Attic vase painting

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Protogeometric abdominal handle amphora, around 950/900 BC BC, probably found in Athens, today in the British Museum , London
Judgment of Paris on a red-figure vase by the painter of the Kerch style wedding procession , around 360 BC BC, now in the J. Paul Getty Museum , Malibu

The Attic vase painting is the most important regional and best researched style of Greek vase painting . From the transition to the last phase ( Late Helladic III C) of the Mycenaean culture around 1200 BC. A regional Attic ceramic tradition developed. Across all styles, from the Mycenaean ceramics of the Late Helladic III C to the Sub- Mycenaean , protogeometric and geometric ceramics , the orientalizing and black-figure style to red-figure vase painting and the last branches of figuratively or ornamentally painted ceramics such as western slope ceramics in the 3rd century BC. In the 3rd century BC, Athens and the surrounding area, Attica, were one of the Greek centers for the production of painted ceramics. Not infrequently, Athens was an influential pioneer and source of inspiration for other regions of Greece.

Black-figure vase painting

Pioneers

Name vase of the Nessos painter . The neck painting shows Heracles stabbing Nessus. The belly picture shows the events around Perseus (not visible) after he beheaded Medusa. She lies dying on the ground while her sisters Sthele and Euryale pursue Perseus in flight over the sea. Around 620/610 BC Chr .; National Archaeological Museum of Athens

With more than 20,000 surviving pieces, the Attic black-figure vases are the largest traditional vase complex after the Attic red-figure vases. The first use of the black-figure technique falls in the time of Protoattic vase painting in the middle of the 7th century BC. Under the influence of the highest quality ceramics from Corinth at the time, the Attic vase painters changed from around 635 BC. Until the end of the century to the new technology. Initially, they were strongly based on the methods and motifs of the Corinthian models. It starts with the painter from Berlin A 34 , who was recognized as the first individual artist. The first artist with an individually understandable style was the Nessos painter . With the Nessos vase, he created the first outstanding piece of the Attic black-figure style. He was also an early master of the animal frieze style in Attica. One of his vases was also the first known Attic vase to be exported to Etruria. He was also the first to depict harpies and sirens in Attic art. Unlike the Corinthian vase painters, the Nessos painter used double and even triple incised lines to better show the parts of the animal anatomy. The double-incised shoulder line was to become a characteristic feature of the Attic vases. The possibilities of large vases, such as the abdominal amphora , as image carriers were recognized early on. Other important painters of the pioneering days were the Piraeus painter , the Bellerophon painter and the lion painter .

Early Attic vases

Name vase (dinosaurs) of the Gorgon painter. Perseus is persecuted by the Gorgons around 580 BC. BC, Louvre
Comos scene on a comast bowl by the KY painter, around 570 BC BC, Louvre

Around the year 600 BC The black-figure style had established itself in Athens. The horse head amphora was an early in-house development by the Athenians . They got their name because of the horse heads that were shown in a picture window. The development of the picture window was to be used extensively in the following period and later to be received in Corinth itself. The Kerameikos painter and the Gorgon painter came from the area around the horse head amphorae . The orientation towards Corinth was not only retained, but intensified. The animal frieze was recognized as generally binding and mostly used. This had not only stylistic but also economic reasons. Because Athens was now competing with Corinth for sales markets. Attic vases were sold in the Black Sea area, Libya, Syria, southern Italy and Spain as well as within the Greek mainland. In addition to the orientation towards Corinth, the Athenians also showed their own developments. So at the beginning of the 6th century BC The lekythos of the so-called "Deianeira type", an elongated, oval shape. The most important painter of the early period was the Gorgon painter (600-580 BC). He was a very productive artist who rarely shows mythological images or human figures and then always has them accompanied by animals or animal friezes. Other of his vases, like many Corinthian vases, are limited to depictions of animals. After the Gorgon painter, artists from the Komasten group (585–570 BC) should be mentioned. The group decorated with Lekanen , monocotyledonous and Kothonen new vessels for Athens. The most important innovation, however, is the introduction of the Komast bowl , which stands next to the "pre-Comast bowls" of the Oxford palmette class at the beginning of the development of the Attic bowl . The main painters in the group were the older KX painter and the less talented KY painter who, however, introduced the Colonette Crater in Athens. This imaginary for revelry vessels are decorated often with matching on Komasten .

Signature of Sophilos: Sophilos me egrafsen (Sophilos painted me)

The last significant representative of the first generation of painters was Sophilus (580-570 BC). He is the first Attic vase painter known by name. He signed a total of four vases, three as a painter and one as a potter. Sophilos already showed that the potters of the black-figure style were also vase painters. A fundamental separation of the two areas only seems to have existed in the course of the development of the red-figure style, although specializations cannot be ruled out. Sophilus is very generous with his captions. He was evidently specialized in larger vessels, as dinosaurs and amphorae are particularly well known. Far more often than his predecessors, Sophilus shows mythological scenes such as the funeral games for Patroclus . The decline of the animal frieze begins with him, and other ornaments such as plant ornaments lose their quality because they are now given less attention. Elsewhere, however, Sophilos shows that he was an ambitious artist. On two dinosaurs it shows the wedding of Peleus and Thetis . The vases were created around the same time as the François vase , which shows the same theme in perfection. But Sophilos does without all accessories in the form of animal friezes on one of his two dinosaurs and does not mix various myths on several levels of the vase. It is the first large Greek vase on which a single myth was shown on several sections arranged one below the other. A special feature of the painter's dinosaurs is that he does not apply the opaque white for women to the black glossy shade, as usual, but directly to the clay background. The interior drawings and contours are done in a matt red. This technique is very rare, in vase painting it can only be found in the workshop of Sophilus. It can also be found on painted wooden panels dating from the 6th century BC. Were painted in the Corinthian style. Sophilus also painted one of the rare calyxes (a special type of chalice) and created the first series of grave tablets . He himself or one of his successors also decorated the first surviving Lebes Gamikos . Other notable first generation artists were the Panther Painter , the Anagyrus Painter , the painter of the Dresden Lekanis and the Polos Painter .

