Geological map
A geological map is a thematic map that shows the geological structure of the mapped area on its surface and / or the subsurface near the surface. A geological map is often supplemented by a geological profile to provide a clearer illustration of the storage conditions . A geological map is based on a corresponding topographic map in connection with geological mapping .
Map display
Normally, a geological map shows the rocks on the surface , which determine the geological structure of an area. Except in the special case of the soil map , the soils and loose rock forming the actual surface are only taken into account if they are more than 1.5 m thick, otherwise they are not shown. A geological map is therefore normally a covered geological map.
A simple geological map shows the distribution of the various rocks such as sandstone , limestone , slate , granite or gneiss , which can be differentiated on the basis of rock formation, color or composition. The map normally used in geology goes beyond this lithological representation by summarizing the rocks due to their rock formation, their age and the context in which they were formed into map units in a lithostratigraphic map. In addition, the most important deviations from the normal shift structure are entered, in addition to the various disturbances, also abnormal shift contacts such as discordances or facial transitions within a mapping unit.
In addition to this type of display, other forms of geological map display are possible, for example due to metamorphosis or tectonics .
For better orientation, the geoscientific markings and surface colors are highlighted with basic topographical information. These are road networks, rivers, houses or settlements and individual landmarks as well as geographical names.
Explanatory report
A geological map usually includes an explanatory report that describes the geological conditions in the area of the map in detail. In most cases, it also contains information on hydrological conditions, palaeontological sites, raw material deposits, agro-geological issues and existing exploratory drillings . Some map authors give a brief overview of the history of the recording work in the area of their map sheet.
With the text, the summarized observations of the geologist (team) in the field are written down and the relationships to the neighboring rock layers / formations are established. Individual rocks and / or minerals are discussed in more detail as required . The report is often structured according to the sections of the geological ages .
The explanatory report is an accompanying component, especially for card systems that consist of several sheets. The modern map systems are typically designed on a scale of 1: 25,000 or 1: 50,000. When purchasing a geological map, the explanatory report is not necessarily included and represents an independent publication. In Germany, Austria and many other countries, these reports have been produced since the 19th century. It had become common practice to publish them in relevant specialist journals before or in parallel with the separate printing.
Use of geological maps
For geologists, a geological map is a means of representation that brings together complex information in a very clear form. For orientation in geological contexts and for decisions on geotechnical and environmental issues, it offers trained specialists a quick introduction to a region and its geological structure. It is the basis for water and forest management decisions, plays an important role in building site appraisals , tunnel and dam construction, and enables an initial assessment of the situation in the context of remediation investigations and the assessment of contaminated sites . In addition, it is the basis of scientific evaluations and special geological questions such as the possibility of the occurrence of certain fossils and minerals , which can also be of interest to amateur geologists such as mineral collectors and hobby paleontologists .
Against this background, it is hardly surprising that the systematic geological exploration and mapping a state in most countries of the world Highness task is perceived by specific country offices and national organizations. The respective national territory is shown in at least one map series on a uniform scale. The basis of these maps, which are available in different scales, is the so-called special geological map . In contrast to small-scale maps, it shows the geological conditions in high resolution so that special small-scale statements can be made on its basis. The special geological map, however, does not replace the detailed exploration of the local conditions required for construction work, for example by means of ramming core soundings or drilling .
In Germany, for example, this is the special geological map on a scale of 1: 25,000, which was started to be recorded in the second half of the 19th century. In Austria and Switzerland, geological maps exist on the same scale. In France, the special geological map on a scale of 1: 40,000 was used for a long time; it is increasingly being replaced by maps on a scale of 1: 25,000.
Cartographic basics
On a geological map, geological units are delimited as precisely as possible and according to the objective of the map by boundary lines. The areas that are delimited from one another are filled in with a uniform color or hatching , which is briefly explained in an attached legend . For a better visual differentiation of individual color markings, a combination of letters is drawn parallel to the color. A detailed explanation of the card units and other information, some of which cannot be shown on the card, are compiled in an explanation that is enclosed with the card. In addition to the geological units, a geological map can contain further information in the form of different line types, special geological symbols or additional hatching and map texts as well as selected terrain profiles.
The cartographic basis of a geological map is a topographic map that is as up-to-date as possible , which above all reproduces the terrain, contour lines and geographic conditions on the same scale as the geological map.
Geological maps use different map scales depending on the objective . Geological overview maps are displayed on a scale of 1: 100,000 to 1: 1,000,000 or smaller and depict the geological conditions of entire regions, countries or continents. Special geological maps use scales such as 1: 75,000, 1: 50,000 or 1: 25,000 to reflect the local geological conditions of an area. Even larger scales such as 1: 5,000 or 1: 500 are selected for the representation of small areas or individual outcrops .
Since the International Geological Congress in Bologna in 1881 , attempts have been made to standardize the colors for the rock units. The standardization tasks are carried out by international and national geological commissions .
Thematic geological maps
In addition to the already mentioned form of the lithological and lithostratigraphic map, there are other forms of geological maps. For example, a modern geological special map on a scale of 1: 25,000 is accompanied by a tectonic map, depending on the area mapped . This map is usually not laid out in color, only the stratum boundaries and faults drawn on the actual geological map are shown. In addition, all positions at which the spatial position of the stratification or other structural elements such as cleavage and fracturing characterized by special characters were measurable in mapping, which are accompanied by the respective measurement value. In areas with folded layers, the course of the fold axes of the most important saddles and hollows is drawn in with special lines. Data on the metamorphosis of the rocks, such as coalification, are often entered in the tectonic map .
