Carnuntum (military camp)
| a) Carnuntum legionary camp b) Carnuntum equestrian camp |
|
|---|---|
| Alternative name |
a) Canunto , b) Carnontum , c) Carnunto , d) Arrunto , e) Carnuto |
| limes | Upper Pannonia |
| section | Route 2 |
| Dating (occupancy) |
a) Claudian-Neronian, around 70 AD to the end of the 4th century b) Domitian, 1st to 3rd century AD. |
| Type |
a) Legion camp and naval station b) Alenkastell |
| unit |
a)
b) |
| size |
a) 490 × 400 meters b) 225 × 178 meters |
| Construction | Wood-earth / stone |
| State of preservation |
a) The legionary camp is completely under agricultural land, only the southern flank tower of the east gate is still visible. b) The camp bath and sections of the southern and eastern fortifications are still visible. |
| place | Petronell-Carnuntum |
| Geographical location | 48 ° 6 ′ 58 " N , 16 ° 51 ′ 30" E |
| height | 109 m above sea level A. |
| Previous | Aequinoctium fort (west) |
| Subsequently | Small fort Stopfenreuth (east) |
Carnuntum is the name for a multi-period legionary camp , an auxiliary fort and a camp town that served to protect the Upper Pannonian Limes. From the 2nd century AD, the civil town of Carnuntum was also the administrative center of the Roman province of (Upper) Pannonia . It is the most important and most extensively researched ancient archaeological site in Austria and is located in the municipal areas of Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg , Lower Austria . It is also the only legionary camp between Regensburg and Belgrade that has not been built over in a modern way and thus one of the most important archaeological monuments on the Danube Limes.
The region around a still unlocated Celtic settlement and power center, which the historian Velleius Paterculus referred to as "Carnunto, qui locus regni Norici" (in the Kingdom of Norikum), became a gathering point for the from the 1st century AD Expansion of the Romans into free Germania ( Barbaricum ) . There, an important connection to the south branched off from the Limes Road. On the foothills of the Little Carpathians , one of the most important settlement and defense areas in the northern provinces of the empire soon developed. Together with the auxiliary camp in Győr, the legion camp in Carnuntum is one of the oldest Roman fortifications on the Pannonian Limes . Carnuntum owed its rapid rise, among other things, to its favorable location at the intersection of two old transcontinental trade routes as well as the legionary and auxiliary camp, in which up to 6500 men were stationed at times. The coexistence of legions and auxiliary troops, in particular, emphasized the military and political rank of this location for the Romans. The forts of Carnuntum were repeatedly the focus of important political and military events during the Roman rule over Pannonia.
The oldest archaeological evidence from Roman times date to the middle of the 1st century AD. After the establishment of a temporary winter camp under the then general and later Emperor Tiberius (14–37), a solid piece of wood was created during the reign of Claudius (41–54) -Earth camp and two civil settlements. At the beginning of the 2nd century, around 50,000 people were already living there. The legionary camp was rebuilt in stone around 100 AD. In the middle of the 2nd century a cavalry fort was also built. During the Marcomann Wars , Emperor Marc Aurel (161-180) led his campaigns from Carnuntum into the tribal areas north of the Danube. At the end of the 2nd century, the governor of Upper Pannonia, Septimius Severus (193–211), was proclaimed emperor by the Danube regions; this resulted in another massive economic upswing for Pannonia. In late antiquity, a base for the Danube fleet was set up in Carnuntum. In 308 AD the tetrarchs held the Carnuntum Imperial Conference there . A severe earthquake devastated the region in the middle of the 4th century. This natural disaster combined with the steady reduction in the number of border troops and the disastrous effects of the great migration finally ushered in its economic and demographic decline. In the late 4th century, the already very dilapidated place served Emperor Valentinian I (364-375) as an army camp for a campaign against Transdanubian tribal groups. In the course of the 5th century the legionary camp was abandoned and abandoned by its Romanesque inhabitants. The so-called Heidentor , a partially preserved triumphal monument from the 4th century, is located between Limes and Bernsteinstrasse , today the landmark of the Carnuntum region.
Surname
The name Carnuntum / Karnuntum was taken over from the Celtic predecessor settlement and would refer to the Celtic deity Cernunnos in one of his name forms, since the common root of the names means carn horn. It could also be derived from an Illyrian idiom and mean 'stone wall, stone building, stone city, settlement on the rock or on the stone', which is now assumed to be outdated.
He was
- for the first time with the chronicler Velleius Paterculus ,
- later also in two places in Pliny ,
- with the geographer Claudius Ptolemy ,
- in the self-contemplations of Marcus Aurelius,
- in the Historia Augusta ,
- in the Notitia dignitatum ,
- with the late antique chronicler Ammianus Marcellinus ,
- in the Codex Theodosianus ,
- in the Annales regni Francorum ,
and in the main geographic sources,
- in the Itinerarium Antonini
- and in the Tabula Peutingeriana
mentioned.
location
The village of Petronell-Carnuntum is located between Vienna (Vindobona) and Bratislava on the Danube and Leitha rivers. The ancient Carnuntum was located about 40 kilometers east of Vienna, directly on the southern bank of the Danube (Danuvius) at the Danube breakthrough through the Little Carpathians , past which the river flows through the Hainburger Pforte (Porta Hungarica) near the mouth of the March . The steep bank of the Danube is interrupted at Pfaffenberg near Deutsch-Altenburg by the valley of a small stream, which provided an easily passable access to the Danube. The Braunsberg, the 480 meter high Hundsheimer Berg and its foothills, the Pfaffenberg, offered an excellent all-round view of the Marchfeld, the Danube floodplains and the mouth of the March. At Carnuntum, the Amber Road, coming from the north through the Marchtal, also crossed the Danube.
The ancient, ten square kilometers large populated area reached in the west from Petronell-Carnuntum to the Pfaffenberg near Bad Deutsch-Altenburg in the east. In the north it came across dense riparian forests. In the south, the settlement area extended to about the route of today's federal highway 9. Due to the natural edge of the terrain in this section, the camp was about 40 meters above the southern bank of the Danube. The topography and hydrology of the banks of the Danube have changed steadily since ancient times. The area at Carnuntum was also subject to constant changes. The reason for this is that the current has repeatedly sought new routes through the country and, with its debris and floods, has influenced the flora and fauna by creating new river loops. At that time the main stream probably ran a little further north.
Carnuntum was initially part of the neighboring Noricum. However, under Tiberius it was incorporated into its section of Pannonia because of the constant danger from barbarian incursions. After the province was divided into Pannonia superior (Upper Pannonia) and Pannonia inferior (Lower Pannonia) under Trajan (98–117), the place first came to Pannonia Superior and from the imperial reform of Diocletian (284–305) belonged to the newly founded Pannonia Prima (Diocese of Illyria) .
function
The possession of Carnuntum as the crossing point of two heavily frequented, transcontinental main trade and traffic routes was strategically extremely important for the Romans. At that time the Danube was the fastest connection between the west and the east of the Roman Empire. From the legionary camp, in addition to controlling the river, its crossings ( Stopfenreuth , Burgberg von Devin) and the mouth of the March to the north, traffic on the Amber Road leading from the north ( Baltic Sea ) to the south (Italy) could be monitored. As a result, in addition to customs revenue, import bans, export embargoes, etc. could also influence the economy. The other tasks of the crew included border security and signal transmission on the Danube Limes . From the camp plateau you also had a good view of the Marchfeld .
Road links
The legionary fort as the center of the Carnuntum area played an important role in the development of the road network. Like the camps in Vindobona and Arrabona , it was located at the end of important highways, two of which met at Colonia Claudia Savaria and from there continued to Italy.
The Amber Road was an important trade route that connected the then inhospitable, underdeveloped northern Europe ( Baltic States ) with the old trade and craft centers in Italy on the Adriatic and the rest of the Mediterranean. It probably crossed the Danube near the Pfaffenberg , at Stopfenreuth , and reached the city limits in the southwest. From there it was identical to the so-called grave route, since since the early imperial era graves were preferred to be laid outside of the settlement area. It then ran along the west bank of Lake Neusiedl and connected Carnuntum with the nearest town of Scarbantia ( Sopron ), as found in milestones near Oslip and Bruck an der Leitha attest.
The Limes Road (via iuxta Danuvium) connected Gaul and the Rhine provinces with the middle and lower Danube and subsequently with the Greek east of the empire. There are different assumptions about their course. In the direction of Vienna it probably followed the bank of the Danube. It is unclear whether a road down the Danube, in the direction of Fort Gerulata / Rusovce, also belonged to the main strand of the Limes Road or whether it led directly out of the south gate and then continued to the southeast. About 150 meters south of the railway line, a junction from the Limes road was discovered. It led through the depression of the Altenburg brook to Prellenkirchen and from there to the forts of Gerulata and Ad Flexum ( Mosonmagyaróvár ). A second led at right angles to Gräberstrasse and then to Hundsheim and Edelstal . Parcel and field boundaries are still based on their route. Presumably it has existed since the 1st century AD.
Ceramic finds on the territory of Slovakia suggest that Carnuntum was also directly connected to the Waag valley area by a road . Their route probably led over the eastern slopes of the Little Carpathians from the Danube crossing near Bratislava to Trnava .
The west-east camp road is largely identical to the course of the federal highway 9. Its north-south counterpart continued - with the exception of its north side - also outside the camp. To the east it runs parallel to today's federal road to the outskirts of Deutsch-Altenburg. There, however, their traces are lost because of the dense development. It probably led over the Kirchberg to the foot of the Pfaffenberg and from there to the mouth of the March .
Research history
The remains of the legionary camp are likely to have been clearly visible until the 15th century. In 1668, the court librarian of Emperor Leopold I , Peter Lambeck (1628–1680), reported on “… old masons standing high above the earth, the collapsed vault, or the old cellar, the four portals and crossroads.” The areas of the camp, which stood directly on the steep bank of the Danube, fell into the river through erosion over the centuries. Due to the river regulation at the end of the 19th century, these landslides have largely come to a standstill. In contrast to most of the other legionary locations on the Rhine and Danube Limes, the Carnuntine camp is a completely unobstructed ground monument. Its area was used exclusively for agriculture and offers ideal conditions for large-scale archaeological prospecting projects such as geophysical measurements and, in particular, aerial archaeological investigations. Since the 1960s, the aerial photo archive of the Institute for Prehistory and Protohistory at the University of Vienna has had more than 1,500 vertical and oblique photographs from the Carnuntum region. Their evaluation yielded a large amount of information on the ancient buildings and infrastructure of the camp city. If you bring all the excavation and prospecting results together, you get a very detailed overall plan of the legion camp and the canabae legionis . The barracks, the central building principia (staff building), praetorium (accommodation of the legionary legate), the valetudinarium (camp hospital), three of the six tribune houses (officers' quarters) and three larger farm buildings in the eastern half of the camp were almost completely excavated .