Highly archaic time

Françoisvase, around 570 BC BC, Museo archeologico di Firenze

From about the second third of the 6th century BC. The interest of Attic artists in mythological images and other figurative representations grew. The animal friezes are now increasingly in the background. Only a few painters devote themselves to them with greater care, mostly they are banished from the focus of attention to less important areas of the vases. The François vase by the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias (570-560 BC) is particularly representative of this new style . Both artists signed the crater. It can be regarded as the most famous work of Greek vase painting. The vase is the first known volute crater made of clay. Various mythological events are depicted on several friezes, animal friezes are shown outside the main field of vision. Several iconographic and technical details appear on the vase for the first time. Some of them, such as the depiction of a folded mast of a sailing ship, remain unique, other people sitting like this, who now put one leg back instead of having both feet directly next to each other, become standard. Four more signed, albeit smaller, vases by Ergotimos and Kleitias have survived, and further vases and fragments are ascribed to them. Kleitias shows other innovations such as the first depiction of the birth of Athena or the dance on Crete.

Panathenaic price amphora of the Burgon group (so-called Burgon amphora ), Athena in arms between two columns, 566/65 BC BC, British Museum , London

Nearchus (565–555 BC) signed as a potter and painter. He was particularly fond of showing large figures. The first illustration of harnessing a car came from him. Another of his innovations was the application of the tongue sheet under the vase lip on a white background. Other high-quality artists were the painter from Akropolis 606 and the Ptoon painter , whose most famous work is the so-called Hearst-Hydria . Also of importance is the Burgon group , from which the first completely preserved Panathenaic price amphora comes (see below).

Robbery of Thetis: Peleus invades the burning altar, where Nereids dance, frieze siana bowl by the C painter, around 560 BC BC, State Collections of Antiquities
Boxer on a double-decker siana bowl, in the manner of the Heidelberg painter, around 575–550 BC, Louvre

From about 575 BC onwards the comast bowl developed The Siana bowls. While the Komasten Group also produced other shapes in addition to the bowls, a number of craftsmen specialized in bowl production since the first important representative of the Siana bowls, the C-painter (575–555 BC). The bowls have a higher rim than their predecessors and a trumpet-shaped foot on a relatively short hollow stem. The inside of the bowl is now decorated with framed pictures ( tondo ) for the first time in Attic vase painting . There were two types of decoration. In the case of the "double-decker" decoration, the bowl and lip were painted separately, in the case of the "kinked frieze" variant, the image is painted over both levels of the vase body. Since the 2nd quarter of the 6th century BC BC, an increased interest in images of athletes can be seen not least on bowls. Another important Siana bowl painter was the Heidelberg painter . He too painted almost exclusively siana bowls. His most popular motif was the hero Heracles . The Heidelberg painter showed him as the first Attic painter with the Erymanthian boar , with Nereus , Busiris and in the garden of the Hesperides . At the end of the Siana bowls stands the Cassandra Painter , who decorated medium-sized bowls with high feet and rims. However, he is particularly important as the first painter of Kleinmeister bowls . Button-handle shells were produced at the same time as the Siana shells . Their handles in the form of two-pronged forks ended in a shape reminiscent of a button. They lacked the stepped edge, and they also had a deeper pelvis and a higher and slimmer foot.

Heracles and Ares fight over the body of Cyknos, in the lower register an animal frieze, signed by the potter Kolkhos, assigned to the painter Lydos, Attic wine jug, around 560 BC BC, found in Vulci, today in the Antikensammlung Berlin / Altes Museum

The last outstanding painter of the High Archaic period was Lydos (560-540), who signed two of his traditional works with ho Lydos - the Lydian . He or his direct ancestors probably came from Asia Minor, but he undoubtedly enjoyed his education in Athens. Today more than 130 of the vases that have survived are attributed to him. One of his pictures on a hydria shows the first known Attic depiction of the battle between Heracles and Geryon . Lydos is the first to show Heracles with the lion skin that was typical of Attic art in the years that followed . Furthermore, it shows the gigantomachy on a dinosaur that was found on the Athens Acropolis and Heracles with Cyknos . Lydos decorated various picture carriers, in addition to hydriai and dinosaurs , plates, bowls (frieze siana bowls), grave tablets, column craters and psycters . To this day it is very difficult to recognize Lydos' works, as they are often difficult to distinguish from those around him. The style is quite homogeneous, but the quality varies a lot. The drawings are not always carefully executed. Lydos was probably the foreman in a very productive workshop in the Athenian pottery district. He was probably the last Attic vase painter to show animal friezes on large vases. If he is still in the tradition of Corinth, his figure drawings are a link in the chain of vase painters who lead from Kleitias to Lydos and the Amasis painter to Exekias. Here he supports the Attic development and has a lasting impact on it.

Possibly the Calydonian boar hunt is shown in the upper part of this Tyrrhenian amphora, which is attributed to the Timiades Painter or the Tyrrhenian Group , 560 BC. BC, from southern Etruria, Berlin Collection of Antiquities / Altes Museum

A special form of the Attic vases of the time were the so-called Tyrrhenian amphorae (550-530 BC). These were egg-shaped neck amphoras, the decoration of which did not correspond to the usual Attic decoration scheme of the time. Almost all of these approximately 200 known vases were found in Etruria. The body of the amphora is usually divided into several friezes. The top one, the shoulder frieze, generally shows a common representation from the field of mythology. Sometimes there are also rare representations, such as the singular representation of the sacrifice of Polyxena . In addition, the first known erotic images can be found on Attic vases at this point. The painters often added various inscriptions to Tyrrhenian amphorae naming the people shown. The remaining two or three friezes were decorated with animals, sometimes one was replaced by a ribbon of plants. The neck is usually painted with a lotus palmette cross or loop. The amphorae are quite colored and are reminiscent of Corinthian products. Apparently a Corinthian shape was deliberately adopted here in order to produce these vases for the Etruscan market, where this style was in demand. It is possible that this form was not made in Athens, but elsewhere in Attica, possibly even outside of Attica. Important painters were the Castellani Painter and the Goltyr Painter .

The master years

The time between the years 560 and the beginning of red-figure vase painting around 530/20 BC. BC is considered to be the high point of black-figure vase painting. The best and most important artists use all the possibilities that the style offers.