As a rule, a map of the stones and earths ( ores ) is also attached to the special geological map . It shows the known deposits and deposits of ores and the areas with economically usable natural stone deposits, as well as the active and abandoned mining areas of such mineral resources . A special form of this map is the special deposit map, which is issued as an independent work.
Other forms of geological map are, for example
History of the geological map
The representation of geological conditions in a spatial context has already been tried in ancient times. The oldest and only surviving evidence of such attempts is the so-called Turin Papyrus , which was created by an Egyptian scribe more than 3000 years ago. In Europe, towards the end of the 17th century, the first cartographic representations of geological relationships according to our current ideas appear. The transition from the mining district maps to the geological map is fluid. Much older mining maps, for example from the Freiberg mountain area, bear notes on the types of rock that have been approached. It is therefore logical that the first geological maps were created in France and England, especially in the field of mining and ore extraction, and a little later in Switzerland, Germany and Austria.
One of the pioneers was the military engineer and cartographer Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli in Italy, who in 1717 mapped gypsum deposits in the vicinity of his home town of Bologna, including the invisible underground course of the formations.
The Frenchman Jean-Étienne Guettard prepared many regionally limited mineralogical and volcanological maps, but hesitated to generalize from local observations to overarching geological formations and therefore withdrew from the project of a geological map of France in 1777, despite his years of preparatory work. He was accompanied and supported by the young Antoine de Lavoisier in his investigations, the preparation of the maps and the necessary trips .
Another early example is a map of Heligoland by an anonymous marine cartographer from 1757, in which the formations of red sandstone, shell limestone, chalk and coal are shown and their boundaries. The cartographer also included areas under the water surface (the map was probably primarily intended for seafarers to navigate around Heligoland).
Usually William Smith (1801) is regarded as the "father" of the first large-scale geological map (England, Wales) with systematic consideration of geological formations. Initial suggestions in this direction were made in England in 1683 by Martin Lister, but without any practical consequences.
Early systematic mapping work in Saxony is associated with the name Abraham Gottlob Werner . They result from an order given in 1788 by the electoral Saxon government to the Oberbergamt to comprehensively examine the hard coal deposits. In 1791, the elector directly commissioned Werner to take charge of this work. He used the assignment to tackle a general geological mapping of Saxony, which represented the basis of the geognostic state survey of Saxony . At the beginning of the 19th century, the first systematic geological surveys began in some of the then largely independent German states (often located at the respective mining offices and in the first forerunners of the geological state institutes), which reached its first peak towards the end of the century , for example in the geological survey of the Prussian Geological State Institute , the Bavarian Geological State Office under Carl Wilhelm von Gümbel or in the state surveys in Baden and Württemberg . At around the same time, the systematic creation of area-wide special maps began in the other European countries and in North America . Even today, many sheets of the special geological map of Germany, England or France are only available in the mapping of that time, but they are characterized by careful mapping and detailed representation and can still be used today. Area-wide geological mapping is still not fully completed in many countries around the world, especially in developing countries and remote regions.
The digital representation of geological maps is becoming increasingly common, and many state and federal geological offices offer free access to geological maps in high resolution via the Internet. The view that the state geological information must be freely accessible to the public is beginning to gain acceptance. Particularly outstanding examples are the United States Geological Survey (USGS) , which makes an overwhelming amount of geological information freely accessible, or the national geological service in France, the Bureau des Récherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM). In Germany, many federal states offer a map server on the Internet, and in Austria numerous geological overview and special maps in sufficient resolution are available on the Internet.
Early geological maps
Geological maps in today's sense are mainly known from Europe from the 18th century. The following table lists some examples of such cards.