18th century
Until the late 18th century, the ruins of the "heydnian [n] Statt" were torn down by the peasants as they hindered field work. The stones were reused as building material, the marble burned to lime. The officer and scholar Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658–1730) made a rough sketch of the legionary camp for his work Danubius pannonico-Mysicus in 1726 . During this time there were obviously still larger, coherent remains of the wall of the camp, which were popularly known as "The old castle". The east gate in particular should have been relatively well preserved at that time. On the occasion of a journey through the Danube in 1736–1737, the English educational travelers Jeremiah Milles (1714–1784) and Richard Pococke (1704–1765) also paid a visit to Carnuntum and mentioned it in their travel report A description of the east and some other countries . It was u. a. also reported of numerous remains of walls, grassy hills made of bricks in the interior and a larger ruin in the center of the camp.
19th century
Around 1821, the Prague magazine Hespererus reported on farmers from Deutsch-Altenburg who were digging and breaking old bricks as a lucrative sideline and sold them "by the fathom". In the same year the numismatist and archaeologist Anton von Steinbüchel (1790-1883) initiated the first targeted excavations, but this was only a one-man business. Interest in further research into Carnuntum awoke with a report by the art historian Eduard von Sacken (1825–1883), with which he informed the Austro-Hungarian Central Commission about the discovery of Mithräums I during blasting work on the Pfaffenberg. Sacken had the finds recovered with great care and brought to the cabinet of antiquities in Vienna. When Roman inscriptions were found in the quarry of Deutsch-Altenburg in 1852, the first excavations began, but were still mainly limited to collecting ancient finds. The exposed walls (military bath) were filled in again. In the same year Sacken reported that not a single remnant of the wall of the legionary camp was visible above ground. From 1877 systematic archaeological investigations began under the ancient historian Otto Hirschfeld (1843-1922), which initially concentrated on the legionary camp and to a lesser extent on the canabae legionis and lasted (with brief interruptions) until the outbreak of the First World War. 4/5 of the camp could be exposed. In 1884, under the patronage of Crown Prince Rudolf von Habsburg, the Carnuntum Association was founded with the aim of promoting the scientific investigation of local ancient sites. In 1885 the curator Alois Hauser (1841-1896) and in 1908 the archaeologist Maximilian von Groller-Mildensee (1838-1920) dug in the legion camp and on the Pfaffenberg. In 1888, the amphitheater of the camp city (Amphitheater I) was discovered in a depression next to the legionary camp. It was uncovered by Hauser by 1896. Archaeological research into the Roman aqueduct on the Solafield south of the Canabae began in the 1890s. Between 1885 and 1894, the cemetery on Bernsteinstrasse west of the legion camp of Groller-Mildensee was uncovered. Eugen Bormann entered the positions of the individual graves on a cadastral map. In August 1894 the building researcher Josef Dell (1859–1945) and Carl Tragau († 1908) examined the Mithraeum III. In the same year the KK Archaeological Institute was established. From then on, this and the Limes Commission attached to the Austrian Academy of Sciences were in charge of research into Carnuntum.
20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century, Groller-Mildensee examined the area south of the theater, the buildings of which were oriented towards the Limesstrasse. In 1904, the Carnuntinum Museum was opened to present the increasing number of finds in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg . In the subsequent excavation campaigns, the archaeologist Eduard Novotny (1862–1935) was able to uncover a large part of the legionary camp by 1914, so that it was possible to reconstruct its structure and structure. Between 1913 and 1914, the director of the Carnuntinum Museum at the time, Josef Bortlik, organized another large-scale excavation campaign along Gräberstrasse in order to keep the finds of the last unplundered graves safe from treasure graves. Since the 1950s, land consolidations, the expansion of infrastructure, large-scale material mining, the industrialization of agriculture, etc. have led to the destruction of large areas of found land. All these circumstances made rescue excavations necessary, which were, however, under great time pressure. The last excavations in the legionary camp were carried out between 1968 and 1977 by the Austrian Academy of Sciences in cooperation with the Austrian Archaeological Institute . They enabled the (still valid) periodization of the legionary camp and provided essential knowledge about the wood-earth and the late antique stone camp. The eastern part of the praetentura (northern part) of the camp has remained largely unexplored to this day. In 1977 on the eastern outskirts of Petronell-Carnuntum the trench of the equestrian camp was cut during the construction of a housing estate (the so-called Schneider settlement). In 1978 the archaeological excavations began under the direction of Herma Stiglitz . However, some sections of the fort were irretrievably lost due to the overbuilding. In order to save the remainder, the castle grounds were placed under monument protection by the Austrian Federal Monuments Office. Up to 1988 it was possible to examine the western half of the area in particular, partly with search cuts, but also over a large area. The function, the four construction periods and the dimensions of the cavalry camp could be determined. In addition to the fortifications, a number of the internal structures from the different construction periods were also examined. After Stiglitz retired in 1989, Manfred Kandler was entrusted with continuing the excavation work. He also included the southern apron of the fort in his investigations. Mainly tools, weapon parts and cooking utensils and dishes were discovered in the cavalry fort. Some of the most notable finds include the face mask of a rider's helmet and a parade helmet that was used in tournaments. The stone monuments from this excavation area can be viewed in the lapidarium of the cultural center in the municipality of Petronell-Carnuntum. The ruins and finds of the temple area on the Pfaffenberg were documented before their final destruction in the period from 1970 to 1985 by rescue excavations carried out by the University of Vienna and thus saved for posterity.
21st century
Up until 2004, the Austrian Archaeological Institute was able to use rescue excavations to examine large sections of the Reiterkastell before the modern development was completed and save them from final destruction. In 2012 the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archeology started the project “ArchPro Carnuntum” in cooperation with other partner organizations, which was commissioned by the State of Lower Austria. Through the systematic use of non-invasive archaeological prospecting methods (remote sensing and geophysics), the researchers mapped most of Carnuntum with high-resolution measurements. Within three years they were able to examine an area of around 10 km² across the board. With the help of aerial photographs, a preliminary overall plan of the ancient remains hidden in the ground was drawn up by 2013. The archaeological structures extend over several square kilometers and show, among other things, a dense development on the area of the canabae and structures of the water supply. With the help of the results of the old excavations and a reassessment of the current state of research, a scale model of the Roman Carnuntum was produced. The research in the legionary camp has come to a complete standstill due to the current negative attitude of the landowner.
development
The development of the two forts and the camp town was closely related to the constant defensive battles against the Germanic tribes on the other side of the Danube, which required the permanent stationing of a large number of soldiers. As a result of this, the section of the border near Carnuntum repeatedly moved into the focus of imperial politics, which can be seen particularly in the frequency of the presence of important Roman emperors and generals in the city.
1st century BC Chr.
In the 40s of the 1st century BC The Boier were subjugated by their eastern neighbors, the Dacians under Burebista , who also burned their large oppidum near today's Bratislava . After this defeat, the now largely abandoned Boian territory ( deserta Boiorum , roughly today's Vienna Basin and Burgenland ) fell to the Noriker . Their settlement areas also belonged to the Kingdom of Norikum (regnum Noricum) at the end of the first century BC . 15 BC The Kingdom of Norikum was integrated into the Roman Empire as one of the few new areas of the empire without a violent conquest.
1st century AD
In the Roman written sources Carnuntum was mentioned for the first time in connection with war events before the Pannonian-Dalmatian uprising (bellum dalmaticum) , an uprising of the indigenous tribes against Roman rule, from 6–9 AD. According to the chronicler Velleius Paterculus , a 40,000-strong Roman army under their general Tiberius set up a temporary winter camp (castra hiberna) in order to a. to subjugate the Marcomanni under their king Marbod , which north of the Danube u. a. settled in the area of today's Bohemia and Moravia . The location of this camp has not yet been localized; it was either near Hainburg , on Bratislava Castle Hill or at the mouth of the March . Pliny wrote of the layout of the camp in the "Germanic border area"; so Carnuntum was not yet officially part of the Roman Empire at that time.
The consolidation of Roman rule encountered far greater difficulties in Pannonia than in the neighboring Norikum. Marbod endangered the Roman expansion into Central Germany, as he had a force of 70,000 men, drilled on the Roman model (including 4,000 horsemen). Emperor Augustus therefore gathered twelve legions (80,000 men) on the Rhine and Danube and subordinated them to his stepson Tiberius. He was to cross the Danube at Carnuntum with six legions and advance further north along the March. At the same time the second army group marched from Mogontiacum / Mainz under the leadership of Sentius Saturninus to the east in order to pinch the Marcomanni. The Pannonian rebellion, presumably instigated by Marbod, ultimately thwarted the further advance of Rome into free Germania. Tiberius, who had already reached the far north, as far as today's Weinviertel , had to turn back immediately, not only to put down the uprising, but also to prevent him from being cut off from his supplies from Italy. Despite the large number of troops, the Pannonians could only be subdued after three years. After the loss of three legions in the Teutoburg Forest , Augustus finally renounced further expeditions of conquest into the Germanic tribal areas and established the imperial border on the rivers Rhine and Danube.
