in the year 930, the Bahrain- Carmathians during pilgrimage rites in Mecca one, directed at the mosque to a massacre among the pilgrims, broke the Black Stone of the Kaaba and abducted him to al-Ahsa 'in eastern Arabia. During the pilgrimage in 1415 there were violent clashes between the emir of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan and the Meccan guard. During the Friday service, men of the guard rushed into the mosque on their horses and pushed as far as the Maqam of the Hanafis, where Turks and pilgrims met them. An armed struggle ensued, which ended with the expulsion of the Meccans from the mosque. Since the tensions with the Meccans had not yet been resolved, the emir of the pilgrim caravan had the gates of the mosque nailed up to three in the evening and the horses brought to the mosque, where they were placed in the eastern hall. The two parties only made peace the following day. Several men who were involved in the fighting later died from their wounds. The armed struggle, the bloodshed and the nightly accommodation of the horses in the mosque, which left manure there, were viewed as a serious desecration of the building.
On Ramadan 26, 1081 (= February 6, 1671), a man armed with a sword broke into the mosque during the Friday sermon, shouted in Persian that he was the Mahdi and attacked the Khatīb . He was beaten up by the crowd, taken out of the mosque and burned at a stake in al-Muʿallā cemetery .
The occupation of the Holy Mosque on November 20, 1979 by around 500 Wahhabi Ichwān under the leadership of Juhaimān al-ʿUtaibī is particularly well known . The insurgents, driven by eschatological ideas, declared that the end of the world was at hand and the Mahdi had come in the form of Muhammad ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Qahtānī . The occupation of the mosque lasted almost two weeks and could only be ended by military intervention. Many members of the Saudi Army and the Saudi National Guard who were involved in the operation initially refused to attack the Holy Mosque because of religious concerns. Thirteen of them were later executed. During surgery tore Mannschaftstransportwagen several gates of the mosque down, and there were five of the seven destroyed minarets of the mosque.
literature
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- Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Bāšā (died 1935): Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain: au ar-riḥlāt al-Ḥigāzīya wa-l-ḥaǧǧ wa-mašāʿiruhū ad-dīnīya . Dār al-kutub al-Miṣrīya, Cairo, 1925. Volume I, pp. 227-261. Digitized
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Secondary literature
- ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Ibrāhīm Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa; al-fiqh wa-l-fuqahāʾ fī Makka al-mušarrafa fi al-qarn ar-rābiʿ ʿašr al-hiǧrī . 2 volumes Maktabat ar-Rušd, Riyadh, 2014.
- Abdallah Chanfi Ahmed: AfroMecca in history: African societies, anti-black racism, and teaching in al-Haram Mosque in Mecca . Cambridge Scholars Publishers, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2019.
- MA Alfelali, J. Garcia-Fuentes: “Growth of the Holy Mosque in Mecca and the First Legislation of Heritage Conservation in Saudi Arabia (1955-2010)” in Islamic Heritage Architecture and Art 3 (2020) 65-76. Digitized version (many pictures)
- Aḥmad Raǧab Muḥammad ʿAlī: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām bi-Makka al-Mukarrama wa-rusūmuhu fī l-fann al-islāmī . ad-Dār al-Miṣrīya al-Lubnānīya, Cairo, 1996.
- John Lewis Burckhardt : Travels in Arabia . Henry Colburn, London, 1829, pp. 243-295. Digitized
- Salma Samar Damluji, Mohamed Kamal Ismail: The architecture of the Holy Mosque Makkah . Hazar, London, 1998.
- Patrick Franke : Meeting with Khidr. Source studies on the imaginary in traditional Islam. Steiner, Beirut / Stuttgart, 2000, pp. 117-119. Digitized
- Patrick Franke: "Educational and Non-Educational Madrasas in Early Modern Mecca. A Survey Based on Local Literary Sources" in Zeitschrift der Morgenländische Gesellschaft 170, 2020, pp. 77-106.
- Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes : Le pèlerinage à la Mekke. Étude d'Histoire religieuse. Paris 1923, pp. 113-154. Digitized
- Ḥamad ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Ḥazīmī: al-Maqāmāt fī l-masǧid al-ḥarām wa-dauru-hā fī l-ḥayāh al-ʿāmma ḫilāl al-fatra (923-1343h / 1517-1924m). Dirāsa tārīḫīya taḥlīlīya Master's thesis, Umm-al-Qurā University Mecca, 1437h (= 2017 AD). Digitized
- ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn ʿAbdallāh Ibn Duhaiš: ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām wa-l-masǧid an-nabawī fī l-ʿahd al-Suʿūdī . Al-Amāna al-āmma li-l-iḥtifāl bi-murūr miʾat ʿām ʿalā taʾsīs al-mamlaka, Riyadh, 1999.