Dionysus and two maenads, one holding a hare. Neck amphora, around 550/530 BC BC, from Vulci, Cabinet des médailles de la Bibliothèque nationale de France. The female maenads are shown here as women only in outline, without opaque white

The first important painter of the time was the Amasis painter (560-525 BC), named after the important potter Amasis , with whom he primarily worked. Many researchers see a single personality in both craftsmen. He began his painting career around the same time as Lydos, but was active for almost twice as long. Where Lydos showed more manual skills, the Amasis painter was an accomplished artist. His pictures are characterized by wit, charm and sophistication. The development of the vase painter almost mirrors the development of black-figure Attic vase painting of his time. In his early work he was still close to the painters of Siana bowls. The development can be seen particularly clearly in the drawing of the folds of the garment. His early female figures wear robes without folds. Later they are flat and angular, at the end they look like supple garment formations. Garment drawings were one of its main features. He liked to show patterned and fringed robes. The groups of figures shown by the Amasis painter were carefully drawn and symmetrically composed. At first they looked very calm, later you could see the movement of the figures. Although the Amasis painter often drew incidents from the myth - he is known for his pig-faced satyrs - he is particularly important because of his scenes from everyday life, which he was the first painter to show on a larger scale. With his work he significantly influenced the later work of the red-figure painters. He may have anticipated one of their changes or was influenced by it at the end of his painting career: On some of his vases women were only depicted in outline drawings and no longer indicated as women by the application of white overcoat.

Hoplitodromos (gun barrel); under the handles, tripods can be seen as a prize. Front of a neck amphora of group E. Around 550 BC. BC, from Vulci, today in the Louvre
One of the grave tablets with the leader of the funeral procession looking at the viewer. Around 540/30 BC Chr.

The group E (550-525 v. Chr.) Was a large, self-contained group of artisans. The group is considered to be the most important anonymous group of Attic black-figure vase painting. It breaks rigorously with the stylistic tradition of Lydos, both in terms of representation and image support. Egg-shaped neck amphoras are completely abandoned, columnar craters almost entirely. To this end, the group introduces type A of the abdominal amphora, which is now becoming a leading form. Neck amphoras are usually only produced in more special forms. The group has no interest in small forms. Images, especially those taken from myth, are often reproduced again and again. There are several amphorae in the group that show Heracles with Geryoneus or the lion, as well as repeatedly depicting Theseus and the Minotaur and the birth of Athena. The group's particular merit, however, lies in the influence it exerted on Exekias . Most of the Attic artists of the time followed the style of Group E and Exekias rather than Lydos or the Amasis painter. Beazley put the meaning of the group for Exekias as follows: "Group E is the breeding ground from which the art of Exekias arises, the tradition that he assimilates and exceeds on his way from outstanding craftsman to true artist."

Bowl with coral red bottom of Exekias. Dionysus on a ship from which vines grow, surrounded by dolphins. Around 530 BC
Signature of Exekias (ΕΧΣΕΚΙΑΣ ΕΠΟΕΣΕ - Exekias made it ) on the foot of the Dionysus bowl .
Preparing the Ajax for suicide. Image on the Exekias amphora. Original around 530/25 BC Chr.

Exekias (545-520 BC) is widely considered to be the finisher of the black-figure style, with which this style reached its climax. His importance comes not only from his mastery as a vase painter, but also from his high quality and innovative pottery. He signed twelve of his preserved vessels as a potter, two as a painter and a potter. Exekias probably played a major role in the development of the Kleinmeister's bowls , the abdominal amphora of type A already mentioned, and possibly also invented the calyx crater , at least the oldest surviving piece from his workshop. As a painter, unlike many other representatives, he attached great importance to the careful elaboration of the ornaments. The details of his pictures - manes of horses, weapons, robes - are executed above average. His pictures are mostly monumental and his figures show a dignity that was previously unknown in painting. In many cases he breaks with current Attic conventions. He is the first to use a coral-red coating for the inside instead of the normal red one on his most famous bowl , but he brings this innovation to the classic eye bowl by using two pairs of eyes on the outside . The complete use of the inside for his image of Dionysus lying on a ship from which vines grow is probably even more innovative. The simple decoration with a gorgon face was common at that time. The bowl is probably one of the experiments that were carried out in the pottery district up to the introduction of the red-figure style in order to break new ground. He is the first to let ships sail along on the edge of a dinosaur. Only rarely does he stick to the traditional patterns of previous myths. Also of particular importance is a picture of the Ajax's suicide . Exekias does not show the act itself, as was customary until then, but the preparation for it. About as well known as the Dionysus bowl is an amphora depicting Ajax and Achilles playing a board game. Not only is the drawing detailed, Exekias himself does not leave the result of the game open, almost like in a speech bubble he lets the two players announce the numbers they rolled - Ajax a three and Achilles a four. It is the oldest picture of this scene that is never mentioned in literature. It is no less than 180 other times from the version of Exekias to about 480 BC. Shown on preserved vases.

“The people of the earlier artists are elegant dolls at best. Amasis [the Amasis painter] was able to see people as people. But Exekias could see them as gods and thus he gives us a foretaste of classical art. ” Even taking into account that vase painters in ancient Greece were not considered artists, but craftsmen, Exekias counts as a accomplished artist for today's art historical research, which can compete with the simultaneous "large" painting ( wall painting and panel painting ). Apparently his contemporaries also recognized this. In the Antikensammlung Berlin / Altes Museum there are still remains of a number of grave tablets . The series probably comprised 16 individual plates. The award of such an order to a potter and vase painter is probably unique in ancient times and testifies to the high reputation of the artist. The panels show the mourning of a deceased Athenian woman, the laying out and transfer to the grave. Exekias manages the balancing act and shows the grief as well as the dignity of the portrayed. A special feature is, for example, that the leader of the funeral procession has turned his face to the viewer and is looking at him almost directly. The representation of the horses is unique, here they have an individual character and are not reduced to the function of being a noble animal, as is common on vases.

Theseus kills the Mintau. Interior image ( tondo ) of a shell by an unknown painter. Around 55 = 740 BC BC, today in the Louvre

The specialization in vessel and bowl producers was further advanced during the high class. From the rather large Komasten and Siana bowls, which contain a lot of liquid, finer variants of the bowl developed over the Gordion bowls, which are called Kleinmeister bowls because of their delicate painting . Accordingly, the vase painters and potters of these forms are called minor masters . The main forms of the Kleinmeister are the ribbon bowls and the rim bowl . The edge bowl got its name because of the rather hard edge. The outside of the bowl remains largely clay-ground and is usually decorated with only a few small pictures, sometimes only with inscriptions or the bowls were not decorated at all. The handle zone is rarely decorated with more than palmettes next to the handle approaches and with inscriptions. These inscriptions can be the potter's signature, a toast or just a meaningless combination of letters. The inside of the rim bowls are often decorated with pictures.