By 8 AD at the latest, the region around Carnuntum should have been incorporated into the Roman Empire. After Augustus' death, unrest broke out in the summer camp (castra aestiva) of the legions ( Legio VIIII Hispana , Legio XV Apollinaris and Legio VIII Augusta ) stationed in Pannonia in the summer of 14 AD . Drusus the Younger was able to calm down the angry soldiers quickly, whereupon they moved to their winter quarters according to the orders. Inner Germanic disputes caused Marbod, defeated by Arminius , with his entourage to ask for asylum in the Roman Empire in 19 . He was followed a little later by his adversaries Catualda and the quadruple ruler Vannius (regnum Vanianum) , who were settled in the Leithagebirge. Under Emperor Nero (54 to 68 AD) the province of Pannonia was formed from the north of Illyria, to which Carnuntum was now added. Initially, Roman troops were only stationed at particularly endangered points on the new border line. The main defenses in Upper Pannonia were opposite the mouth of the March and on the border between Vindobona (Vienna) and Brigetio (Komarom). At no border section of the Roman Empire was there such a strong concentration of troops. During the reign of Claudius , according to the historian Tacitus, the construction of permanent military camps and watchtowers along the Danube began to secure the new border. The oldest traces of Roman settlement were found for the period between 40 and 50 AD (finds from Upper Italian Terra Sigillata ), when the Legio XV was permanently stationed on the Danube in connection with the expulsion of Vannius and its second camp after Vindobona in Carnuntum related to the Pannonian Limes (corridor at Burgfeld). During this period of time the ancient Celtic oppida were also abandoned; the subjugated indigenous population ( dedictii ) was settled in the plain around the new legionary camp for better control. The earliest known inscription from Carnuntum (53 or 54 AD) reports on construction work in the legionary camp. At the same time, a settlement ( canabae legionis) consisting of irregularly laid out simple dwellings developed around the camp, leaving out a free area for the assembly of the army . On a grave stele, which was made around the middle of the 1st century, a Roman soldier is shown supervising a Celtic carter. This suggests that the local population was also increasingly involved in the numerous construction projects during this period.
Since Augustus' policy of conquest was rejected by his successors, the Flavian emperors began to set up a border security organization. Under Vespasian (69–79) the wood and earth camp was replaced by a stone building. The western flank of Carnuntum was protected by the legionary camp in Vindobona. Under his successor Domitian , a fort for a cavalry unit of 500 men was built about 1.2 kilometers southwest of the camp . It should ensure greater mobility of the troops in border surveillance. Between 85 and 86 the Romans suffered a defeat against the Dacians . The fighting subsequently spread to the region around Carnuntum. Domitian therefore felt compelled to appear personally in Pannonia in order to coordinate the defensive measures. During a campaign against Marcomanni and Quadi in the years 89 and 90 , the emperor was probably also in Carnuntum. On his orders, further troops were moved to Pannonia to reinforce the Danube army, for which new forts also had to be built. The cavalry camp should also have belonged to this. In 97 the war, the so-called bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum , ended with a victory for the Romans.
2nd century
In 106 or 117 one of the Rhine legions, Legio XIIII , was moved from Vindobona to Carnuntum by order of Trajan, where it remained stationed until the end of Roman rule over Upper Pannonia. The expansion of the legionary camp was completed under Trajan. Between 110 and 120 there were also fundamental innovations in the area of the Reiterkastell. The changes there may also have been related to a change in crew. After the demolition of the old wood and earth fort, the Thracian cavalry unit built a stone camp at the same place. Due to increased immigration, encouraged by the presence of the Legion, which guaranteed the highest level of security, and stable economic growth, Carnuntum continued to grow steadily in the course of the 2nd century. An additional driving force behind the rapid development of the military city was the extremely lucrative long-distance trade with free Germania.
After the province was divided into two in Upper Pannonia and Lower Pannonia under Trajan , Carnuntum became the official seat of the consular governor (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Pannoniae) between 103 and 107 , to which all Upper Pannonian legions were subordinate from then on. In order to be able to repel attacks by the Germanic tribes better, outposts on the Marchtalstrasse in Stampfen and Thebes were established north of the Danube, opposite Carnuntum, as part of an early warning system. The devastating for the Roman Empire Marcomannic wars in the 160's and 170 years ended abruptly the hitherto steady upward trend Carnuntum. The invasion of 6000 warriors from a coalition of Lombards, Marcomanni and Obiern could still be repulsed by the Upper Pannonian governor. In 167, however, a campaign against some Trans-Danubian Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Narist and other small peoples) failed. The Limes was then stormed and breached by them. Up to 20,000 Roman soldiers and the governor are said to have died while trying to repel them. This catastrophe was made worse by the outbreak of the Antonine Plague , brought in by a Roman army returning from the east, which decimated soldiers and civilians in the Limes. The intruders advanced to Aquileia in northern Italy. However, when they returned to the Limes with their booty, the Roman forces were waiting for them there. After bitter fighting, the invaders succeeded in stealing most of the loot and pushing them back across the Danube. In the course of the Roman counter-offensive to the devastation of the Germanic tribal areas north of the Danube, Emperor Mark Aurel opened his headquarters in Carnuntum for three years (171–173) and wrote some chapters of his self- reflections there before his death in 180 . The reliefs of the Marcus Aurelius column in Rome show some details from the Carnuntum of that time. During this campaign the Romans penetrated far into free Germania as u. a. Brick stamps of the Legio XIIII, which were found near Staré Město and Hradischt, 120 km north of Carnuntum, attest. The legionaries must have set up a checkpoint there on Bernsteinstrasse.
Surprisingly, during the excavations in Carnuntum, no greater horizon of destruction could be proven archaeologically for this period of time. The legionary camp and cavalry fort was also continuously occupied in the second half of the 2nd century and by no means, as initially assumed, was destroyed in the fighting. The cavalry camp now served as an advanced supply and supply warehouse for the front and was then also equipped with workshops and warehouses. Marcus Aurel's successor, Emperor Commodus (180–192), finally concluded a peace treaty with the Germanic peoples and was probably also in Carnuntum for this purpose. The peace treaty was followed by a period of stability and reconstruction in the Pannonian provinces, during which, among other things, the amphitheater of the camp town was rebuilt in Stein. The most important historical event for Carnuntum took place on April 9, 193. The incumbent Upper Pannonian governor Septimius Severus (193–211) was proclaimed by the Danube regions as counter-emperor to Didius Julianus and later also confirmed by the Senate in Rome. He founded the ruling house of Severus , which brought the empire another massive military and political upswing.
3rd century
Septimius Severus proved to be a generous patron of Pannonia and raised the civil city to the rank of Colonia (Colonia Septimia Aurelia Antoniniana Carnuntum) . This made it the most important city in Pannonia superior . The result was another intensive construction activity lasting several decades. Under the Severans (193–235) the location reached its economic / cultural heyday and maximum expansion. Only riders were stationed in the auxiliary troop camp again.
The last decades of the 3rd century were marked by internal unrest, constant defensive battles against invaders and rapidly changing rulers on the imperial throne (so-called imperial crisis of the 3rd century ). Carnuntum remained an important base on the central Danube Limes. In 260, during the reign of Gallienus (253-268), the Carnuntine troops proclaimed the governor of Pannonia superior, Regalianus , to be anti-emperor; but he was not recognized by the Senate in Rome. His influence never grew beyond the Limes strip between Carnuntum and Brigetio. During his brief reign he had coins minted with his image and that of his wife Sulpicia Dryantilla, some of which were found in Carnuntum. Six months later, both were murdered by their own soldiers. Towards the end of the 3rd century, the cavalry fort was given up - probably as a result of the military reforms carried out under Gallienus. The legion riders previously stationed at the Limes were brought together at Mediolanum (Milan) to form a powerful cavalry army. In the event of a crisis, it was supposed to operate as a rapid reaction force directly subordinate to the emperor, was a forerunner of the later mobile comitatenses (mobile field armies) and initially consisted primarily of Illyrian (Pannonia, Moesia and Dacia) and Moorish (North Africa) units. Presumably the riders of the Carnuntine Legion were also assigned to her. With Diocletian's accession to power in 284 the long period of instability among the soldier emperors ended . In 288 he stayed on the Danube Limes and had the fortifications reinforced with new camps, small forts and Ländeburgi or the old fortifications modernized. Upper and Lower Pannonia have now been split into four administrative units. In 295 Carnuntum was the starting point of a campaign by Caesar Galerius against the Marcomanni.
4th century
The political conflicts between his successors after his abdication prompted Diocletian, who wanted to prevent the collapse of his system of rule, to convene a meeting of all parties to the dispute in Carnuntum in 308 in order to settle the conflicts peacefully and to revive the tetrarchy. With this conference within its walls, Carnuntum once again moved into the center of imperial politics. The city was probably chosen as a venue for the appropriate accommodation of the delegates because of its location near the border between the western and eastern parts of the empire and also because of its representative buildings and well-developed infrastructure. In this historically significant meeting, the Augusti Diocletian, Galerius , Licinius and Maximinus Daia succeeded in putting the distribution of power in the Roman Empire on a new stable basis (so-called fourth tetrarchy ). On the occasion of the restoration of a Mithras shrine (Mithraeum III), the participants donated an altar, which is now kept in the Museum Carnuntinum .
During this time, however, more and more soldiers were withdrawn from their old garrison types on the Limes and lined up in newly established mobile field armies ( Comitatenses ) to protect the heartlands of the Western Roman Empire . The stationary border troops ( Limitanei ) of Ufernorikum and Pannonia I were now under the command of a Dux limites . In the middle of the 4th century (350) Carnuntum was shaken by a severe earthquake, which caused considerable damage to the infrastructure and can be archaeologically proven (especially in the Canabae) by layers of destruction on the large public buildings. A large part of the civilian population probably emigrated as a result of this catastrophe and because the climate began to deteriorate in the late 4th century. Due to the progressive impoverishment of the provincial population through the continuous withdrawal of soldiers, trade and the circulation of money were also severely impaired. Am Limes came with the beginning of the Great Migration also increasingly to attacks and looting of the East, which in turn in front of the ever expanding westward through the herandrängende nomadic tribes Huns were forced to flee and would thus force their settlement in the Roman Empire.
Under Valentinian I, Carnuntum was once again the starting point for a campaign of revenge against the Quads and Jazygens in 374 . He probably also had the last verifiable modifications made to the legionary camp. It was u. a. a useless sewer in the northern part of the camp was quickly filled with spoil . On the orders of this ruler, extensive construction work was carried out on the rest of the Danube Limes, which were to modernize the already largely dilapidated fortification system and thus compensate for the endemic shortage of soldiers. How urgently the forts on the Limes needed such revitalization measures can be guessed from a passage in the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus . Although it was still of great strategic importance, the emperor found the city on his arrival as a "neglected, dirty nest" and largely deserted. In the last decades of the 4th century, however, extensive construction activities can still be demonstrated both in the civil town and in the legion camp, which is no longer used exclusively for military purposes. For the greatly reduced occupation - as was often observed on the Danube Limes - two small fortifications (remaining fort or burgi ) were probably built. Large parts of the former settlement area were abandoned and only used as a cemetery.