- Mustafa Sabri Küçükaşcı, Nebi Bozkurt: “Mescid-i Harâm” in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi Volume XXIX, pp. 273a – 277a. Digitized
- Muhsin Lutfi Martens (pseudonym): “The Masjid al-Haram: Balancing tradition and renewal at the heart of islam” in International Journal of Islamic Architecture 9/1 (2020) 119-132.
- Ahmed Mater: Deserts of Pharan. Unofficial Histories behind the Mass Expansion of Mecca. Edited by Catherine David . Lars Müller, Zurich, 2016.
- Pascal Ménoret: “Fighting for the Holy Mosque: The 1979 Mecca Insurgency” in C. Christine Fair and Sumit Ganguly (Eds.): Treading on Hallowed Ground: Counterinsurgency Operations in Sacred Spaces . Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008. pp. 117-139.
- Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje : Mecca. 1. The city and its masters . Nijhoff, Hague, 1888. - Mecca. 2. From today's life. Nijhoff, Haag, 1889. Digitized
- Arent Jan Wensinck : "al-Mas dj id al-ḥarām" in Encyclopedia of Islam Volume III, pp. 449b – 450b. Digitized . - Identical in content to The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition , Volume VI, pp. 708-709.
- Ferdinand Wüstenfeld : History of the city of Mecca, edited from the Arabic chronicles. FA Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1861. Digitized
Web links
- Great Mosque of al-Haram ( Memento of July 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- The Holy Mosque, Mecca
- ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām fī l-ʿahd as-Suʿūdī az-zāhir Information text of the General Presidium for the two holy places about the maintenance of the al-Harām mosque in the Saudi period (Arabic)
supporting documents
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 414.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. V, p. 62.
- ↑ a b c al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 593.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, pp. 389f.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: at-Tārīḫ ar-rusul wa-l-mulūk . Ed. MJ De Goeje. Brill, Leiden, 1893. Vol. II, p. 2528. Digitized
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: at-Tārīḫ ar-rusul wa-l-mulūk . Ed. MJ De Goeje. Brill, Leiden, 1893. Vol. II, p. 2811. Digitized
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 593f.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 594.
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- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, p. 253.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, pp. 253f.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 406.
- ↑ Al-Minbar ar-ruḫāmī al-abyaḍ al-ʿUṯmānī in Makkawi.com January 17, 2016 (With a picture of the Ottoman minbar from 1947).
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 132.
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, pp. 146f.
- ↑ Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, p. 86. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, pp. 60f.
- ↑ a b Naǧm ad-Dīn Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1984, Vol. III, p. 637.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain. 1925, p. 259.
- ↑ a b Burckhardt: Travels in Arabia . 1829, p. 247.
- ↑ Alfelali, Garcia-Fuentes: “Growth of the Holy Mosque in Mecca”. 2020, p. 66.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, pp. 757-763.
- ↑ Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, p. 181.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 78.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, pp. 411f.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 412.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 285.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, pp. 412f.
- ↑ a b Eyüb Sabri Paşa: Mirʾātü l-ḥaremeyn. 1. Mirʾātü Mekke. 2018, p. 793.
- ↑ as-Sinǧārī: Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka . Vol. IV, pp. 465f.
- ↑ as-Sinǧārī: Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka . Vol. V, pp. 224f.
- ↑ Ibn Duhaiš: ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām . 1999, p. 81.
- ↑ Ibn Duhaiš: ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām . 1999, p. 128.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, pp. 878f.
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- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, pp. 401f.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa wa-l-masǧid al-ḥarām . 1997, p. 124.
- ↑ al-Fāsī: Shifāʾ al-ġarām bi-aḫbār al-balad al-ḥarām. 2008, Volume I, p. 313.
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- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 200.
- ↑ Wensinck: "al-Mas dj id al-ḥarām" in Encyclopedia of Islām , Volume III, p. 450b.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 183f.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 184.
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 282.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 201.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm. 2000, Vol. V, p. 33.
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 406f.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 201f.
- ↑ See the list in the caption of the Ottoman lithography .
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm. 2000, Vol. V, p. 31.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 202.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, pp. 204-206.
- ↑ al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, p. 37.
- ↑ Ibn Duhaiš: ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām. 1999, pp. 199f.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 296.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, pp. 635f.