Belt cups have a softer transition from the basin to the edge. The picture decoration is applied in the form of a circumferential band on the outside of the bowl. These are often very elaborate friezes. The edge of this shape is varnished black. The inside is left with a clay background and a black dot is only painted in the center. Special shapes are the droop bowls and the Kassel bowls . Droop bowls have black, concave edges and a high foot. The edge is left black as with the ribbon cups, but the outer underside is also included in the painting. Ornaments such as leaves, buds, palmettes, points, halos or even animals were painted on. Kassel bowls are a small shape, they look squat than other Kleinmeister bowls. With this shape, the entire outside is decorated. As with the droop bowls, it is largely an ornamental painting. Well-known minor masters are the potters Phrynos , Sokles , Tleson and Ergoteles , both sons of the potter Nearchus and Hermogenes , who invented a minor master version of Skyphos ( Hermogenic Skyphos ) as well as the vase painters Phrynos painter , Taleides painter , Xenocles painter and the group of Rhodos 12264 .

  • Edge bowl of the potter Tleson with signature ( Tleson, son of Nearchus, made it ), around 540 BC BC, today in the State Collection of Antiquities in Munich

  • Ribbon bowl by an unknown artist depicting battle scenes, around 540 BC Chr, from Vulci, today in the Louvre

  • Droop bowl by an unknown artist, around 550/30 BC BC, from Greece, today in the Louvre

  • Kassel bowl by an unknown artist, around 540 BC BC, today in the Louvre

The last quarter of the 6th century BC Chr.

Until the end of the century, the quality of the black-figure vase production was largely maintained. Since the development of the red-figure style around 530 BC. BC, probably through the Andokides painter , more and more painters used the red-figure style, which gave much more creative freedom.

Amazonomachy on a Nicosthenian amphora by the potter Nikosthenes and the painter N. around 520/10 BC. BC, today in the Louvre

Initially, however, some innovative craftsmen were able to give impetus to the production of black-figure vases. The most inventive and enterprising potter of the time was Nikosthenes . More than 120 vases with his signature are known, which were accordingly made by him or in his workshop. He seemed to have specialized in the manufacture of vases for export to Etruria. In his workshop common neck amphorae, Kleinmeister-, Droop- and eye bowls were made, but also an amphora shape reminiscent of the Bucchero ceramics of the Etruscans, which is called Nikosthenische Amphora after its inventor . These pieces were found mainly in Caere, the other vases mostly in Cerveteri and Vulci. The ingenuity in his workshop did not stop at the forms. In the Nikosthenischen workshop the so-called Six'sche technique was developed , in which the pictures were painted on the glossy shade in red-brown or white color. It is unclear whether Nikosthenes was also a vase painter; if so, then he is mostly suspected to be behind the painter N named after him . The Nikosthenes Painter and the BMN Painter are also named after Nikosthenes. In his workshop he employed many well-known vase painters, including the late Lydos, Oltos and Epiktetos . The workshop tradition was continued by the successor of Nikosthenes, Pamphaios .

Farewell to warriors on a belly amphora of the affecter. Around 540/30 BC BC, today in the Louvre

Two black-figure vase painters are considered Mannerists (540-520 BC). The Elbows Out mainly painted small master bowls. The splayed elbows of his figures, after which he was named, are striking. He rarely shows mythological scenes, but he likes to show pictures with love scenes. A Lydion , a rare vase shape, was also decorated by him. The more important of the two was the affecter , who got his emergency name because of his affected-looking figures. The small-headed figures do not appear to be acting, but as if they are posing. In his early days he mainly depicts everyday scenes, later he shifts to decorative pictures in which figures and attributes are difficult to recognize, but processes. If he shows his figures dressed, they look as if they are upholstered, if he shows them naked, they look very angular. Affekter was both a potter and a painter; more than 130 vases have come down to us from him.

Olive harvest on a neck amphora by the Antimenes Painter. Around 520 BC BC, from Vulci, now in the British Museum London

The Antimenes painter (530–500 BC) liked to decorate hydrates with animal friezes in the predella , as well as neck amphorae. Two of the hydria assigned to him are decorated in the neck region in a white-ground style . He was the first to paint amphorae with the mask-like face of Dionysus. The best-known of his more than 200 vases preserved shows an olive harvest on the back. His drawings are seldom particularly precise, but also never very careless. In terms of style, Psiax is closely related to the Antimenes painter , who, however, unlike the Antimenes painter, also worked with a red figure. As a teacher of the painters Euphronios and Phintias, Psiax had a great influence on the early development of the red-figure style. He likes to show team scenes and archers.

Ship on the inside of a shell of the Leagros group. Around 520 BC BC, from Cerveteri, today in the Cabinet des médailles de la Bibliothèque nationale de France

The last significant group of painters was the Leagros group (520–500 BC). It was named after its much-used Kalos name, Leagros . Amphorae and hydria in particular, the latter often with palmettes in the predella, are the most frequently painted supports. The image fields are generally filled to bursting, but the quality of these images is very high. Many of the group's more than 200 vases were decorated with scenes from the Trojan War and pictures from the life of Heracles. The Leagros group included painters such as the original Acheloos painter , the conventional Chiusi painter and the detailed daybreak painter

Heracles and Athena, black-figure page of a belly amphora by the Andokides painter, around 520/10 BC BC, from Vulci, today in the State Collections of Antiquities
Heracles and Athena, red-figure page of the above amphora by the Lysippides painter, around 520/10 BC BC, from Vulci, today in the State Collections of Antiquities

Other well-known vase painters of the time are the painter of the mourners in the Vatican , the Princeton painter , the painter of Munich 1410 and the swing painter (540-520 BC), to whom many vases are ascribed. He is not considered a very good artist, but his pictures seem involuntarily funny because of the figures with their big heads, strange noses and often clenched fists. The Rycroft painter is close to red-figure vase painting and the new forms of expression. He especially likes to show Dionysian pictures, team scenes and the adventures of Heracles. He often shows outline drawings. He painted his approximately 50 mostly large vessels in an elegant manner. The class of Cabinet des Médailles 218 mainly decorated variants of the Nicosthenian amphorae. The Hypobibazon class adopts a newer variant of the abdominal amphora with rounded handles and feet, the decoration of which is particularly striking because of the key meanders above the image fields. A smaller variant of the neck amphora is painted by the three-line group . the perizoma group took the around 520 BC. Chr. Newly introduced form of the stamnos . In addition, at the end of the century the Euphiletus Painter , the Madrid Painter and the imaginative Priam Painter still worked in a noteworthy quality.