After the catastrophic defeat of the Eastern Roman army against a barbarian coalition in the Battle of Adrianople in 378, Huns, Alans and Goths invaded the empire unhindered and finally had to be recognized by Rome as federates or granted the right to settle in Thrace. By 380 the Ostrogoths and Alans reached Pannonia under Alatheus and Safrac and were enlisted in the provincial army there. In the year 395 the Pannonian Limes collapsed on a broad front; the unfortified civilian settlements were largely abandoned. The residents of Carnuntum at that time withdrew either to the legionary camp, to the Forum thermal baths (palace ruins) or to quarters of the civil town that were still habitable. The patrol ships and Liburnari of Legio XIIII were moved to neighboring Vindobona. In the same year the Marcomanni, Quads, Goths, Alans and Vandals invaded Pannonia without encountering any resistance worth mentioning, but presumably spared the city. In the following year, 396, at the instigation of the regent in the west, Stilicho , the Marcomanni were settled to defend the Limes between Carnuntum and Klosterneuburg . These Marcomannic auxiliary troops appear in the Notitia dignitatum under the command of a tribunus gentis Marcomannorum . Presumably they were also involved in the last major construction work in the legionary camp.
5th to 11th centuries
Until the early 5th century, Westrom managed to maintain its upper and middle Danube border with great effort. According to the Notitia Dignitatum, a Praefectus still resided there around the middle of the 5th century, who had a cohort of the Legio XIIII and some naval soldiers under his command. The last traces of Roman settlement could be observed in Carnuntum until the first half of the 5th century. They were concentrated in the legionary camp, where the rest of the Romanesque civilian population had meanwhile withdrawn. In 433 AD the Pannonian provinces were founded by Valentinian III. left to the administration of the Huns under Attila . The Carnuntum metropolitan area remained inhabited throughout the migration period. Two years after Attila's death, Emperor Avitus tried to return Pannonia to the imperial union, but failed due to the resistance of the Goths, who now ruled the province. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the settlement in the former legionary camp was finally abandoned. The Lombards and Avars occupied the country between 546 and 568 . Remarkably, there are no finds from the interior of the camp, either from the Lombards or from the Avar rule. In the early 9th century Carnuntum marked the northernmost end point of an Avarenkhaganat . Carnuntum was last mentioned in 805 in the Annales regni Francorum . After that, it was forgotten. At the same time as a large early medieval ramparts on the Kirchenberg near Bad Deutsch-Altenburg existed during the 9th / 10th. For a short period of time, a smaller settlement was built inside the legionary camp. Since the Carolingian period , some farming families have probably settled in the core of the former camp town. At the turn of the millennium there was a small village here, but the name is unknown. The focus of the settlement finally shifted eastward to Hainburg an der Donau around the middle of the 11th century . The legion camp and the civilian settlements were destroyed by systematic stone robberies in the centuries that followed.
| 3d plan of the military city |
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| Website Roman city Carnuntum |
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Link to the picture |
Legion camp
The legionary camp (castra legionis) stood on the outskirts of Petronell, on the area between Bundesstraße 9 and the bank of the Danube. The history of the warehouse can essentially be narrowed down to one wood-earth and two stone phases. During the excavations, however, a total of up to eight find layers could be distinguished from one another. The medieval stone fort was built on the same site as the earlier wood and earth warehouse. Its diamond-like, irregular floor plan was a result of the topographical features of the plateau. Rock ribs on the steep slope of the Danube made it possible for the camp to be built very close to the banks of the Danube. From here you had a good view of the Marchfeld. While the camp in nearby Brigetio had to be relocated a little away from the Danube bank due to erosion in Hadrianic times, the north side of the Carnuntine camp seems to have remained stable throughout its use phase. On the other three sides there were hollows and depressions in places, to which the course of the wall had to be adapted. The west side buckled inwards in the gate area. In contrast, the east wall bulged far outwards and receded sharply inwards in the gate area.
The camp could hold up to 6000 men (miles legionis) . Its interior development included the headquarters (principia) , the camp commandant's house (praetorium) , the hospital (valetudinarium) , the camp bath (thermae) , barracks (contubernien) , workshop building (fabrica) and storage building (horrea) . After countless broken glass was found, at least these buildings were probably fitted with glazed windows. The archaeologists also uncovered a massive layer of destruction that could be dated to the end of the 4th century. After the excavations, it was filled in again because its area is used for agriculture. Its remains stand out from their surroundings as a clearly recognizable plateau with the surrounding depressions of the fortification trenches. Above ground, only small remains of the wall of the fence at the east gate and the foundations of its southern flank tower, which are heavily overgrown by vegetation, can be seen.
Wood-earth warehouse
Little is known of the early wood-earth camp (period I). Its traces could only be proven in a few places of the completely excavated successor building of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was probably built between 40 or 50 AD and measured 195 × 178 meters including the moat. The fortifications consisted of an inner, about five meters wide, earth wall serving as a battlement and an outer wooden plank wall with vertically embedded beams and wooden towers on four posts. A double pointed ditch six meters wide ran around the camp. The inner walls had been raised with the excavation of the trenches and served as battlements. Not much is known of its interior construction either. Most of the warehouse buildings were probably still built using truss technology. Since the oldest findings were not exposed over a large area and the ancient buildings left severe damage, it was impossible to reconstruct coherent floor plans. Only in the northern area could traces of a barracks barracks about four meters wide and running from north to south be found. A few signs of construction were also observed in the southern storage area. It is assumed that during the reign of Vespasian the Principia, the Praetorium and the camp thermal baths, which were presumably located to the east of the via Praetoria, were already built in stone.
Steinlager I
From the 1970s onwards, the camp was gradually rebuilt in Stein (Period II). These building measures confirm several building inscriptions uncovered in the center of the camp. It was in the same place as its predecessor, but its plan was slightly shifted to the northeast. Two major building periods and several smaller building phases were identified for the stone warehouse. The fortification measured 207 × 177 meters and covered an area of approximately 17.5 hectares. At the time of Trajan, the wood-earth wall in the east and west was replaced by a stone wall. Numerous centurion stones were also built into the camp wall. The building blocks were labeled, which marked the construction lots assigned to the individual Centuries and gave the names of the officer responsible and the legion. The camp was renovated several times afterwards, but its basic features remained intact until the beginning of the rule of the Severan imperial dynasty. Around the year 200 extensive changes were made to the site plan, but these were probably limited to the praetentura (front). The newly built barracks were no longer based on the floor plans of the wooden previous buildings. Between 260 and 270 the camp was badly damaged in barbarian invasions.
Stone Camp II
Under Valentinian I, significant changes were made to the building structure of the legionary fortress from 375 onwards, as evidenced by a late antique building inscription from the western Raetentura and the excavation findings. On the west side of the raetentura , next to the hospital or prison, a small or remnant fort was built after 380, into which the guards who remained in the camp retreated. Presumably a similar weir system ( burgus ) was built on the Danube Abortion . Furthermore, there were also a noticeable number of spoils in the masonry of this construction phase. The rest of the camp area was left to the civilian population. In the eastern praetentura , three to four-room houses were built using dry construction technology and demonstrated with hose heating. Significant structural changes were also made to some of the tribune houses.
Baking ovens, pottery ovens, some building structures that could probably be interpreted as cisterns, and other, albeit no longer interpretable, findings were uncovered throughout the camp. In the majority of the cases it was likely to have been a matter of late antique fixtures. During the excavations in the praetentura (eastern part) a large early medieval oven came to light, which was built in the last settlement phase, in the 9th or 10th century.
The very simply designed new buildings of the post-military settlement phase, which began at the beginning of the 5th century, consisted only of wood, earth and clay and were no longer based on the old building regulations that corresponded to military requirements. With the departure of the last regular soldiers, presumably around the middle of the 5th century, the camp finally lost its original function. In the early Middle Ages, a group of Slavs settled within its walls . Judging by the pottery finds, its area was still inhabited into the 9th or 10th century. It was then abandoned and over the centuries it was torn down by stone robbery until it was almost completely gone.
Wall and moat
As already mentioned, the wall was drawn in somewhat in the west towards the camp gate and swung in wide arches on both sides in the east in front of the camp gate there. The only straight line was the south wall running from the acute-angled south corner. The course of the north wall is largely unknown.
In phase 1 the wall was 1.10 to 1.20 meters thick, in phase 2 it was 1.90 to 3.40 meters with much deeper and more massive foundations. The rising masonry was still up to 1.25 meters high in some places. Its core consisted of mortared rubble stones, the outer sides were faced with carefully cut stone blocks. In phase 2 it was later widened in places on the outside or completely rebuilt in some places. At the top it was most likely finished with a crenellated wreath . An approx. 25 meter wide strip of the northern front of the camp has slipped into the Danube or has sunk. At the northeast corner there was still a remnant of the wall, which was supported by a buttress. There the fort wall had a width of two meters and was directly against the barracks. The fort was protected on its north, east and west side by a 20 meter wide ditch and in the south by two ditches whose profiles were designed differently. The outside was rather flat, 12.50 meters wide, the inside narrow with a steep slope and measured only 5.40 meters. The width of the berm was 0.90 to 4.50 meters. The inner ditch may have been filled in again later. The appearance of the defenses in the late antique building period is not sufficiently clarified. During this time, however, the imperial wall in the NE was apparently additionally reinforced by an extension attached to the outside. What is certain is that the double trench system was still maintained at this time, as indicated by the filling of the outer trench with a coin from 310-311, which dates back to the middle third of the 4th century.
Intermediate towers
The wall was reinforced with square, irregularly spaced intermediate towers, six of which have been archaeologically proven in the south. Five are known in the east, only one was found in the west. One of the corner towers could be excavated in the southeast. Presumably such a tower was also present in the southwest corner. Wall thickness and side length were measured differently in some specimens.