| year | author | title | particularities |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1743 | Christopher Packe | A new Philosophico-Chorographical Chart of East Kent | special signatures and lines for geological outcrops and observations |
| 1752 | Jean-Étienne Guettard | Carte minéralogique où l'on voit la nature des terrains du Canada et de la Louisiane | Compiled from reports from French officers |
| 1761 | Georg Christian Füchsel | Historia terrae et maris ex historia Thuringiae pernotium descriptionem erecta | Characters, letters and numbers for geological outcrops and observations, first geological map of part of Germany |
| 1768 | Christian Hieronymus Lommer | Oldest geological map in the area of Saxony and earliest use of color in geological maps | |
| 1775 | Friedrich Gottlob glasses | Attempt to provide a mineralogical description of the princes of Henneberg, a part of the Electorate of Saxony, together with a brief history of the former and current mining industry. | Geological map of the county of Henneberg , also using colors |
| 1778 | Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Toussaint von Charpentier | Mineralogical geography of the Chursächsische Lande , Leipzig | Distribution of rocks and minerals on a large geological map |
| about 1775-1780 | Jean-Étienne Guettard | Mineralogical map of France + England with a non-colored map of the occurrence of rocks, minerals and other information | |
| 1780 | Jean-Étienne Guettard , Antoine-Grimald Monnet | Atlas et description mineralogiques de la France . | Mineralogical Atlas of France, 60 map sheets. |
| 1783 | Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt | Mineralogical journeys through the Duchy of Saxony-Weimar-Eisenach . 2 volumes, ed. by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe | Geological profiles |
| 1783 | Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt | Mineralogical description of the Hochstift Fulda . Dessau and Leipzig | Colored geological map |
| 1789 | Georg Lasius | Observations over the Harz Mountains | Petrographic map and profile |
| 1792 | Mathias von Flurl | Description of the mountains of Baiern and the Upper Palatinate | First geological map of Bavaria |
| 1797 | Wilhelm von Hisinger | Map of West Gotland, Sweden | |
| 1797-1807 | Gustaf Ermine | including Karta öfver Götarike eller Södra delen af Swerige | Map of West Gotland, Nerike and Skåne, Sweden |
| 1801 | William Smith | Geological map of England and Wales | Small-scale map showing the distribution of seven geological formations |
| 1807 | Johann Carl Free Life | Geognostic contribution to the knowledge of the copper slate mountains with special regard to a part of the Graffschaft Mannsfeld and Thuringia: first part . Freyberg, bey Craz and Gerlach | Colored geological map |
| 1809 | William Maclure | Observations on the geology of the United States of America . Transactions of the American Philosophical Society | In principle correct, simple representation of the geology of the eastern half of today's USA |
| 1811-1824 | William Smith | Smith's geological atlas of England and Wales | Individual publication of the maps of 21 counties in England + Wales |
| 1813 | Robert Bakewell | Introduction to Geology | Bakewell's Introduction to Geology included, among other things, the first, albeit poorly detailed, geological map of all of England, and by 1838 it had five editions |
| 1815 | William Smith | A delineation of the Strata of England and Wales with part of Scotland; exhibiting the Collieries and Mines, the Marshes and Fen Lands originally overflowed by the Sea, and the varieties of soil according to the variations in the substrata, illustrated by the most descriptive names | Small scale single map of the geological map of England + Wales, the first modern geological overview map |
| 1819 | George Bellas Greenough | Geological Map of England and Wales | Geological map of England + Wales (6 sheets with explanations), sophisticated topographical basis, excellent craftsmanship |
| 1821/31 | Christian Keferstein | Teutschland, geognostically = geologically represented, with charts and average drawings that form a geognostic atlas . Weimar, in the publishing house of the country = Industry = Comptoirs | General geognostic map of Germany |
| 1822 | William THF Strangways | An Outline of the Geology of Russia | Geological map of Russia |
| 1823 | Johann von Charpentier | Geological map of the Pyrenees | |
| 1826 | George Bellas Greenough | Geological Map of England and Wales | Geological map of England + Wales, reduced scale, 1 sheet. The map was very popular and has been published in various new editions to this day. |
| from 1835/1841 | André Brochant de Villiers , Léonce Élie de Beaumont , Armand Dufrénoy | Carte geologique de la France | Publication of a first detailed geological map of France including explanatory reports |
| 1840 | John MacCulloch | Geological Map of Scotland | Basis for all subsequent geological work in Scotland |
| 1856 | Fridolin Sandberger | Geological survey of the state in the Grand Duchy of Baden on a scale of 1: 50,000 | The first official geological map of Baden was printed in 1858 |
| 1871 to 1918 | Ferdinand Schalch | Geological sheets of the Ore Mountains and the Klettgau | Beginning of systematic geological cartography in sections, establishment of the Baden Geological State Institute |
Early mapping work in Austria-Hungary
"In all of the crown lands, more or less advanced geological work has been completed or at least started." With this sentence Wilhelm Haidinger introduced his statements on the geological investigation of the empire in the first year of the yearbook of the Imperial and Royal Geological Institute .
Haidinger's activity in the Imperial and Royal Montanist Museum enabled him to publish the geognostic overview map of the Austrian monarchy in 1845 with a volume of nine sheets. The basis for this work are individual geological maps that were created at the Bergakademie Schemnitz and mark the foundation of the map collection in the Montanist Museum. With this map series in nine parts, a complete compendium on the geological conditions in the Austrian Empire was available for the first time .
The main work of geological mapping in the Danube Monarchy was created on the topographical basis of the Franzisco-Josephinische Landaufnahme on a scale of 1: 75,000.
Bosnia Herzegovina
- (after Ćorić 1999)
A first comprehensive geological description of the Dinaride region was written by Ami Boué . The first geological map was created on the basis of his work and was published as part of the overview map (1845) mentioned above by Wilhelm Haidinger on a scale of 1: 864,000. H. Sterneck added a geological overview map to his travel report Geological Conditions, Communications and Travel in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Northern Montenegro , published in 1877 , which also contained entries about minerals and rock deposits.
The detailed mapping of Bosnia-Herzegovina , which came under full Austrian administration as a part of the country only in 1908, presented a special challenge due to its surface strongly shaped by the mountains. In a joint agreement of 1879, the Imperial Geological Institute and the Imperial Hungarian geological institute undertake joint reconnaissance work in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This project subsequently failed because the responsible Hungarian ministry noted a shortage of skilled workers. As the only Hungarian geologist, Franz Herbich from Klausenburg agreed to do so. Alexander Bittner , Edmund Mojsisovics and Emil Tietze examined the conditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina in an extremely self-sacrificing field work . Together they wrote the explanations for the geological overview map of Bosnia-Hercegovina (1880, Ed. Franz von Hauer, Vienna).