Especially shell painters like Oltos , Epictetus , Phaidippos and Skythes painted vases - primarily eye cups - in both styles ( bilingual vase painting ). The inside was mostly painted in black and the outside mostly in red-figure style. There are several amphorae, the front and back of which are decorated in different styles. The works of the Andokides painter, whose black-figure pages are assigned to the Lysippides painter , are particularly well-known here . It is controversial in research whether both painters are identical. Only a few painters, such as the Nikoxenos Painter and the Athena Painter , worked in any appreciable amount in both techniques. While bilingualism was popular for a short time, its time is over by the end of the century.

Late period

Athena on a lekythos by the Beldam painter, around 480 BC BC, found in Vari, now in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens

At the beginning of the 5th century BC Until 480 BC at the latest All painters who claim to use the red-figure style. But black-figure vases were also produced for around 50 years, the quality of which continued to decline. The last painters of acceptable quality on larger vases were the Eucharides Painter and the Cleophrades Painter. Only workshops that produced smaller shapes such as olpen, oinochoen, skyphoi, small neck amphoras and, above all, lekyths, still worked increasingly in the old style. The Phanyllis painter worked, among other things, in the Six technique, the Edinburgh painter , like the Gela painter, decorated the first cylindrical lekyths. The former painted his vases mainly with loose, clear and simple pictures using black-figure technique on a white background. He introduced that the white background of the vases was quite thick and was no longer painted on the clay background. This technique should become mandatory for all vases of the white-ground style. The Sappho painter specialized in gravekyths. The workshop of the Haimon painter , from which more than 600 vessels have been preserved, was particularly productive . Athena Painter , (perhaps identical to the red-figure Bowdoin Painter ), and Perseus Painter continued to decorate the larger standard lecytes. The pictures of the Athena painter still exude something of the dignity of the pictures of the Leagros group. The marathon painter is best known for the Grablekythen, which one in the grave tumulus for the 490 BC. Found Athenians who had fallen in the battle of Marathon . As the last important Lekythen painter, began around 470 BC. The Beldam painter carried out his work until around 450 BC. Chr. Continued. Apart from the Panathenaic price amphoras, the black-figure style in Attica ended at this time.

Panathenaic price amphoras

see main article Panathenaic price amphora
Race on a Panathenaic price amphora, attributed to the Berlin painter, around 480/70 BC. BC, found in Nola , today in the Antikensammlung Berlin / Altes Museum

The Panathenaic price amphorae occupy a special position among the black-figure vases of Attica. They were since 566 BC BC - the introduction or reorganization of the Panathenaic Festival - winning prize for the winners of the sporting competitions. On the front they were adorned as standard with an image of the goddess Athena between two pillars on which roosters stand, on the back with a representation from the sport. The shape was always the same and changed little over the long production period. The abdominal amphora was initially particularly bulbous, had a short neck and a narrow, high foot. The amphorae were filled with one of the city's main export goods, olive oil. Around 530 BC The necks get shorter and the body a bit narrower. Around 400 BC The shoulders are already drawn in, the curve of the vase body looks slack. Since 366 BC The vases have become more elegant and even narrower again.

Athena on a price amphora with the inscription "Archippos, archon" (321/20 BC), found in Benghazi, today in the Louvre

The vases were mainly made in the city's leading workshops. It seems to have been an award or particularly lucrative to have been commissioned to produce the vases. This also explains the many prize amphoras from outstanding vase painters. In addition to black-figure masters such as the Euphiletus painter , Exekias, Hypereides and the Leagros group, many red-figure masters are also known as the creators of the price amphoras. These include the Eucharides Painter, the Cleophrades Painter , the Berlin Painter , the Achilles Painter and Sophilus , who was the only one who signed one of the well-known vases. The first amphora, the Burgon vase, came from the Burgon group. Since the 4th century BC BC sometimes the name of the reigning archon is noted on the vase, some of the vases can be dated precisely. Since the Panathenaia were a religious festival, the style and form of decoration did not change anything during the period of the red-figure style, nor after figurative vase painting was actually no longer practiced in Athens. The price amphoras were thus used until the 2nd century BC. Chr. Produced. Today about 1000 such vases are known. Since it is known for some times how high the prize money was, it can be estimated that around one percent of the vases have been preserved. If you extrapolate this, you get a total of around 7 million figuratively painted vases produced in Athens. In addition to the price amphorae, imitating forms, the so-called pseudo-Panathenaic price amphoras, were also created.

Red-figure vase painting

see also red-figure vase painting

Beginnings

Fighter flanked by Hermes and Athene , amphora by the potter Andokides and the Andokides painter, around 530 BC Chr.

Around 530 BC Vases in the red-figure style were first produced. The Andokides painter is generally considered to be the inventor of this technique . He and other very early exponents of the new style, such as Psiax , initially painted vases in both styles by using the black-figure technique on one side and the red-figure technique on the other. Such vessels, such as the abdominal amphora of the Andokides painter in Munich , are called bilinguals . In comparison to the black-figure style, great progress could already be seen, but the figures still appeared stiff and there was seldom overlapping of the image content. Many old style techniques were still used in their manufacture. So often find scoring lines or additional order red paint ( added red ), were colored with the larger areas of color.

Pioneering time

A crater attributed to Euphronios in the Berlin Collection of Antiquities depicting a palaestra scene : athletes preparing for the competition, around 510/500 BC Chr.

The artists of the so-called pioneer group took the step towards exhausting the possibilities of red-figure painting . Their period of activity is approximately in the years between 520 and 500 BC. Dated. Important representatives were Euphronios , Euthymides and Phintias . This group, tapped and defined by research, experimented with the various possibilities of the style. The figures shown appeared in new postures with back and frontal views, there were experiments with foreshortening and the compositions became more dynamic overall. Euphronios probably introduced the relief line as a technical innovation . In addition, new vessel shapes were developed, which was favored by the fact that many painters in the pioneer group also worked as potters. The Psykter and the Pelike were new . In addition, large format craters and amphorae were preferred. Although the group had no real cohesion, there were connections between the individual painters, who obviously influenced one another, found themselves in a kind of friendly competition and encouraged one another. Euthymides boasted in an inscription "as [it] Euphronios never [could]" . In general, it is a sign of the pioneer group that they were very fond of writing. Identifications of the represented mythological figures and Kalos inscriptions were more the rule than the exception.