Gates
The legionary fortress could be entered through four gates of different sizes in the north, south, west and east. Three of the four camp gates were dug. The east and west gates were built on the deepest cuts in the plateau. All were flanked by two slightly projecting towers and had double passages. Some of the facades of the gate systems were richly decorated with architectural elements.
| Illustration | Gate structures | Description / condition |
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| Porta praetoria | Nothing was left of the north gate, as it fell into the Danube due to the centuries-long washout of the bank area. | |
| Porta decumana | The two-phase south gate was eight meters wide, in the middle there was an approximately one meter wide supporting pillar (spina) . The eastern, two-storey flank tower measured 6.8 × 6.6 meters. The foundations of the west were still preserved. The two passages were each 3.75 meters wide. In phase 2 the gate towers were enlarged a little, the support pillars were extended to five meters. | |
| Porta principalis dextra | Probably the main gate of the legionary camp. It could be defended well by the camp wall protruding far on both sides. The foundations of the southern flank tower (7 × 9 meters) were uncovered from this 13 meter wide gate structure. He jumped about 2.80 meters from the camp wall. Evidence of a central pillar showed that the gate could be passed through two passages. | |
| Porta principalis sinistra | Its last remains were destroyed in the early 18th century by road construction and subsequent stone robbery. The rising masonry consisted of rectangular blocks, which were connected to one another by iron clips cast in lead. On the outside of one of the blocks, an oversized phallic symbol was carved to ward off demons. The facade decoration consisted u. a. of capitals and cornices in Corinthian style. In 1898, only the southern flank tower of the multi-phase west gate could initially be located. He measured 8.8 × 7.5 meters and jumped 1.37 meters inwards or 2.50 meters in front of the camp wall. In 1899 the northern flank tower was found. The north tower of phase 1 had a circumference of 7.40 × 9 meters. In phase 2 it was no longer rectangular, but rounded at the southwest corner. The floors inside consisted of brick panels. Large amounts of broken dishes were found in the corners between the flank towers and the camp wall. Although no central pillar could be found, it is believed that the gate system also had two passages. The total width of the gate was 15.40 meters. A building inscription from the time of Emperor Valentinian I, a fragment of which was found near the gate, testifies to the last construction work in the camp. | |
| Failure gate | Not far north of the west gate, during the excavations, an underground vault with several manholes in front of the barracks was found. The archaeologists initially thought it was a canal. When you followed its course further, you came to a cross passage that ended directly behind the foundation of the camp wall. From there a passage under the wall led to the glacis. It probably served as a kind of hatch for crew failures during sieges. The gate was on his discovery by cast masonry blocks and spoils barricaded. However, the stones were only carefully piled up but not mortared together. |
Interior constructions
Command building
In the center of the camp, south of the via principalis , was the command or staff building (60 × 90 meters), the Principia , with the flag shrine (aedes) and various administrative and assembly rooms (officia) , which had only been superficially researched . Based on the model of a forum, it was laid out around a 42 × 38 meter square paved with sandstone slabs. Around it ran a colonnade (porticus) , which was provided with a channel for the rainwater to run off. In one of the corners of the courtyard a round walled well shaft and a stone relief depicting an archer were found. From the portico one could enter numerous chambers that were probably used as administrative rooms and armamenta or similar.
To the south of it stood the 16-meter-wide transverse hall (basilica) , the facade of which was set in front of 12 pilasters . It is no longer possible to precisely reconstruct what its south facade looked like. It probably consisted of several arched passages that were lined up and flanked by columns. The three-quarter pillars may once have been up to 11 meters high and stood 1.30 meters apart. The distance between the two central pillars was 3 meters. There was probably a slightly higher arch or the main entrance to the transept here. It was exactly in the axis of the courtyard entrance that led out to via Pricipales . Of the central pillars that supported the roof structure, the remains of five copies were still present during the excavations.
The 10 × 10 meter, heated camp shrine (sacellum) was located exactly in the central axis of the basilica. The most famous ancient stone sculptures of Carnuntum were found between the hypocaust pillars. One of the consecration altars was dedicated to the patron god ( genius ) of the camp. The sculptures mostly depicted gods or emperors. Some of the rooms were also decorated with wall paintings. The excavators were able to uncover two more rooms to the west and east of the Sacellum. The eastern one contained the statue of Hercules, believed to have been made in Virunum . The second room, to the west and a little lower from the floor level, was preserved up to the window approaches. The wall painting represented u. a. a sacrificial servant clad in a white tunic and contained an altar for Iuppiter and one for the camp genius. In the vestibule of the camp shrine there was also a fragment of a statue from the 3rd century, which probably represented a ruling couple. Maybe Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Mamaea .
Praetorium
The representative, 70 × 58 meter residential building ( peristyle house ) of the legionary legate was attached to the principia in the south . Presumably the high representatives of the empire were also accommodated there when they were in the camp. This building, too, has only been researched very superficially. The rooms were grouped around a 48.70 × 27.60 meter courtyard. In the east wing there were probably the living quarters and a bathing area. The legate's office or representative rooms were probably housed in the other rooms. Due to the high degree of destruction of the building, details could no longer be determined.
Tribune houses
North of via Principalis, near the west gate, were the three spacious peristyle houses of the tribunes (staff officers), the most senior officers of the Legion after the camp commandant and his deputy, the Praefectus castrorum . This section of the camp area was called scamnun tribunorum . It has been little examined. There were possibly three other officers' quarters there. The buildings were constructed like the Praetorium but were somewhat smaller (40 × 40 meters, around 1200-1300 square meters). The inner courtyards were paved with stone slabs. One of them was covered with a 1.5-meter-high layer of mortar in late antiquity. The buildings were used until the 5th century and have been rebuilt several times until then. Apparently they were all similarly furnished (facade decorations, mosaic floors, marble slabs, wall paintings, bathrooms, etc.). In one of these houses one of Carnuntum's most beautiful ancient sculptures was discovered in 1886, the marble figure of the so-called dancing maenad, probably an import from Italy in the 2nd century. The tribune houses each had their own wells up to 6 m deep. Between two of the officers' houses you came across a gently sloping brick concrete pavement. Along its longitudinal axis, three cisterns with bevelled edges caught the rainwater flowing down from the roofs.
House S directly on the western wall reached up to the street front. It went through four construction periods and instead of an inner courtyard had a three-aisled portico and a bathing area. The portico was divided into small chambers with half-timbered walls in the late 4th century. The two eastern houses R and T were set back a little to the north and shielded from traffic by a series of taberna chambers. In the late 4th century, House T was demolished and not rebuilt.
Barracks
The camp had a total of 30 double barracks to accommodate its men, each with space for 160–220 soldiers. The barracks of the first cohort were lined up to the right and left of the Principia , the remaining cohorts were in quarters on the front (praetentura) of the camp on the banks of the Danube and on its rear (raetendura) . Some of the barracks on the north wall had already slipped into the Danube. The mid-imperial team quarters (period 2) consisted of double barracks, which were built with their back wall against each other. They offered space for five or six parlor communities ( contubernien , eight men each) of the common legionaries, the milites gregarii . The living rooms consisted of a 13.50 square meter bedroom (papilio) and an anteroom with 7.50 square meters (arma) . Simple fireplaces (dome stoves) were used for cooking and heating. A two-meter-wide covered walkway standing on wooden posts was attached to the street front of the building. Between the buildings there was a five-meter-wide yard with gravel pavement. The barracks of the first cohort were six meters wide in the east; further west, because of the triple room division, 8 meters. They covered an area of 120 × 100 meters. At the top there were larger buildings, consisting of five to six rooms, which served as accommodation for the centurions . The centurion houses of the barracks of the first cohort had twice as many rooms. In the rooms at the opposite end of the barracks blocks, the special forces of the Legion ( immune ) were probably quartered. During the excavations in 1885, a 1.80 × 2.50 meter cellar with a staircase was discovered under one of the barracks.
In the eastern part of the praetentura , the team barracks were also renewed as part of the last major construction work in the camp. The external appearance of the barracks remained largely unchanged. The structural changes only affected the interior structure. The division of the contubernia into an accommodation area and an anteroom was abandoned. Instead, three rooms were created through the introduction of around 1.20 m wide corridors in the vestibules. The area was used as a location for barracks until the early 4th century. At the end of the 4th century, they were partially demolished and replaced by three to four-room houses with wall and floor heating, which were no longer based on the old floor plans.
Camp hospital and animal hospital
The multi-phase, 83.50 × 79.50 meter hospital ( valetudinarium ) was located to the west of the praetorium and was by far the largest building within the legionary fort. Three rows of chambers were arranged around the inner courtyard, which served as hospital rooms, bathrooms, toilets, etc. It could be entered via a staircase with well-worn steps. The rows of chambers were separated from each other by corridors between 3.30 and 4.50 meters wide. In addition, short crossways in between ensured sufficient ventilation and lighting in the individual rooms. Some of the sickrooms were heated. The hospital kitchen was in the east wing. In the center of the building was a small sanctuary, probably for the healing gods Hygieia or Aeskulap , donated by the capsarii (paramedics) of Legio XIIII and in the middle of its western front was a podium with a staircase. Column fragments and richly structured cornice pieces testify to the lavishly designed facade of the building.
The rooms of a 56 × 27 meter building west of the hospital were arranged around a 39 × 19 meter courtyard. Perhaps the animal hospital (veterinarium) was housed there.
Storage tavern
In the northern part of the camp, the excavators came across a building whose only room was paved with bricks. The room was a little lower than street level and could be entered from the south via two steps. The east wall was still preserved in several stone layers and had a small, vaulted opening in the middle, in front of which a stone slab was set into the ground. The culvert led to a basement 1 meter lower, the floor of which was made of rammed earth. Large quantities of wall painting fragments and fragments of drinking vessels were found in the rubble of the main room. To the south of the opening were four square plinths. On two of them there were still consecration altars for Liber / Libera and Merkur / Fortuna. They were once donated by two released Greeks, Dionysius and Archelaus. Both were assistants (subadiuuam) of the highest-ranking centurion in the camp (Primus pilus) , who was also responsible for overseeing the fort's commercial operations. In the rubble we also came across two bony dice . The excavators therefore interpreted the building as a camp tavern . The opening probably served as a hatch through which full wine jugs from the cellar into the taproom.
Functional buildings
The camp also had some functional buildings east of the praetorium with farm buildings such as food and weapons stores ( horreum , armamentaria ) and workshops (fabrica) . Two multi-phase courtyard buildings right next to the praetorium were identified as workshops.
workshops
The western, building C, with 65.70 × 56.20 meters probably served as a kind of building yard and also for the storage and repair of weapons of all kinds and their accessories. Among other things, 54 slingshot balls and unlabeled consecration altars were discovered there. The pillars of the gate entrance were badly worn by cart wheels. You also came across large stacks of roof tiles, a wicker basket filled with hardened mortar and loose heaps of sand for building projects.