Friedrich Katzer , director of the Bosnian-Hercegovinian State Geological Institute, founded in 1912 by the Mining Authority , initiated extensive geological exploration and mapping work until 1924. The geological overview map of Bosnia and Herzegovina was created on a scale of 1: 200,000 and with a size of six sheets. Furthermore, ten sheets of the formation outline maps on a scale of 1: 75,000 were published by 1922. Many valuable documents were lost when the specialist library of Geoloski zavod in Sarajevo was also destroyed in the Balkan War of 1992–1995 .
Slovenia
- (after Ramovš 1999)
In the area of present-day Slovenia , the geological survey work was particularly complicated. On the one hand there were mountain landscapes in the eastern alpine area with the Julian Alps and Karawanken that were difficult to walk and on the other hand differentiated situations in the landscapes and karst areas to the south. The first geologist of the Imperial Geological Institute (GRA) to map here was Marko Vincenc Lipold . His most famous work deals with the mining area of Idrija and dates from 1872. This work received an award at the Vienna World Exhibition of 1873. The work of Lipold in the service of the GRA is rated as particularly fruitful. Nine geological overview maps on a scale of 1: 144,000 of the area of today's Slovenia come from him.
Furthermore, dealing Guido Stache (karst areas from 1888 to 1891), Dionys Stur (Krain, 1856) Karl Peters (Karawanken, 1856), Franz Kossmat (karst areas, 1895-1899), Friedrich plate (Southern Styria, Carniola, Karawanken 1885-1899) Julius Dreger (1892–1905) and Theobald von Zollikofer (Lower Styria, 1859) with further mapping work. The period from 1880 to 1910 formed the main epoch for the geological detailed survey. Much of this formed the basis for 14 map sheets of the special geological map on a scale of 1: 75,000, which appeared between 1895 and 1931. Several other map sheets remained unpublished.
Hungary
- (after Dudich 1999, Böckh / Szontagh 1900)
In the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary , the mapping work initially ran parallel. The Hungarian geologists mapped parts of the country under the responsibility of the Royal Hungarian National Museum under the direction of his custodian Maximilian Hantken von Prudnik . The geologists of the Imperial Geological Institute (GRA) made their own survey surveys in Hungary between 1858 and 1861.
Leading Hungarian geologists met on August 20, 1868 to establish a preliminary Hungarian geological section . These were Maximilian Hantken (custodian from the Hungarian National Museum), Karl Hofmann (professor at the Budapest Polytechnic), Benjamin Winkler von Kőszeg (royal mining expectant), Johann Böckh (royal mining expectant) and Anton Koch (university assistant). This group began mapping works on the leaves of the regions from Budapest and Tata to Esztergom .
With the establishment of the k. Hungarian geological institute in 1869, by order of the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Trade, an independent state institution was created for the geological exploration of the country. Maximilian Hantken is appointed director. The beginning was marked by a considerable shortage of staff and one had to hire geologists on a fee basis to map the terrain.
In 1870, however, the director (GRA) Franz von Hauer complained in Vienna that the responsible Hungarian ministry no longer used the supporting mapping work carried out by Viennese geologists in northern Hungary (now the Slovak Republic ). This ministerial maneuver describes the difficult cooperation situation between the two parts of the country prior to the settlement agreement.
The personal friendship between the two representatives, Hauer and Hantken, ensured a certain flow of information in favor of working on the entire map series.
The independent Hungarian mapping runs around 1869 in the areas north and west of Cluj and 1870–72 in the areas of the counties of Máramaros , Ugocsa and Szatmár . Independently of this, the geological overview map of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy , sheet IV Eastern Carpathians and in 1873 sheet VIII Transylvania , edited by Franz von Hauer , appeared in Vienna .
The Hungarian establishment expanded its staff in 1883 to include the position of a mining geologist. This, Alexander Gesell, dealt with the geological survey in the classic Hungarian mining areas, first in the area of Körmöcbánya and Nagybanya , later in the Transylvanian Ore Mountains . It was not until 1908 that mapping work was carried out in what is now northern Croatia and the Adriatic coast .
Early mapping work in Greece and the Aegean Sea
- (after Neumayr / Teller / et al. 1880)
G. Richard Lepsius led with the support of the Kgl. Academy of Sciences in Berlin carried out geological recordings in Attica , for which he used topographic maps on a scale of 1: 25,000 that were created by the Imperial German Archaeological Institute (E. Curtis, JA Kaupert) between 1875 and 1885 .
A group of Austrian geologists, who for this purpose traveled parts of mainland Greece and numerous islands between 1874 and 1876, made a special contribution to geological exploration and mapping in Greece. Melchior Neumayr , Leo Burgerstein and Friedrich Teller carried out geological surveys in Thessaly and on the Chalkidike peninsula in 1875 . In the following year, Alexander Bittner examined the geological structure of the regions Attica, Boeotia , Lokris and Parnasis, and Melchior Neumayr carried out studies in western central Greece. This elaborate expedition was based on a decree of the Imperial and Royal Ministry of Education of June 2, 1875, which aimed to geological exploration in the "Orient". Melchior Neumayr was in charge.