- ↑ Naǧm ad-Dīn Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1984, Vol. III, pp. 452f.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 16.
- ↑ ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama fī aḫbār al-ḥāǧǧ wa-ṭarīq Makka al-muʿaẓẓama. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2002. Vol. I, p. 446. Digitized .
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 229.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 230.
- ↑ Ibn Duhaiš: ʿImārat al-masǧid al-ḥarām. 1999, p. 101.
- ^ Richard T. Mortel: "Madrasas in Mecca during the Medieval Period: A Descriptive Study based on Literary Sources" in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60/2 (1997) 236-252. Here especially pp. 237–244.
- ^ Franke: "Educational and Non-Educational Madrasas". 2020, pp. 84f, 89f.
- ^ Franke: "Educational and Non-Educational Madrasas". 2020, pp. 87f, 91-93.
- ^ Franke: "Educational and Non-Educational Madrasas". 2020, pp. 94f, 97f.
- ↑ Evliya Çelebi: Seyahatname . İstanbul Devlet MATBAASI, Istanbul, 1935 Vol. IX, p 771. Digitalisat
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. P. 231f.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, p. 232.
- ↑ Muḥammad Labīb al-Batanūnī: ar-Riḥla al-ḥiǧāzīya . Maṭbaʿat al-Ǧamālīya, Cairo, 1329h (= 1911 AD). P. 100.
- ↑ Thaddäus Kowalski: The Dīwān of Ḳais Ibn al Ḫaṭīm . Harrassowitz, Leipzig, 1914. Arab. Text, p. 18, verse 14. Digitized .
- ↑ Wensinck: "al-Mas dj id al-ḥarām" in Encyclopedia of Islām , Volume III, p. 449b.
- ↑ az-Zarkašī: Iʿlām as-sāǧid bi-aḥkām al-masāǧid . 1996, p. 59f.
- ↑ See the relevant passages in the Corpus Coranicum database on which the Paret translation is based.
- ↑ a b al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 106.
- ↑ Al-Māwardī: Kitāb al-Ḥāwī al-kabīr . Ed. ʿAlī Muḥamma Muʿauwiḍ and ʿĀdil ʿAbd al-Mauǧūd. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 1994. Volume IV, pp. 62f. Digitized .
- ↑ Wensinck: "al-Mas dj id al-ḥarām" in Encyclopedia of Islām , Volume III, pp. 449b-450a.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 583.
- ↑ a b al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 582.
- ^ Yāqūt ar-Rūmī : Kitāb Muʿǧam al-buldān . Ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld . Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1867. Volume II, p. 272. Digitized
- ↑ al-Baihaqī : Kitāb as-Sunan al-kubrā . Ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2003. Volume II, p. 16. Digitized
- ↑ az-Zarkašī: Iʿlām as-sāǧid bi-aḥkām al-masāǧid . 1996, p. 61.
- ↑ a b Wensinck: "al-Mas dj id al-ḥarām" in Encyclopedia of Islām , Volume III, p. 450a.
- ↑ a b Ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḫārī, Kitāb Faḍl aṣ-ṣalāt fī masǧid Makka wa-l-Madīna, No. 1189, 1190. Digitized .
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- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Qirā li-qāṣid Umm al-Qurā . 1983, p. 656.
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 93.
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 95.
- ↑ a b al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 98.
- ^ Franke: meeting with Khidr. 2000, p. 117.
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 418.
- ↑ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḫārī, Kitāb Aḥādīṯ al-anbiyāʾ, No. 3366, 3425. Digitized .
- ↑ Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, p. 26f.
- ↑ MJ Kister: “'You Shall Only Set out for Three Mosques'. A Study of an Early Tradition ”in Le Muséon 82 (1969): 173-96. Digitized
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 590.
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume II, p. 124.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Qirā li-qāṣid Umm al-Qurā . 1983, pp. 654f.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 634.
- ↑ al-Fāsī: az-Zuhūr al-muqtaṭafa min tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa . 2001, p. 140.
- ↑ as-Sinǧārī: Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka . Volume III, p. 489f, footnote 5.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, pp. 259f.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, p. 235.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 588.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 589.
- ↑ a b al-Fāsī: Shifāʾ al-ġarām bi-aḫbār al-balad al-ḥarām. 2008, Volume I, p. 326.