In the eastern building D, with a floor plan of 66.30 × 49 meters, mainly metals and bones were worked. Also in the tabernae along the main streets of the camp there were probably numerous other such workplaces. The grain store and the weapons of the late antique garrison (5th century) were probably housed in a massive warehouse on the western wall. There was certainly also its own bathing building (therme or balineum) , which was probably located between the barracks in the northern part of the area.
Weapons store
In four chambers of a warehouse that was presumably subordinate to the armorer of the fort ( custos armorum ) , a considerable amount of weapon fragments was uncovered during excavations. It was a well-stocked range of
- Shield humps and arrowheads (chamber 1),
- Lance tips (chamber 2),
- Rail armor (lorica segmentata) and helmets (chamber 3) and
- Scale armor (Lorica squamata) (Chamber 4).
In the latter, the post prints of the wooden shelves on which the tanks were stored had been preserved in the floor. Most of these weapons had been smashed or broken in ancient times. In addition to the usual team helmets, the remains of equestrian helmets richly decorated with gold, silver or bronze were also found there. In the corner of one of the chambers, the remains of a large store of leather were found, probably cowhide, some of which were dyed a dull pink or cobalt blue . The arsenal also had a heated administration or lounge area, which was illuminated with a coupled window with a stone pillar in the middle. It was the only surviving window found in the camp. All the chambers were plastered, and incised figures or figures could be seen in the plaster fragments.
Armored sheds were also found in other areas of the camp. When they were found, some of them were clumped together to form large clumps of conglomerate. Remains of the leather or linen undergarment could still be found on some. Artillery ammunition such as slingshot balls the size of a fist or head made of stone or clay could be recovered from several places in the camp (north bastion at the east gate). One of these depots contained up to 34 copies. Some had a plug hole. The sling balls at the east gate had been hand-shaped into egg-sized pieces flattened on two sides, provided with two holes, and then burned. Several times outside or inside of the camp, iron ankles consisting of four forged tips were encountered (see amphitheater).
Storage bakery with pantry
This functional building ( clibanae ) was directly connected to the weapons store. Its exceptionally wide, carefully crafted walls were still two meters high when they were discovered. A passage led from the bakery into the grain store, which still contained the remains of barley, peas and millet. The bakery was equipped with six vaulted ovens that were heated with charcoal. The rods of a sweeping broom were still in one of them. From the inventory there were still two stone troughs, a hand mill and the iron bands surrounding a baking trough, probably a hollowed-out tree trunk.
Granary
The spacious warehouse / Horreum (Building E) stood near the east gate, measured 86 × 38.50 meters and had a long rectangular floor plan. Its walls were up to 1 meter wide.
Shield factory
In contrast to the early and middle imperial period, the warehouse area was used more for workshops in the first half of the 4th century, which were built especially along the south-eastern battlement retaining wall , directly on the via sagularis . These systems consisted of at least eight round pools made of air-dried mud bricks and sealed with stone chippings, which were closely lined up and each provided with a roof. They were uncovered between 1968 and 1977 and are believed to have only been in use for a short time - around the first half of the 4th century. They were later filled up again. During the old excavations, two comparable, better preserved basins on the southern front of the camp had already come to light. They were probably used for tanning leather, which was required as a cover for a fabricae scutariae (shield factory) - mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum for Carnuntum . It was probably set up in Carnuntum from the Diocletian period (284–305 AD) to ensure the need for such protective weapons centrally for the province of Pannonia . Carnuntum is one of the few places where such facilities can be archaeologically proven. Since the demand for leather is likely to have increased enormously due to the establishment of the shield factory in Tetrarchic times, one was dependent on additional production facilities for the raw materials required. It was probably located northeast of the Praetorium. The buildings there were interpreted by the first excavators as warehouse and workshop buildings, primarily because of their floor plans. The material waste discovered there also supported this assumption. In particular in building D, which was characterized by numerous small rooms grouped around a large inner courtyard with a central water basin, evidence of workshops was found during the first excavations. In two rooms in the north, numerous pieces of sheet bronze, rivets and pieces of wire and over a hundred smaller and larger pieces of sawn deer antlers came to light.
Camp prison
To the southeast of the hospital, four consecration altars were found in a building, and a fifth lay smashed on the floor. Two were dedicated to Mercury and Nemesis. The latter was donated by the prison administrator Caius Pupilius Censorinus (ex optione custodiarium, clavicularii) in the early 3rd century. The excavators therefore interpreted the building as a prison (carcer castrorum) . Its screed floors had been renewed twice over the centuries. The room served as the administrator's office and lounge for the guards. The dungeon could be entered through a narrow door.
Warehouse streets
The axial road system of the camp was designed in such a way that the main roads led directly to the most important buildings (e.g. Principia, Praetorium, camp thermal baths). The starting point of the two main streets of the camp were the gates on Limesstraße and Bernsteinstraße. The via principalis formed the cardo and the via praetoria , which was called decumana in the rear , the decumanus . The 334-meter-long via principalis , running from northeast to southwest , roughly below today's Bundesstraße 9, ran through the narrow side of the camp. According to the remains of the foundations on the roadside, it was accompanied by colonnades on both sides. It is noticeable that it deviates by approx. 36 degrees from the east-west direction to the northeast. This deviation was not caused by the topographical conditions, but is probably a result of the alignment of the street with the rising point of the sun on the day of the summer solstice. The second main road of the camp, the via decumana , stretching from north to south , was interrupted by two buildings (principa and praetorium) . The via vicinariae in the southern section of the camp ran parallel to the via principalis . Along the camp walls there was also a rampart road that was laid out via sagularis , which established a connection to all sections of the camp and made it possible for the crew to reach the battlements quickly in the event of an alarm. At the same time, it served as a buffer zone against projectiles fired by besiegers. In many places the excavators encountered cauldron-shaped depressions in the streets, which presumably served as camouflaged pitfalls and were intended to stop attackers who had entered the camp. Most of the streets of the camp were lined with walled sewers. The main sewer emerged on the eastern front of the fort and had a barrier to prevent faeces from backing up during floods.
Water supply / sewer system
The supply of fresh water to the camp was carried out via wells, cisterns and draw wells on the main roads. But traces of underground water pipes and canal systems ( cloaca ) could also be detected on the camp area. Cables made of wooden or lead pipes were laid to the individual tapping points. At the praetorium, the principia and the tribune houses, the remains of an apparently technically very high-quality water supply and disposal system were found. The remains of the main sewers could be observed especially at the camp gates. The main canal began at the south gate and ran around the entire warehouse area in two separate strings under Wallstrasse. It was accessible through several manholes. The main entrance was also provided with stone stairs and a work platform. It drained directly into the Danube, as could be determined in 1899. Numerous secondary canals also ran into the main canal, which ran under the storage alleys and received the sewage from the house canals and rivulets. It was noteworthy that one of them had been reinforced on all sides with thick iron plates in one section.
Auxiliary fort (equestrian camp)
This fort is one of the best-researched camps on the Norico-Pannonian Limes. The auxiliary troop camp on the western edge of the camp city was able to accommodate a 500-man cavalry unit (ala quinquenaria) . The pre-Roman times of the fort area is documented by some settlement pits that may have been built around the birth of Christ. Some graves also located under the fort mark the oldest Roman horizon. This includes a tombstone destroyed during the construction of the first camp for a member of the legio XV Apollinaris whose name is unknown . He stood on the extensive burial ground that accompanied the Limes road leading to the legionary camp for a length of several kilometers. A dome furnace with a rectangular charging pit also originated in the fort area from the time it was built . Perhaps it served as an oven for the soldiers involved in the construction. A total of four construction phases could be distinguished during the excavations. When the housing estate was built, the entire fort was not destroyed. A modern overbuilding could be prevented in the area of the fort baths as well as in two sections of the southern and eastern wall.
Castle I.
The early camp was almost entirely made of wood. The front was directed against the legionary camp to the northeast. Three sides of the fort could be examined by excavations. The course of the rest of the fort wall is only known from the aerial survey. The full extension of the fort was 178 × 225 meters, so it covered a total area of around four hectares.
Defense: The fortification consisted of a double trench. His excavated material was piled up to form an earth wall, on the crown of which there was presumably a wooden palisade as a parapet. The gate, intermediate and corner towers, which were almost certainly made of wood, have not yet been archaeologically proven.
Interior development : So far, the only interior structures known are the team barracks lined up at the rear (raetendura) of the camp, the camp commandant's house (praetorium) and some sections of the command building (principia) . At the rear of the courtyard in the principia , which was presumably paved with stone slabs, five adjacent rooms were arranged, the middle of which probably served as a flag sanctuary (aedes) . In the ground there were still some iron lance shoes for the military standards (signum, vexilla) that were once set up there. A shallow pit, presumably used to store the troop coffers, was also preserved.
Water supply / sewerage: The water supply for the fort crew was probably ensured by wells. The horses must have been watered outside the camp. A few cisterns were also set up to collect rainwater. One of them was found in the courtyard of the commandant's house. The rainwater that ran off the roofs of the buildings had been drained off in shallow trough-shaped gutters that ran 0.40 meters from the walls of the house. Other such eaves were located at the rear of the barracks. The waste water then flowed into the main canal under the via sagularis (Wallstrasse). It led to the outside through one of the warehouse gates and presumably consisted of a simple wooden channel, which was also framed by architectural pieces that were used a second time.
Castle II
The warehouse had a playing card-shaped floor plan and was rotated by about 90 ° when it was rebuilt. The Praetorial Front was now oriented towards the Danube bank and aligned in the same way as the legionary camp. The storage area was reduced to 178 × 205 meters (3.65 hectares).
Enclosure: The stone wall was 0.90 meters wide, reinforced with rectangular intermediate and corner towers and also surrounded by a ditch. Of the four trapezoidal corner towers, only the one on the southeast corner could be examined. Corner and intermediate towers did not protrude beyond the line of the wall. Only the rectangular side towers of the camp gates clearly stood out from the fence. The top of the wall could be walked on on a rampart made of earth. The south-east corner was fastened with wooden planks that lay on pillars attached to the fort wall.