Melchior Neumayr visited the island of Kos in 1874 and created a complete geological map on a scale of approx. 1: 120,000 (published in 1880). It drew its topographical basis from the English admiralty map by Graves and Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt . Friedrich Teller examined and mapped the island of Chios in 1874 (published in 1880) and in 1876 the geological conditions on Evia .
From this recording work by the Austrian geologists, several larger maps were created. First and foremost is the geological overview map of mainland Greece and the island of Euboea on a scale of 1: 400,000 by Bittner, Neumayr and Teller, which was published in 1880 as a color print. A map of French general staff officers on a scale of 1: 200,000 served as the topographical basis.
The second set of maps is the geological overview map of the north-western coastal countries of the Aegean Sea , by Leo Burgerstein, Melchior Neumayr and Friedrich Teller on a scale of 1: 500,000 (published in 1880). The topographical basis was the Carte de l'Epire et de la Thessalie by Heinrich Kiepert on the same scale.
The third map series was a tectonic overview map of a part of the coastal countries of the Aegean Sea on a scale of 1: 1,850,000 by the authors Alexander Bittner, Leo Burgerstein, Melchior Neumayr and Friedrich Teller, published in 1880.
Early mapping work in the Turkish Empire
- (after Hochstetter 1870; 1872)
The Austrian geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter undertook a trip from Constantinople to Belgrade in the summer of 1869 for the purpose of geological exploration and accompanying mapping . This geological survey work ran parallel to the topographical and exploratory work by an engineering group working on behalf of the Turkish government, which had to carry out the necessary preparatory work in the area for the expansion of the Turkish railway network.
His inspection tour began on July 30th in Constantinople and led first to Adrianople (today Edirne ), at the end of August via Philippopel (today Plovdiv ) and on to Nisch (today Niš ) to Belgrade and finally ended in Vienna in mid-October 1869 . Ferdinand von Hochstetter was able to rely on numerous preliminary work by other researchers for his trip. This is all the more astonishing since the Balkan region in the first half and middle of the 19th century was a region that could only be visited with considerable privation due to the poorly developed infrastructure.
For his own preparation of his geological studies he had relied on the work of Ami Boué , especially on his geological manuscript map of Turkey for the work La Turquie d'Europe from 1840, as well as on geological descriptions by Auguste Viquesnel (1803-1867) from Voyage dans la Turquie d'Europe from 1868 in two volumes and an atlas. He also consulted Paul de Tchihatcheff's Le Bosphore et Constantinople , which appeared in three volumes in 1864 with an imperfect geological map of the Thracian Peninsula, and finally observational notes by Karl Ludolf Griesbach . The maps made by Auguste Viquesenel contain petrographic notes, but do not contain any formation outlines . For this reason, they cannot be called geological maps. A geological survey begun in 1866 by the Englishman Arthur Lennox on behalf of the Turkish government was not continued.
During this trip, Ferdinand von Hochstetter used a topographical map of European Turkey and the Kingdom of Greece on a scale of 1: 1,864,000 (by Josef Scheda ) in 13 sheets, which became his geological manuscript map during the course of his trip. However, this map basis turned out to be flawed in some parts of the country, as it was not created by a complete self-recording by Scheda, but additionally with the help of older French and Russian surveying work. For this reason, for example, Hochstetter himself had to work topographically in the Bulgarian Vitosha region before his geological observations could be mapped. In the course of the preparations leading to printing, all data from the manuscript map created during the trip were transferred to Heinrich Kiepert's new general map of European Turkey from 1870.
Although Ferdinand von Hochstetter's work was carried out on behalf of Austrian authorities, the Turkish government provided generous letters of recommendation to ensure that all official offices in the Vilayets visited ran smoothly .
With the publication of the map and an extensive two-part explanatory text in 1870 and 1871, a complete geological overview map of the Balkan region (scale 1: 1,000,000) was available for the first time. Remarkable - and indicative of the thoroughness in Hochstetter's remarks on the map - are not only the comprehensive discussions of individual geological formations , but also a listing of the most important building stones that shape the architecture of selected Turkish cities (Constantinople, Adrianople, Philippople). The author reveals himself to be an early supporter of the idea of cultural-geological contexts, for which the stimulating impulses for those explanations of the building and decorative stone collection in the Vienna Imperial and Royal Natural History Court Museum , which was growing considerably at this time, and the work of the collection curator , which received great public attention Felix Karrer can be seen.
Albania:
- (after Patzeld 1971; Hála 1993)
The geological exploration in the area of today's Albania began fragmentarily and was always part of extensive Balkan trips by individual researchers. Ami Boué (1840) and Auguste Viquesnel (1844) belonged to this group of people in a special way, as they undertook detailed investigations and observations under very difficult travel conditions in the then Turkish-administered country.
Alfred Philippson traveled to the end of the 19th century, the region Northern Epirus and published his findings, including a geological map in the years 1895, 1896 and 1897 (Thessaly and Epirus, travel and research in northern Greece) . Based on the work of Ernst Nowack , the first geological map of Albania was created on a scale of 1: 200,000, which appeared in 1929, including a detailed description of its area.
Furthermore, the work of Franz Baron von Nopcsa from 1905 should be mentioned, which primarily concentrated on northern Albania and also produced cartographic documents. One of his numerous publications on this country in 1916 deals with the history of cartography in Northern Albania. In the same year, Nopcsa published his accompanying words for the geological map of Northern Albania in the Hungarian Földtani Közlöny (Geological Communications of the Royal Hungarian Geological Institute) .