In addition to the vessel painters, several important bowl painters also worked with the new style. Oltos and Epiktetos belonged to them . They decorated many of their works bilingually, mostly using the red-figure technique for the inside of the bowls.

Late archaic

Youth at the libation , inside of a bowl, around 480 BC Chr.

The generation of late Archaic artists following the pioneers (around 500 to 470 BC) led the new style to blossom. The black-figure vases that were still produced at that time were no longer of comparable quality and were almost completely displaced. Some of the most important vase painters worked at this time. Among the vessel painters , the Berlin painter and the Cleophrades painter should be mentioned , while Onesimos , Duris , Makron and the Brygos painter stood out among the bowl painters . Not only did the quality keep improving, production also doubled during this time. Athens became the dominant producer of fine ceramics in the Mediterranean world, almost all regional productions outside Attica came into its shadow.

Characteristic for the success of the Attic vases was the now perfectly mastered foreshortening, which made the represented figures appear far more natural in their postures and actions. In addition, there was a massive reduction in what was represented. Ornamental decorations faded into the background, the number of figures depicted was significantly reduced, as were the anatomical details depicted. In return, many new themes were introduced into vase painting. The saga about Theseus was particularly popular . New or modified vessel shapes were gladly adopted by the painters, including the Nolan amphora , lekyths , type B bowls, askoi and dinoi . There is also an increasing specialization of vessel and vase painters.

Early and high classics

Neck amphora by the Providence painter, a young man brandishing a sword, c. 470 BC Chr.
Oedipus and the Sphinx , Nolan amphora by the Achilles painter, around 440/430 BC Chr.

The special feature of early classical figures was that they were often more stocky than with earlier painters and no longer appeared as dynamic. As a result, the pictures often appeared serious, sometimes even pathetic. The folds of the robes, on the other hand, were no longer so linear and now looked more plastic. In addition, the type of presentation changed permanently. On the one hand, the moment of a certain event was often no longer shown, but the situation immediately before it and thus the way to an occurrence. On the other hand, other new achievements of the Athenian democracy began to show their effects. Influences of the tragedy and the wall painting can be determined. Since Greek wall painting is almost completely lost, the reflexes in vase painting are an - albeit modest - tool in researching this art form. For example, the newly created Parthenon and its sculptural furnishings also influenced vase painters of the high class. This was particularly reflected in the depiction of the robes. The fall of the fabric now looked more natural and the reproduction of folds was increased, which led to a greater depth of representation. Image compositions have been simplified again. The artists placed particular emphasis on symmetry, harmony and balance. The now slimmer figures often exuded a sunk, godlike calm.

Important artists of the early and high classical period from around 480 to 425 BC Are the Providence Painter , Hermonax and the Achilles Painter , who continued the tradition of the Berlin painter. The Phiale painter , who is considered a pupil of the Achilles painter, is also one of the most important artists. In addition, new workshop traditions emerged. The so-called "Mannerists", whose outstanding representatives were the Pan-Painter , were particularly important . Another workshop tradition began with the Niobid Painter and was continued by Polygnotos , the Cleophon Painter and the Dinos Painter . The importance of the bowls declined, although they were still produced in large quantities in the workshop of the Penthesilea painter , for example .

Late Classic

Name vase of the Meidias painter, In the upper frieze of the Hydria is the robbery of the Leucippids by the Dioscuri , in the lower frieze Heracles in the garden of the Hesperides and a group of local heroes of Athens, around 420/400 BC. Chr.

During the late classical period , from the last quarter of the 5th century BC onwards, Two opposing currents. On the one hand, a direction based on the “ rich style ” of sculpture developed, and on the other hand, developments from the high classics were retained. The most important representative of the rich style was the Meidias painter . Characteristic features are translucent robes and a large number of creases. In addition, jewelry and other objects are increasingly shown. The use of other colors, mostly white or gold, which emphasize accessories reproduced in relief, is particularly striking. This was the first time an attempt was made to create a three-dimensional representation on vases. In the course of time, a "softening" set in. The male body, which was previously mainly defined by the representation of muscles, has lost this striking feature.

Kassandra and Hector on a kantharos by the Eretria Painter, around 425/20 BC Chr.

The scenes depicted were now also less often devoted to mythological topics than before. Pictures from the private world gained in importance. Representations from the world of women are particularly common. In mythological scenes, images with Dionysus and Aphrodite dominate . It is not exactly known why this change in the method of representation began with some of the artists. On the one hand a connection with the horrors of the Peloponnesian War is assumed, on the other hand it is attempted to explain the loss of Athens' dominant position on the Mediterranean pottery market, which would ultimately have been a consequence of the war. Now new markets should have been opened up, for example in Spain, where customers had different wishes and needs. These theories are contradicted by the fact that the old style was retained by some artists. Other artists, like the Eretria Painter , tried to combine the two styles. The best works of the late classical period can be found on small-format vase types such as abdominal lycotha, pyxides and oinochoa . The lekanis , the bell crater and the hydria were also popular .

Around 370 BC The production of the usual red-figure ceramics ends. Both the Rich and the Plain styles continued to exist until then. The most important representative of the rich style at this time was the Meleager painter , that of the simple style was the last important bowl painter , the Jena painter .

Kerch vases

Probably a cult scene for Dionysus, chalice crater by the painter of Athens 1375 , around 375/50 BC. BC, found in Greece, today in the Louvre

The last decades of red-figure vase painting in Athens were shaped by Kerch vases . The style they represent, which dates from around 370 to 330 BC. BC was dominant, formed a combination of the rich and the simple styles, with the rich style having a greater influence. Typical for the Kerch vases were overloaded pictorial compositions with large, statuesque figures. In addition to the previously common additional colors, blue, green and others are now also being added. In order to show volume and shadow, a thinned, gradual gloss shade is applied. Sometimes whole figures are applied , that is, placed on the body of the vase as small figural reliefs. The number of different vessel shapes is falling sharply. The usual image carriers now were peliks , calyx craters , belly lecitha, skyphoi, hydria and oinochoa. Scenes from the lives of women were shown in particularly large numbers. Dionysus continued to dominate mythological images, as did Ariadne and Heracles among the heroes. The most important artist is the Marsyas painter .

At the latest by 320 BC. The last vases with figurative representations were created in Athens. After that, vases were made using this technique for some time, but they were decorated in a non-figurative manner. The last tangible representatives are the painters of the group named YZ .

Artists and works

Painter's signature of Epiktetos, Kylix-Tondo with a palaestra scene, around 520/10 BC Chr.