Interior development : Barracks, the military hospital, the officers' houses and the command building are known in the interior. Even in this period they were made entirely of wood. Sometimes air-dried clay bricks were also used as building material. Some of the buildings had pillar structures in front of them (portikus) . Their wooden supports rested on foundations made of rubble stones. The team barracks had a long rectangular floor plan and consisted of two rows of rooms standing next to each other. Two rooms each formed the accommodation for a common room (contubernia) . The front rooms of some of the barracks were used as horse stables and offered space for a maximum of three mounts. Presumably, part of the cavalry unit had to fulfill the task of a rapid reaction force, for whose deployment they had to be available to the soldiers as quickly as possible.
Therme: The only building that was built in stone masonry was the bath on the western front of the fort. The camp bath was equipped with a cold water basin, heated rooms and two hot water tubs.
Water supply / sewerage: The water used to clean the baths was channeled through a drain opening into one of the numerous canals that were used to transport the wastewater to the outside. They flowed into the main canal running along the western front of the fort. The water required for the bath came from a higher cistern, of which only the substructure was preserved. It was on the south side of the building next to the heating system (praefurnium). Rainwater was stored in it, but it may also have been supplied from a well that has not yet been found. Carefully walled canals were built in the middle of the main streets for the disposal of the sewage. At the top they were obviously covered with wooden planks. One of these drainage channels had its exit at the southern fort gate and flushed a latrine that was housed in a long rectangular building near the southeast corner tower. Before he reached the north-eastern corner of the camp, he took another canal coming from the north gate of the fort and then left the camp area under the wall. The feces of the latrine were disposed of in a septic tank, for the emptying of which a drainage channel was broken through the fort wall, which drained the sewage into the camp ditch.
Castle III
The third construction period began in the sixties of the 2nd century and lasted until its end. During this time the fort was used as a supply depot. According to the previous analyzes, the numerous structural changes can be broken down into at least five sub-phases.
The team barracks in the northern part of the fort were preserved and continued to be used as such. Some of the horse stables were also converted into living spaces. All the buildings in the center of the camp were demolished and replaced with new ones. Some of the barracks head buildings in this area were built as stone buildings, including the commandant's house. Pottery products were mainly made in the workshops. Some forge furnaces indicate the processing of iron. They were supplied with fresh water through wooden pipes ( dyke lines ). Metal processing facilities were also discovered in the area east of the principia . To the south and north of it there were traces of storage buildings (horrea) made of wood, in which food and animal feed were probably stored. Two wells can also be assigned to this period. In one of them, the remains of the fountain formwork were still preserved, which was composed of wooden barrels stuck inside one another. They were probably made of fir wood, which was mainly used to make wine barrels. After the well was abandoned, it was used as a latrine.
Castle IV
In the period around 200 AD, the last major renovations took place in the camp, as it was now used exclusively as a rider camp again. It can no longer be said whether the fort was still occupied by the military from the middle of the 3rd century. When a buried well was found in the courtyard of the Praetorium, coins from the time of the emperors Aurelian (270–275 AD) and Probus (276–282 AD ) were found in the backfill . Until the first half of the 18th century, some parts of the surrounding wall, the bath and the command building could still have been seen. They then fell victim to the stone robbery.
Interior development: The principia was rebuilt in stone. The rooms surrounded a rectangular courtyard, which was bordered on three sides by a covered open corridor. On the narrow sides were offices for the administration, on the side opposite the entrance there was a transverse hall (basilica) . Rooms on the south side opened into these, in the middle of which the flag shrine was located. In the northern half of the fort, new barracks were built that filled the entire area between via sagularis and via principalis . Only the foundations remained of them. Urine pits show that some of them were used again for horse stables. Between the barracks there were still well-preserved paved courtyards, for which spolia was also used.
Therme: The fort bath was also rebuilt again. The individual rooms have been redistributed. The exterior of the building was also changed. The cold water bath was relocated to an apse on the south side next to the heating system. As a result, water could be fed from the cistern into the bathing pool over a shorter distance. The walls of the fort bath probably stood upright until the middle of the 4th century. Inside it was found on the floors of the soil that had probably been blown in through the window openings. Later the roof collapsed. The walls then collapsed on the roof tile rubble in the earthquake that was assumed to have occurred around the middle of the 4th century. Even the up to 40 cm thick terrazzo floors shattered and fell into the underlying cavities of the underfloor heating.
Water supply / sewerage: A cut, walled drinking water pipe leading past the camp to the north could have been supplemented by a basin or a cistern further west. The water was probably lifted into a higher basin by means of a scoop, where it flowed in distribution pipes (made of wood?). The wooden pipes were connected to one another with iron drawbar connections at intervals of five Roman feet (150 cm). The outer diameter could no longer be determined, nor whether the tree trunks were entirely unprocessed. The pipes led the water to other cisterns or consumers. The wastewater was directed through a lead pipe in the north wall into a canal running in a northerly direction, which left the bath under the north wall and then flowed into the collecting canal on the western via sagularis . In the middle of the barracks courtyards ran a narrow channel for the drainage of the sewage, which first flowed into the via principalis and from there was discharged to the outside through the camp gate.
garrison
At the time of their existence, the Carnuntine castles were occupied by several legions and auxiliary units of the Pannonian provincial army (exercitus Pannoniae) . But epigraphic or archaeological evidence of a longer presence in Carnuntum is not available for all. It is possible that the Legio X Gemina was briefly replaced by the Legio VII Gemina around 69 AD . The Legio XXII Primigenia could also have stayed there in the late 1st century. Grave inscriptions from members of various auxiliary units indicate missions or short stays in or near Carnuntum. For the battles in the year of the Four Emperors , units of Vespasian's Oriental Army were relocated to Pannonia to protect the Danube Limes, including the Cohors II Italica from Syria, which was probably in Carnuntum between 69/70. The grave inscription of a tuba blower (tubicen) of the cohors I Montanorum from Carnuntum indicates that this troop was present in the middle of the 1st century. The cohors I Alpinorum could also have reached Carnuntum in the course of the Pannonian uprising as support for the Legio XV . The Spanish ala I Hispanorum Aravacorum had been in Pannonia since pre-Flavian times to ward off the Germanic Quadi, where they had set up quarters in the Arrabona fort . At that time there was probably a vexillation of this unit in Carnuntum . Members of the cohors XVIII Voluntariorum are said to have stayed in Carnuntum as well as in Fort Cirpi in the first half of the 2nd century . The partially mounted cohors I Ulpia Pannoniorum could also have been in Fort Solva and in Carnuntum under Trajan around 123 .
The following units are occupied as crews for the legionary camp and the cavalry fort:
| Time position | Troop name | comment | Illustration |
| Infantry and fleet | |||
| 1st to 2nd century AD (40-50-117 / 118 AD) |
Legio quintae decimae Apollinaris (the fifteenth legion of Apollo) |
The Legion was set up by Julius Caesar during the Gallic War. From 16 to 8 BC It was used in the Pannonian-Dalmatian Wars and was then involved in the suppression of the Pannonian uprising. A grave inscription is considered to be an indication of at least a short-term stationing of one of their vexillations in Vindobona (Vienna).
The legion was relocated to Carnuntum at the earliest in AD 50 and set up the early wood-earth camp there. Their presence is evidenced by 120 tombstones found there. Accordingly, their relatives mostly came from northern Italy, Gaul and Greece. Many of their brick stamps could not only be recovered in Carnuntum, but also in the neighboring forts (e.g. Vindobona, Brigetio) and even north of the Danube. A Victoria altar donated by the soldier Valerius bore the oldest known inscription of the temple district on Pfaffenberg. A Mithras altar donated by one of her centurions is the earliest evidence of this cult on the Danube Limes. In 62/63 it was replaced by the Legio X and set off for a campaign against the Parthians, first to Armenia and later to Egypt. During the Jewish War, she took part in the siege of Jerusalem under Titus . She returned to Carnuntum between 70/71. Their losses were mainly replaced with recruits from Syrian cities, as the inscriptions on some gravestones from Carnuntum suggest. The Legion replaced the original wood-earth warehouse with a stone building in 73 AD. Their soldiers also took part in the construction of the cavalry fort. The Legion was then used in the Danube campaigns of Domitian (89-92) and the Dacian Wars of Trajan. 114 it is said to have been assigned first to Trajan's Parthian campaign and then to have been placed as an occupying force in the Satala camp . There their traces are lost in the early 5th century. However, recent research on the brick stamps suggests that it was only later that it was finally withdrawn from Carnuntum under Hadrian - in the years 118/119. |
Signum of the cohors I, legio XV (replica in the Carnuntinum Archaeological Park)
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| 1st century AD (63-68) |
Legio decimae Geminae pia fidelis (the tenth twin legion , the dutiful and faithful) |
It was first mentioned in 58 BC. Mentioned BC and was considered the elite region of Caesar during the Gallic War. Around the year 63 AD she was posted to Carnuntum to temporarily replace the Legio XV there. After numerous missions in the Rhine provinces, the Legion 103 came back to Pannonia and moved into the camp of Aquincum (Budapest). 114 she was moved to Vindobona . In 193 the Legion declared itself for Septimius Severus. Some members of this unit were later accepted into the Imperial Guard. The Legion was in Vindobona until it was dissolved in the 5th century . |
Brick stamp of the Legion, found in Schwechat
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| 2nd to 5th centuries AD (114-430?) |
Legio quartae decimae Geminae Martia victrix (the fourteenth twin legion of Mars, the victorious), cohortis quintae (the fifth cohort) |
The Legion may have been around as early as 57 BC. Set up by Julius Caesar in northern Italy. In 114 AD it was moved to Carnuntum to replace Legio XV there . It stood there for more than three hundred years, although departments of it were also repeatedly deployed elsewhere. A vexillation moved with Septimius Severus' army to Rome in 193 to support him in asserting his claim to the imperial throne. Later she took part in Severus' Parthian campaign, which ended in 198 with the capture of the capital Ctesiphon , and in 202 returned to the Danube border. In 260 she joined the revolt of the usurper Regalianus. In the 4th century she was one of the Limitanei , now had liburnarians (marines) of the Danube fleet in her ranks and was under the command of a Dux . Despite the lack of literary sources, it is likely that the Legion also took part in Valentinian I's campaign against Quaden and Jazygen in the late 4th century . When the western Roman magister militum Flavius Felix under Valentinian III. Fought the Huns in 427 AD, it was probably also used. It seems to have held its position until the Danube border was dissolved. According to the Notitia dignitatum , however, only their fifth cohort was left in late ancient Carnunto , which was supposed to secure the upper section (partis superior) of the Noric-Pannonian Limes. Carnuntum was probably the seat of the legionary and naval prefect until around 430. Nothing is known about her further fate; it is possible that she was accepted into the Eastern Roman army. |