The first geological maps of Sweden come from Wilhelm von Hisinger and Samuel Gustaf Hermelin at the end of the 18th century.
The first systematically compiled geological map in the area of Norway was published in 1879 on a scale of 1: 1,000,000. It appeared in Christiana and is the work of Tellef Dahll , Theodor Kjerulf , Carl Petersen, OA Corneliussen, Th. Hjortdahl and T. Lassen. Field work began in 1866. Only northern Norway is shown on this map. Part of the exploration results were published with a geological map of the Finnmarken region in 1870.
In Finland , the first systematic geological mapping of the surrounding rocks began in 1877 by the Geological Commission and under the direction of its first director Karl Adolf Moberg . At the same time, Quaternary formations were recorded, which were later included in a separate map series. This mapping work began on and around the island of Kimitoön . From 1879 onwards, printed maps were issued from those recording work on a scale of 1: 200,000, which depict regions in southern Finland with a total of 37 sheets. The field work for the geological mapping of central Finland was carried out under the leadership of Benjamin Frosterus in the 1890s, whose map sheets later appeared on a scale of 1: 400,000. During this mapping work, the geologists found anorthosites with individual plagioclase crystals with a size of up to 50 cm in cross section. Furthermore, the orbiculite deposits at Kangasniemi were discovered . Systematic recording work was carried out for the first time in northern Finland between 1899 and 1904. Victor Hackman published the resulting first three sheets in 1910, the explanatory reports of which appeared in 1914. In the area of the Finnish Karelia , the leading Finnish cartographer WW Wilkman began in 1895 with topographic field work, during which extensive records of the observed geological conditions and corresponding handpieces were created. Benjamin Frosterus later contributed to his work, as a result of which significant, coherent petrographic and tectonic insights were gained. They were published together with an overview map in 1901. The areas covered are regions on Lake Ladoga and landscapes between the then Russian border and the central lake area of Finland. This and other work resulted in geological maps on a scale of 1: 400,000.
Early mapping work in Russia
Given the size of the Russian Empire , the early geological mappings could only be fragmentary approaches. The selected areas were mostly of considerable geological and economic importance. Comprehensive mapping therefore started comparatively late and was not implemented significantly until the second half of the 20th century. However, the beginning of a systematic mapping lies in the 19th century and is represented by the General Geological Map of Russia . This first systematic geological map of the European part of Russia was created by the Geological Committee founded in 1882 under the leadership of Gregor von Helmersen (from whom an early geological map of European Russia from 1841 comes), Alexander Petrovich Karpinski , on which Feodossi Nikolayevich Chernyshev , Sergei Nikolayevich Nikitin and others were involved.
Early mapping work by Russian geologists will be presented using a few examples.
Caucasus
- (after Paffengolz 1963; Андрусова 1909)
The first comprehensive geological observations are handed down in a six-part work by Frédéric Dubois de Montpéreux , which reproduces his results from the trip at the end of the 1830s.
The first systematic geological exploration in the Caucasus was made in the 1840s through the work of Hermann von Abich . He began to publish on this region in 1843 and, from 1878, entered the professional world with a three-part work Geological research in the Caucasian countries. Hermann Abich was the first geologist to map numerous regions of the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands . The geological overview map of the Lesser Caucasus on a scale of 1: 420,000 comes from him.
The following mappings were carried out in the second half of the 19th century by a group of geologists from the Caucasus Mining Administration, in which Archipov, Chalamow and Zulukidze were involved. As a result of this very extensive recording work, which focuses on mining geology, the Caucasus Mining Administration published the first geological overview map of the Caucasus (NI Lebedew) on a scale of 1: 2,520,000 in 1908. However, it was not yet able to show all regions in a geologically differentiated manner.
In addition, reference must be made here to the work of Nikolai Iwanowitsch Andrussow , which mainly related to the Neogene classes , but describes important and large parts of the Caucasus in published form. Many investigations have been carried out since the beginning of the 20th century under the direction of the Geological Committee , headed by the geologist AP Gerasimow. All of these results were also incorporated into the systematic mapping.
Ural
- (after Helmersen 1848)
The Urals 'abundance of mineral resources drew the Tsars' early attention to the exploration of these mountains. In 1847 the Russian Geographic Society sent an expedition to explore the hard-to-reach northern areas in the Urals, the aim of which was to collect topographical and geological knowledge. It formed the first major activity of this society and was under the direction of the geologist and Colonel Hoffmann and, in second place, Major Strajewskji, who was experienced in mining. The specific aim of the expedition consisted in the first topographical and geological survey north of the 64th parallel. The expedition began on May 30th in Cherdyn 1847 and ended on September 25th of the same year in Beryosov .
Central Asia
- (after Guntau 1979)
The Russian geologist Vladimir Afanassjewitsch Obruchev took on geological mapping work in the area of the Astrakhan - Tschardschou - Samarkand railway line as a young graduate in the Trans-Caspian region between 1886 and 1888 .