- ↑ Abū Ṭāhir as-Silafī: Muʿǧam as-safar . Ed. ʿAbdallāh ʿUmar al-Bārūdī. Dār al-Fikr, Beirut, 1993, p. 142, no. 430. Digitized
- ↑ Ibn al-Ǧauzī: al-Muntaẓam fī t-tārīḫ . Ed. Muḥammad and Muṣṭafā ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, undated. Vol. XVIII, p. 166. Digitized
- ↑ Sibṭ Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Mirʾāt az-zamān fī tawārīḫ al-aʿyān . Dār ar-Risāla al-ʿĀlamīya, Beirut, 2013. Vol. XXI, p. 58. Digitized
- ↑ a b c Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, pp. 101f. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, pp. 70f.
- ↑ Ibn Farḥūn: Iršād as-sālik ilā afʿāl al-manāsik . Ed. Muḥammad ibn al-Hādī Abū l-Aǧfān. Maktabat al-ʿUbaikān, Riad, 2002, pp. 296-304. Digitized
- ↑ Naǧm ad-Dīn Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1984, Vol. III, p. 184.
- ↑ Ibn Taġrībirdī: an-Nuǧūm az-zāhira fi mulūk Miṣr wa-l-Qāhira . Al-Muʾassasa al-miṣrīya alʿāmma, Cairo, 1972. Volume XI, p. 139. Digitized
- ↑ al-Fāsī: az-Zuhūr al-muqtaṭafa min tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa . 2001, p. 142.
- ↑ a b al-Fāsī: Shifāʾ al-ġarām bi-aḫbār al-balad al-ḥarām. 2008, Volume I, p. 325.
- ↑ al-Ḥaṭṭāb ar-Ruʿainī: Mawāhib al-ǧalīl fī šarḥ Muḫtaṣar aš-šaiḫ al-Ḫalīl . Dār ar-Riḍwān, Nouakchott, 2010. Volume II, pp. 382f. Digitized
- ↑ Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, pp. 189f.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, p. 87.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 174.
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 399f.
- ↑ a b al-Fāsī: az-Zuhūr al-muqtaṭafa min tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa . 2001, p. 141.
- ↑ al-Fāsī: Shifāʾ al-ġarām bi-aḫbār al-balad al-ḥarām. 2008, Volume I, pp. 323f.
- ↑ Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, p. 187.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, pp. 289f.
- ↑ a b Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, p. 189.
- ↑ Ibn Ẓahīra: al-Ǧāmiʿ al-laṭīf fī faḍāʾil Makka wa-bināʾ al-bait aš-šarīf . 2003, pp. 187f.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, p. 228.
- ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 290.
- ↑ aš-Šaukānī: Iršād as-sā'il ILA dalā'il . Without place, 1930, p. 50 digitized
- ↑ Guido Steinberg: Religion and State in Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabi Scholars 1902–1953 . Ergon-Verlag, Würzburg, 2003, p. 544.
- ↑ al-Ḥazīmī: al-Maqāmāt fī l-masǧid al-ḥarām . 2017, p. 249.
- ↑ al-Ḥazīmī: al-Maqāmāt fī l-masǧid al-ḥarām . 2017, p. 250.
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- ↑ Guido Steinberg: Religion and State in Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabi Scholars 1902–1953 . Ergon-Verlag, Würzburg, 2003, pp. 544f.
- ↑ Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, pp. 95f. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, p. 66f.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, pp. 254f.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 401.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 400.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. V, p. 5.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 402.
- ↑ Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, pp. 143f. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, pp. 101f.
- ↑ a b Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 18.
- ↑ a b Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa wa-l-masǧid al-ḥarām. 1997, p. 163.
- ↑ Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, pp. 149-155. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, pp. 106-111.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, p. 81.
- ↑ Yūsuf Ibn-Muḥammad aṣ-Ṣubḥī: Wisām al-karam fī tarāǧim aʾimma wa-ḫuṭabāʾ al-Ḥaram . Dār al-Bašāʾir al-Islāmīya, Beirut, 2005. p. 31.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 634.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Tārīḫ Makka al-mušarrafa wa-l-masǧid al-ḥarām . 1997, p. 156.
- ↑ aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām . 2004, p. 379f.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 17f.
- ↑ a b Franke: Meeting with Khidr. 2000, p. 119.
- ^ Franke: meeting with Khidr. 2000, pp. 118f.
- ↑ ʿAlī al-Qārī: al-Ḥaḏar fī amr al-Ḫiḍr. Ed. Muḥammad Ḫair Ramaḍān Yūsuf. Dār al-Qalam, Damascus 1991, p. 141 digitized
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- ↑ al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, p. 64.
- ↑ a b al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allah al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, p. 65.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 241.
- ↑ a b c Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, p. 260.
- ↑ al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, pp. 65, 67.
- ↑ Bā-Salāma: Tārīḫ ʿimārat al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām . 2001, p. 241f.