The pottery district of Athens was the Kerameikos . There were various smaller and probably larger workshops here. In 1852 the workshop of the Jena painter was found during construction work on Hermesstrasse . The artifacts found there are now in the university collection of the Friedrich Schiller University Jena . According to today's knowledge, the owners of the workshops were the potters. The names of about 40 Attic vase painters are known from inscriptions. The name generally included the addition ἐγραψεν (égrapsen, has painted ). On the other hand there was the signature of the potters, ἐποίησεν (epoíesen, made ) which was found more than twice as often, namely about 100 times. Had the signatures been around since around 580 BC? Known in BC, their use increased to a peak during the pioneering days. But with a changed, more negative attitude towards the handicraft, the number of used signatures decreased again over the course of time, at least since the Classical period. Overall, however, such signatures are quite rare and since they were often found on particularly good pieces, they certainly show the pride of the potters and vase painters.

Pottery signature of Amasis on an Olpe, around 550/30 BC Chr.

The status of painters in comparison with potters is sometimes unclear. Since, for example, Euphronios and other painters later worked as potters themselves, it can be assumed that at least a considerable part were not slaves. But some names suggest that the vase painters also included former slaves or Periöks . In addition, some of the well-known proper names cannot be clearly interpreted. There are several vase painters who signed as Polygnotos . These are probably attempts to benefit from the name of the great monumental painter. The same could be the case with other painters with famous names, such as Aristophanes . Some of the careers of vase painters are well documented today. In addition to painters who only worked for a relatively short period of time, one to two decades, there were also painters whose creative period can be traced for much longer. These long-acting artists include, for example, Duris , Makron , Hermonax or the Achilles painter . Since the change from painter to potter can be observed several times, and it is often unclear whether some potters also worked as painters and vice versa, it is assumed that a career from assistants, who were responsible for painting the vases, for example, to to the potter was possible. With the introduction of red-figure painting, however, the work pattern of potters and vase painters apparently only changed towards this division of labor; many Attic pottery painters were known during the black-figure period, such as Exekias, Nearchus or possibly Amasis . Due to the increased export demand, restructuring in the production process became necessary, division of labor became common and a not always clear separation between potter and vase painter was implemented. As already mentioned, the painting of the vessels was probably mainly the responsibility of the younger assistants. Now some pointers can be made about the possibilities of the craft groups. It seems that in general several painters have worked in a pottery workshop, because there are often works by different vase painters by one potter painted at a similar time. For example, Onesimos , Duris, the Antiphon Painter , the Triptolemus Painter and the Pistoxenus Painter worked for Euphronios . On the other hand, the painters could also switch between the workshops. The bowl painter Oltos worked for at least six different potters.

Kalos inscription on a possibly from Skythes painted head vessel of Epilykos class v to 520/10. Chr.

Even if vase painters are often viewed as artists from today's perspective and the vases are accordingly works of art, this does not correspond to the ancient view. Vase painters, like potters, were artisans, and their products were commodities. The craftsmen must have had an appropriate level of education, as other inscriptions and inscriptions can often be found. On the one hand there are the already mentioned Kalos inscriptions (also called favorite inscriptions), on the other hand there are inscriptions of the sitter. But not every vase painter could write, as some examples of meaninglessly lined up letters show. But it can be observed that literacy has been increasing since the 6th century BC. Chr. Steadily improved. It has not yet been possible to satisfactorily clarify whether potters and vase painters were among the Attic elite: if the painters represented scenes from the symposium, a pleasure for the upper class, they themselves longed to participate or simply satisfied a need for goods ? A large part of the vases produced such as Psykter, Kratere, Kalpis and Stamnos, but also Kylixes and Kanthares, were intended at least for this purpose, the symposium.

Elaborately painted vases were good, but not the best tableware a Greek could own. Metal dishes, especially made of precious metal, of course, were more prestigious than such vases. Still, such vases weren't exactly cheap products. Large specimens in particular were valuable. Large painted vessels cost around 500 BC. About one drachma , which corresponded to the daily wage of a stonemason at the time. On the other hand, the ceramic vessels can also be interpreted as an attempt to imitate metal dishes. It can be assumed that the lower social classes tended to use simpler utility ceramics that have been extensively proven in excavations. Crockery made from perishable materials such as wood was probably even more common. Nevertheless, numerous settlement finds of red-figure ceramics, albeit not of the highest quality, show that these vessels were used in everyday life. A large part of the production, however, was reserved for cult and grave vessels. In any case, it can be assumed that the production of high-quality pottery was a profitable business. For example, the remains of an expensive consecration gift from the painter Euphronios were found on the Acropolis of Athens. There is no doubt that the export of ceramics played a part in the prosperity of Athens that should not be underestimated. It is therefore not surprising that many workshops geared their production towards export and, for example, made vessel shapes that were in demand in the customer regions. The decline of vase painting began not least in the time when the Etruscans, probably the main buyers of Attic ceramics, in the 4th century BC. BC came under increasing pressure from southern Italian Greeks and the Romans. Especially since the defeat of the Etruscans against the Greeks in 474 BC. BC imported these much less Greek ceramics and increasingly produced them themselves. After that, Attic traders exported mainly within the Greek world. The main reason for the decline, however, was the increasingly poor course of the Peloponnesian War for Athens, which resulted in the devastating defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC. Culminated in BC. From now on Sparta controlled trade with Italy without having the economic strength to fulfill it. Attic potters had to look for a new market and found it on the Black Sea, in Spain and in southern France. These vases are mostly of lower quality and were bought mainly because of their "exotic flair". However, Athens and the pottery industry never fully recovered from the defeat and during the war some potters and vase painters moved to southern Italy, where the economic basis was better. Characteristic of the focus of Attic vase production on export is the almost complete renunciation of the pictorial representation of theater scenes. Because buyers from other cultures, such as Etruscans or later buyers in today's Spain, would not have understood the depictions or found them interesting. In the sub-Italian vase painting, which is not aimed at export, however, vases with pictures from the theater sector are not uncommon. Another reason for the end of production of figuratively decorated vases was a change in taste that began with the beginning of the Hellenism .

literature

General

Black-figure vase painting

Red-figure vase painting

  • John D. Beazley : Attic red-figure vase-painters. 3 volumes. 2nd Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1963.
  • John Boardman: Red-Figure Vases from Athens. A manual. The archaic time (= cultural history of the ancient world. Volume 4). von Zabern, Mainz 1981, ISBN 3-8053-0234-7 (4th edition, ibid 1994).
  • John Boardman: Red-Figure Vases from Athens. A manual. The classical time (= cultural history of the ancient world. Volume 48). von Zabern, Mainz 1991, ISBN 3-8053-1262-8 .
  • Friederike Fless : Red-figure ceramic as a commodity. Acquisition and use of Attic vases in the Mediterranean and Pontic regions during the 4th century. v. Chr. (= International Archeology. Volume 71). Leidorf, Rahden 2002, ISBN 3-89646-343-8 (also: Cologne, University, habilitation paper, 1999).
  • John H. Oakley : Red Figure Vase Painting. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0 , Sp. 1141-1143 (commentary).
  • Christoph Reusser : Vases for Etruria. Distribution and functions of Attic pottery in Etruria in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. 2 volumes. Akanthus, Kilchberg / Zurich 2002, ISBN 3-905083-17-5 .