Eastern Siberia
- (after Gerasimov 1910; Guntau 1979)
When Vladimir Afanassjewitsch Obrutschew was appointed chief geologist at the Irkutsk Mining Authority in 1988, he devoted himself to further geological detailed surveys in the Lake Baikal area, the Lena river area and the gold fields located there.
Geological mapping work has been carried out by AP Gerasimow, which deals with the Siberian gold mining regions in the Lena region. The publication of his work (map with profile and comprehensive explanatory report) took place around 1910 in Saint Petersburg . His recording work was based on a regional map system on a scale of 1: 42,000. The published geological descriptions deal with the mines at the Shuja tributary Watscha and at the settlement Tichono-Sadonski (today Kropotkin ) in the Witim gold fields. This mining area is still active to the present day.
present
Today geoscientific institutions deal with the corresponding cartography, such as the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources in Germany and the state offices entrusted with the sovereign responsibility. In Austria this task is carried out by the Federal Geological Institute and the Geological Map of the Republic of Austria is published. In Switzerland, geological maps are issued by the Federal Office of Topography swisstopo . The United States Geological Survey , the United States' central authority on this topic, also creates geological maps of celestial bodies.
There are now efforts to develop global lithological and geological maps from individual national maps.
literature
- Horst Falke : Creation and interpretation of a geological map , De Gruyter 1975
- Otfried Wagenbreth : Geological mapping , in: Rudolf Hohl (Ed.): The history of the development of the earth . 6th edition, Werner Dausien Verlag, Hanau 1985, Volume 2, ISBN 3-7684-6526-8 , pp. 565-574
- Derek Powell: Interpretation of geological structures through maps: a practical guide with tasks and solutions. Berlin: Springer, 1995. ISBN 3-540-58607-5
- Herbert Vossmerbäumer : Geological maps. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 1983. ISBN 3-510-65112-X
- John W. Barnes, Richard Lisle: Basic Geological Mapping , 4th Edition, Wiley 2004
Historical cartography:
- Peter Heitzmann: The first geological maps of Switzerland 1752-1853. In: Cartographica Helvetica Heft 38 (2008) pp. 21–36 full text
- David Oldroyd : Maps as pictures or diagrams: The early development of geological maps , in VR Baker (Ed.), Rethinking the fabric of geology. GSA Special Paper 502, 2013, pp. 41-101.
- Otfried Wagenbreth: History of the geology in Germany . Enke, Stuttgart 1999
- Simon Winchester: A Map Changes the World: William Smith and the Birth of Modern Geology. Munich: Knaus, 2001. ISBN 3-8135-0127-2
- Karl Alfred v. Zittel : history of geology and paleontology . R. Oldenbourg, Munich and Leipzig 1899
Regional cartography:
- A. Zitzmann: The geological map works in the Federal Republic of Germany , In: Kartographisches Taschenbuch 1994/95, Bonn, pp. 45–71
Web links
Maps, online:
- One Geology Portal , interactive geological world map
- Macrostrat , interactive geological world map
- Germany:
- Geological map of Germany (1: 200,000, 1: 1,000,000) , Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)
- Geological maps 1: 25,000 (GK25) of Germany and former Prussian areas , GEO-LEOe-docs (FID GEO)
- Interactive geological map (GK25) of Lower Saxony , NIBIS® map server, State Office for Mining, Energy and Geology (LBEG)
- Geological overview map of Rhineland-Palatinate , State Office for Geology and Mining
- Geological maps and explanatory booklets of the GK25 of Saxony
- Geological maps (GK25) of Bavaria
- Geology of France, map server. Bureau des Récherches Géologiques et Minières, France
- François Ellenberger, Les premiers cartes geologiques en France 1982
- A Tapestry of Time and Terrain . Geological map of the USA, United States Geological Survey
- IGME 5000 International Geological Map of Europe and the Adjacent Regions 1: 5,000,000, Asch, K (2005), Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Hanover
- Geological maps of Austria. Federal Geological Institute (BGA), Vienna
Individual evidence
- ^ David Bressan, A Concise History of Geological Maps: From Outcrop to the first Map , Scientific American Blog, 22. March 2014
- ^ David Bressan, A Concise History of Geological Maps: From Outcrop to the first Map, Scientific American Blog, with reference to David Oldroyd
- ^ Otfried Wagenbreth: History of Geology in Germany . Enke, Stuttgart 1999, p. 34
- ↑ Sheet cuts of GK25 Saxony. In: LfuLG Saxony. State Office for Environment, Agriculture and Geology Saxony, accessed on January 10, 2019 .
- ↑ Unless otherwise stated, the presentation is based essentially on Lit .: Hohl: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Erde . 1985. as well as Zittel: history of geology and palaeontology . 1899, p. 1-868 ( online version ).
- ↑ Information about a geological map of France by Louis Coulon from 1644, which would be the earliest known geological map, is incorrect according to Francois Ellenberger.
- ^ Explanatory Text for the Geologic Map of the US - Part 2, Maps published before 1860 . United States Geological Survey
- ^ Rudolf Möller: Füchsel, Georg Christian. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 5, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1961, ISBN 3-428-00186-9 , pp. 684 f. ( Digitized version ) .; Wilhelm von Gümbel: Füchsel, Georg Christian . In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Volume 8, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1878, p. 175.