- ↑ ar-Riʾāsa al-ʿāmma li-šuʾūn al-masǧid al-ḥarām wa-l-masǧid an-nabawī: an-Našʾa wa-t-taṭauwur . 2010/11, p. 11.
- ↑ ar-Riʾāsa al-ʿāmma li-šuʾūn al-masǧid al-ḥarām wa-l-masǧid an-nabawī: an-Našʾa wa-t-taṭauwur . 2010/11, p. 17.
- ↑ Mater: Deserts of Pharan. Unofficial Histories behind the Mass Expansion of Mecca. 2016, p. 619.
- ↑ al-Fāsī: Shifāʾ al-ġarām bi-aḫbār al-balad al-ḥarām. 2008, p. 320.
- ↑ Ǧārallāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā li-takmilat Itḥāf al-warā. 2 vols. Ed. M. al-Ḥabīb al-Hīla. Muʾassasat al-Furqān li-t-turāṯ al-Islāmī, Mekka, 2000. Vol. II, p. 712. Digitized
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 187.
- ↑ al-Ḥazīmī: al-Maqāmāt fī l-masǧid al-ḥarām . 2017, p. 87.
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 188.
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- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 187.
- ^ Ali Bey : Travels of Ali Bey: in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Turkey. Between the years 1803 and 1807 . James Maxwell, Philadelphia, 1816. Volume II, p. 104. Digitized
- ↑ a b Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 425.
- ↑ ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama fī aḫbār al-ḥāǧǧ wa-ṭarīq Makka al-muʿaẓẓama. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2002. Vol. I, p. 447. Digitized .
- ↑ aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. 1996, p. 183.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, pp. 16-21.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, pp. 21-35.
- ↑ al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, p. 67.
- ↑ al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Volume V, pp. 68f.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 17.
- ↑ Al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm. 2000, Vol. V, p. 34.
- ↑ Eyüb Sabri Paşa: Mirʾātü l-ḥaremeyn. 1. Mirʾātü Mekke. 2018, p. 1117.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, pp. 235f.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, p. 237.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, p. 725.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, p. 724.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, pp. 725f, 732f.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, p. 727f.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, p. 731.
- ↑ Abū Sulaimān: al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām: al-ǧāmiʿ, al-ǧāmiʿa . 2014, Volume II, p. 732.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, pp. 260f.
- ↑ Ahmed: AfroMecca in history: African societies, anti-black racism, and teaching in al-Haram Mosque in Mecca . 2019, p. 144.
- ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾa fī-hā min al-āṯār. 2003, p. 518.
- ↑ Ibn Ǧubair: Riḥla . 1907, p. 86. - German translator R. Günther. 1985, p. 61.
- ↑ al-Fākihī: Aḫbār Makka fī qadīm ad-dahr wa-ḥadīṯihī . 1994, Volume III, p. 242 and Wüstenfeld: History of the City of Mecca . 1861, p. 202.
- ↑ Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . 1925, pp. 261f.
- ↑ Muḥammad Ṭāhir al-Kurdī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . 2000, Vol. IV, p. 387.
- ^ Snouck Hurgronje: Mecca. 2. From today's life. 1889, p. 277.
- ↑ Ahmed: AfroMecca in history: African societies, anti-black racism, and teaching in al-Haram Mosque in Mecca . 2019, p. 135.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 16.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 19.
- ↑ Ibn Ḍiyāʾ al-Makkī: Muḫtaṣar Tanzīh al-Masǧid al-Ḥarām ʿan bidaʿ al-ǧahala al-ʿawāmm . 1999, p. 20.
- ^ John Lewis Burckhardt: Travels in Arabia . Henry Colburn, London, 1829, p. 277. Digitized
- ↑ Muḥammad Labīb al-Batanūnī: ar-Riḥla al-ḥiǧāzīya . Maṭbaʿat al-Ǧamālīya, Cairo, 1329h (= 1911 AD). 98. See also Gaudefroy-Demombynes: Le pèlerinage à la Mekke. 1923, p. 147.
- ↑ Wüstenfeld: History of the City of Mecca . 1861, p. 277.
- ↑ Naǧm ad-Dīn Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1984, Vol. III, p. 516.
- ↑ as-Sinǧārī: Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka . Volume IV, pp. 302f.
- ^ Ménoret: "Fighting for the Holy Mosque: The 1979 Mecca Insurgency". 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Ménoret: "Fighting for the Holy Mosque: The 1979 Mecca Insurgency". 2008, p. 129.