Web links

Commons : Attic Vases  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ Boardman, p. 7.
  2. ↑ Mannack p. 104.
  3. ↑ Fragment in Leipzig, found in Cerveteri , it shows Gorgons on the belly like the Nessos vase
  4. ↑ Mannack p. 105; Boardman p. 18 f.
  5. ↑ Boardman 20
  6. ↑ found on the Acropolis in Athens, today Acropolis Museum , inventory number 587
  7. ↑ Boardman, p. 21.
  8. ^ Mannack, p. 111.
  9. ↑ on the François vase see Boardman, p. 37 f. and Mannack, p. 111 f.
  10. ^ Mannack, p. 113.
  11. ↑ to Lydos: Boardman pp. 57-58, Mannack p. 113.
  12. ^ Boardman, p. 57.
  13. ^ Boardman, p. 60.
  14. ↑ Boardman, p. 61.
  15. ↑ on the Amasis painter see Boardman, pp. 60–62; Mannack, p. 120.
  16. ↑ quoted from Boardman, p. 62, for group E see Boardman, p. 62 and Mannack, p. 120.
  17. ↑ for the assessment see e.g. Boardman, p. 62.
  18. ↑ today in the Staatliche Antikensammlung München, inventory number 2044.
  19. ↑ today in the Museum Boulogne, inventory number 558, inventory number 2044.
  20. ↑ today in the Vatican Museums, inventory number 344, inventory number 2044.
  21. ↑ on Exekias see Boardman, p. 63 f. and Mannack, pp. 121-123.
  22. ^ John Boardman, p. 64, translated by Florens Felten
  23. ↑ Boardman p. 64.
  24. ↑ "for the grave tablets see Heide Mommsen : " Stand still and file the complaint ... ". Regarding the reunited fragments of the grave tablets of Exekias , in EOS 12 (August 2000), pp. IV – VII. and the same: Exekias I. Die Grabtafeln , von Zabern, Mainz 1997 (Research on ancient ceramics. Series 2, Kerameus, Volume 11) ISBN 3-8053-2033-7 “
  25. ↑ on the Gordian bowl see Boardman p. 65; Mannack p. 118.
  26. ↑ on the outer shell see Boardman pp. 65–67; Mannack p. 118.
  27. ↑ on the band shell see Boardman p. 66f .; Mannack p. 118.
  28. ↑ on the droop bowl see Boardman p. 68f .; Mannack p. 119.
  29. ↑ on the droop bowl see Boardman p. 69; Mannack p. 119.
  30. ↑ on the Hermogenic Skyphos see Boardman p. 69.
  31. ↑ Boardman p. 73.
  32. ↑ on the Nikosthenes workshop see Boardman p. 71–73, Mannack p. 123 f.
  33. ↑ on Elbows Out and Affekter see Boardman p. 73 f., Mannack p. 124.
  34. ↑ On the Antimenes painter see Boardman p. 119f .; Mannack p. 124.
  35. ↑ on Psiax see Boardman p. 115; Mannack p. 124.
  36. ↑ on the Leagros group see Boardman p. 120f .; Mannack p. 124.
  37. ↑ on the painters of the Leagros group see Boardman p. 121 f.
  38. ↑ on the swing painter see Boardman p. 71.
  39. ↑ on the Rycroft painter see Heide Mommsen : Rycroft painter. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 10, Metzler, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-476-01480-0 , Sp. 1174-1174., Boardman, p. 124.
  40. ↑ on the bilingualism see Boardman p. 124f.
  41. ↑ on the latest painters see pp. 158–164; Mannack p. 125.
  42. ↑ on the figures see Mannack p. 114.
  43. ↑ on the Panathenaic price amphoras see Boardman pp. 180–183; Mannack pp. 113-117.
  44. ↑ a b John H. Oakley: Red Figure Vase Painting. In: DNP 10 (2001), col. 1141.
  45. ↑ a b c d e Oakley: Red-figure vase painting. In: DNP 10 (2001), col. 1142.
  46. ↑ a b Oakley: Red Figure Vase Painting. In: DNP 10 (2001), col. 1143.
  47. ^ The Jena painter , Reichert, Wiesbaden 1996, p. 3.
  48. ↑ Numbers in the cases of the inscriptions refer to the complete Attic-figured vase painting
  49. ^ The first known potter's signature from Attica is that of Sophilus
  50. ↑ on the change in the reputation of the artisan class see Thomas Morawetz: The epitome of bourgeois incompetence. The banause - a search for clues. In: Damals 10/2006, pp. 60–65.
  51. ↑ a b Ingeborg Scheibler: Vase painter. In: DNP 12 / I, Col. 1147 f.
  52. ↑ Boardman: Red Figure Vase Painting. The classic time. P. 253.
  53. ↑ Ingeborg Scheibler: Vase painter. In: DNP 12 / I, col. 1148.
  54. ^ Boardman: Black-Figure Vase Painting. P. 13; Martine Denoyelle : Euphronios. Vase painter and potter , Berlin 1991, p. 17.
  55. ↑ see Alfred Schäfer : Entertainment at the Greek Symposium. Performances, games and competitions from Homeric to late classical times , von Zabern, Mainz 1997.
  56. ↑ Boardman: Red Figure Vase Painting. The classic time. P. 254 f.
  57. ^ Boardman: Black-Figure Vase Painting. P. 13.
  58. ↑ a b Thomas Mannack: Greek vase painting. P. 36.
  59. ^ Boardman: Red-Figure Vases from Athens. The classic time. Pp. 198-203.