- ↑ Geological Land Survey and Archives , Saxon State Office for Environment and Geology ( Memento of the original dated February 9, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Example: Carte minéralogique de presque toute la Brie et pays adjacents ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Voigt , Johann Karl Wilhelm , Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892 at the Retro Library
- ↑ Review of the observations about the Harz Mountains , Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, year 1790, volume 2
- ↑ a b c William Smith, mapping England and Wales (English)
- ↑ Drawing of the map by Maclure in the article Previous geologic maps of the United States . History of the geological map in the United States (English)
- ↑ Example: A New Map of Staffordshire, divided into hundreds, exhibiting its roads, rivers, parks & c.
- ^ Notes about county geological maps by William Smith, 1819-24. In: Old Hampshire Mapped. University of Portsmouth , accessed December 20, 2009 .
- ^ Library of the Friends of the Goethe and Schiller Archives Weimar e. V. ( Memento of the original from September 26, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Transactions of the Geological Society of London, Series 2, Volume 1, 1822, 1-39
- ^ Otfried Wagenbreth: History of Geology in Germany . Stuttgart 1999, p. 90
- ^ Franz Ritter v. Hauer: In memory of Wilhelm Haidinger . In: Yearbook of the Imperial Geological Institute . Volume 21, 1st issue, Vienna 1871, p. 36
- ↑ Stjepan Ćorić: The geological exploration of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the fundamental contribution of Austrian geologists . In: Treatises of the Federal Geological Institute . Volume 56, Issue 1, Vienna 1999, pp. 117–152.
- ^ Anton Ramovš: About the geological investigations in the Slovene area under the direction of the Geological Reichsanstalt in Vienna from 1849 to 1918 . In: Treatises of the Federal Geological Institute . Volume 56, Issue 1, Vienna 1999, pp. 69-94.
- ↑ Endre Dudich: Relations between the kk Imperial Geological Institute in Vienna and the Hungarian Geology from 1867 to 1918 . In: Treatises of the Federal Geological Institute . Volume 56, Issue 1, Vienna 1999, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Johann Böckh, Thomas v. Szontagh: The Royal Hungarian Geological Institute . Budapest 1900
-
↑ M. Neumayr, Fr. Teller et al .: Geological studies in the coastal countries of the Greek archipelago . Karl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna 1880
Greek mainland: pp. I – III, 91–128
Aegean islands: pp. I – III, 131, 213, 340. - ↑ Ferdinand von Hochstetter: The geological conditions of the eastern part of European Turkey . In: Yearbook of the Imperial Geological Institute . Volume 20, Comm. Wilhelm Braumüller, Vienna 1870, pp. 366–461
- ↑ Ferdinand von Hochstetter: The geological conditions of the eastern part of European Turkey . In: Yearbook of the Imperial Geological Institute . Volume 22, Comm. Wilhelm Braumüller, Vienna 1872, pp. 331–388
- ↑ Gerald Patzeld: contributions to the geology of the SW part of the People's Republic of Albania . In: Geology. Journal for the entire field of geological sciences . Supplement No. 61, Volume 20, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1971, p. 6
- ^ Józef Hála: Franz Baron von Nopcsa, remarks on his family and his relations with Albania . Federal Geological Institute, Hungarian State Geological Institute, Vienna 1993
- ^ Ernst Nowak: Geological Survey of Albania. Explanations for the geological map of Albania 1: 200,000 . Salzburg 1929
- ^ Franz Nopcsa: On the geology of Northern Albania . In: Yearbook of the Imperial Geological Institute . Year 55, Vienna 1906, pp. 85–152
- ^ Theodor Kjerulf: The geology of southern and central Norway . Bonn 1880, S. V
- ^ Hans Hausen: The History of Geology and Mineralogy in Finland 1828-1918 . Helsinki 1968, pp. 72-83
- ↑ Konstantin N. Paffengolz: Geological outline of the Caucasus . Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1963, pp. 18-20
- ↑ Н. Андрусова: Материалы къ познанію прикапійскаго неогена . С.-Петербургъ 1909, pp. 1–41, 145–177
- ^ Helmersen: News about the expedition sent in 1847 by the Russian Geographic Society to explore the northern Urals . In: Archives for Scientific Customer of Russia . Volume 7, Issue 2, G. Reimer, Berlin 1848, pp. 258-274
- ↑ Martin Guntau (Ed.): Biographies of important geoscientists of the Soviet Union. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1979, p. 115
- ↑ А. Герасимовъ: Геологическая карта Ленскаго золотоноснаго района . Описание листа, I-6/7, С. Петербургь 1910 г. (AP Gerasimov: Geological map of the gold regions of the Lena River. Description from sheet I-6/7, St. Petersburg.), Pp. 1–111
- ↑ M. Guntau (Ed.): Biographies of important geoscientists of the Soviet Union. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1979, pp. 115–121
- ↑ Provision and use of geological information on www.www.bgr.bund.de ( Memento of the original from March 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Main Geological Survey Department at www.http: //www.geologie.ac.at/
- ↑ Via swisstopo at www.swisstopo.admin.ch
- ↑ USGS Maps of the planets and moons ( Memento of the original from May 27, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , geological map of a southern part of the moon from 1979 (without legend)
- ↑ "Global Lithological Map" / Commission for the Geological Map of the World / with electronic map to download
- ^ "Geological Map of the World 1:35 000 000" / Commission for the Geological Map of the World / paper map