Aureus of Septimius Severus, on the lapel a dedication to the Legio XIIII
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| 4th century AD | Foederati (allies) | Ceramic finds of so-called Federate or Hun-era goods from the barracks of construction period V indicate that barbaric mercenaries under Roman command also occupied the legionary camp in the late 4th century. Perhaps they were members of the Gothic-Alanic group under Alatheus and Saphrax, to whom Gratian had to grant the right to settle in the Roman Empire in 379 (after the defeat in the Battle of Adrianople ). | |
| 5th century AD |
Legionis quartae decimae geminae militum liburnariorum (Marines of the fourteenth legion), Classis Histricae (the Danube Fleet ) |
The presence of naval soldiers (liburnari) can also be assumed in Carnuntum due to its strategically important location on the Danube. The gravestone of a certain Augustiana Cassia Marcia is kept in the Museum Carnuntinum. Her husband, Marcus Antonius Basilides, was a frumentarius (paymaster) of the Xth Legion and as such was assigned to the classis Histricae . For late antiquity, the Notitia dignitatum lists a prefect of a Danube flotilla and marines of the Legio XIIII under the command of a Dux . The classis Histricae was moved from Carnuntum to Vindobona in the 4th century . Where the war port of Carnuntum was (perhaps north of the Pfaffenberg or on the east side of Petronell) can no longer be determined, as the course of the Danube has changed several times since ancient times. |
Reconstruction of a Navis lusoria in the Museum of Ancient Shipping , Mainz
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| cavalry | |||
| 1st century AD (80-90 AD) | Ala prima Tungrorum Frontoniana (the first Tungrian cavalry squadron of the Fronto) | The troops originally came from the Lower Rhine and were moved from Dalmatia to Aquincum around 73 , where they moved to their first camp in Pannonia. In the year 80 she was stationed in Carnuntum, where she built the Reiterkastell I. After ten years she moved to Lower Pannonia and took part in the construction of the Campona fort . Perhaps it was mainly used for building projects, as it only stayed briefly in its respective garrison types. Your stay in Carnuntum is evidenced by a tombstone and a gold clasp with the inscription "felices Tun (gri)". During this time, indigenous Boier were also recruited as new recruits, as the funerary inscription and two military diplomas from 114 suggest. |
Pectoral from the harness of horse equipment (1st century)
|
| 1st century AD | Ala prima Hispanorum Aravacorum (the first Hispanic cavalry regiment of the Arevacians ) | This roughly 500-strong unit, originally from Hispania (Moncloa-Aravaca is now a district of Madrid ), has been in the Upper Pannonian border area since pre-Flavian times. Their first Pannonian bases were probably Carnuntum and then Arrabona ( Győr ). A grave inscription from one of their soldiers came to light at both fort locations. After the end of the Marcomann Wars, the cavalry troops may have set up the first garrison in Iža-Leányvár Castle . | |
| 1st to 2nd century AD (85 to 101/102) | Ala prima Pannoniorum Tampiana milliaria victrix (first Pannonian cavalry squadron of Tampius, 1000 strong, the victorious) | This unit was probably recruited from members of the Pannonian tribes under Augustus. The name Tampiana was probably originally derived from one of its commanders. Around 85 it was moved from Britain to Dacia and again to Pannonia on the occasion of the Batavian revolt in 70/71. In 89 it was in Carnuntum, from where it was used against the marcomanni and quadrupeds. At the beginning of the 2nd century it was moved back to Britain. The presence of the Pannonians is only known from grave inscriptions. | |
| 2nd century AD (102 to 118/119) | Ala tertia Augusta Thracum Sagittaria (the third Augustan mounted archers of the Thracians) | This cavalry troop was transferred from Syria to Pannonia in 101. She must have moved into her first camp in this province in Carnuntum. Between 118 and 119 she moved away again and built the Almásfüzitő fort near Brigetio , where she was stationed until late antiquity. Their stay is documented by the tombstone of Ulpius Prosostus, who died there at the age of 30. | |
| 2nd century | Cohors prima Ulpia Pannoniorum milliaria equitata civium Romanorum (the first partially mounted double cohort of the Pannonians, Roman citizens) | The approximately 1,000-strong unit took part in the Dacer wars of Emperor Trajan and received Roman citizenship as an award. Following this, the troops may have been relocated to Carnuntum and around 118 to Esztergom Castle . | |
| 2nd to 3rd century AD | Ala prima Thracum victrix (the first Thracian cavalry squadron, the victorious one) | The troops were relocated to Carnuntum between 118 and 119 and built Reiterkast II. The Thracians were stationed there until the fort was abandoned in the second half of the 3rd century. Their presence is evidenced by a military diploma of 126 and some brick stamps from Petronell. Some gravestones from Mattersdorf and Mannersdorf / Leithagebirge suggest that their veterans Ulpius Titius and Titus Claudius Vanamiu […] were Celtic Boier and settled in the region around Carnuntum after their discharge from military service. |
Storage city
| Virtual reconstruction of the Castra Singularis |
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Link to the picture |
The civil Carnuntum extended over the today's municipal areas of Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. A particular stroke of luck in contrast to most of the other Roman sites in Austria is that, apart from a short period of time in the early Middle Ages, it was no longer built over in the following centuries. The settlement area consisted of the military and civil town. The nucleus of the urban development was the area around the legionary camp. The military settlement extended over Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. It was inhabited from around the turn of the ages until the end of Roman rule in the 5th century.
In the immediate vicinity of the legionary camp ( intra leugam ; in the vicinity of a Gallic leuga , corresponds to 2.2 km), a multi-phase camp town (Canabae legionis illius) was built in the second half of the 1st century . Since the 2nd century at the latest, it has had an urban character. Intra leugnam referred to a strategic protection zone, the glacis of the camp, which had a special constitutional and sacred position. Mainly business people, traders and craftsmen and the relatives of the soldiers (canabenses / canabarii) lived there . Active soldiers, such as specialists, also had their accommodations there. It served primarily to supply the garrison with daily necessities and was under administrative law to the camp commandant. The residential quarters were kept simple, the alleys relatively narrow. Mainly people of the lower classes lived within the Leuga. It extended from the equestrian camp on the outskirts of Petronell to the western edge of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. To the south of the federal highway 9 it reached as far as the Vienna – Wolfsthal railway line and 100 meters west of the legionary camp. Their area was 2.3 kilometers long and the width varied between 500 and 1000 meters. From the beginning to the middle of the 3rd century its area comprised 120 hectares, making it significantly larger than that of the civil town. The establishment of the governor's seat under Emperor Traian (98–117 AD) led to major interventions in the settlement structure of the camp suburb. Thanks to the most recent ground penetrating radar measurements, it was possible to document that the quarters of the governor's guard overlapped Gräberstrasse, one of the main axes of failure in the canabae . When the castra singularis was built , this main road had to be relocated. Since then, traffic has presumably been diverted past the western front of the guard barracks towards Limesstrasse.
Thanks to the prospecting results, the development of the suburbs west and south of the legionary fort is well known. The canabae was increasingly densely built from the outskirts of the settlement towards the legionary camp, which is also recognizable by a change in the building forms. In the outskirts there were mainly simple strip houses, long rectangular residential and commercial buildings with the narrow side facing the street, which had a continuous roof structure. Around the legionary camp there were somewhat more complex, urban house shapes that were probably very similar to those in the civil city. The most densely built-up areas were around the legion camp and the amphitheater. The first houses stood along Limesstrasse, Gräberstrasse and the road to the Gerulata fort . Amphitheater I was located on the east side of the camp, in the west a hardly explored central campus and north of it the representative villa of the governor. The houses of the upper class presumably stood in front of the eastern bulge of the camp wall or on the access road to the west gate of the amphitheater. It is uncertain whether the canabae was completely surrounded by a system of walls and ditches. Remains of such a fortification, two parallel trenches, could be observed at the Danube Abort in the north. Septimius Severus finally also granted the camp city the status of a municipality. Its inhabitants were therefore considered to be Roman citizens (civitas Romana) . Numerous traces of layers of fire, new planing and overbuilding testify that the canabae was destroyed several times or at least badly damaged.
Residential and farm buildings
The first residential buildings of the Canabae consisted mainly of wood and were soon replaced by half-timbered buildings on stone foundations. At the beginning of the 2nd century they were gradually replaced by solid stone buildings, some of which were decorated with stucco, wall paintings and mosaic floors and were used until the 4th century. In general, the building type of the central corridor house prevailed there with an average of four rooms, courtyards, walled gardens, street halls and verandas. Two very comfortable houses (nos. 48 and 49, early 3rd century) in the vicinity of the amphitheater, in which NCOs (optio) of the Legion and their families presumably lived, and ten more modestly equipped buildings on an insula south of the main road were examined more closely 9, which were probably characteristic of the majority of the houses in the Canabae (nos. 56–65). In most of these houses, a long corridor with two entrances led to the living rooms. But rectangular buildings without a corridor could also be observed there. They probably housed workshops.
To the east of the legionary camp, individual farmsteads with enclosing walls were observed, which probably mainly housed handicraft businesses (blacksmiths, pottery, glassworks, etc.). But farms were certainly also integrated into the canabae. A large pottery (house no. 1 or castellum figlinarum ) with a surrounding wall was located on the western edge of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. It stood on a flat knoll and consisted of a courtyard with a fountain, three circular kilns with diameters of 3.50, 5 and 5.80 meters and two functional buildings. The surrounding wall formed a right angle in the west and south, which was closed off by a semicircle in the north and east.
campus
The center of the canabae was a multi-phase campus a hundred meters southwest of the legionary camp. All that remains of it are scattered bricks and rubble. During the excavations, two phases of construction that are clearly separated from each other could be observed. The older, smaller campus had a courtyard measuring 139 × 115 meters, surrounded by 5.80 and 7.30 meters deep columned halls (porticus) . Later, a new layout, this time 225.60 × 182 meters in size, was built on top of the previous building, shifting its floor plan a little further west. It consisted of two courtyards, one 128 × 137.50 meters in the north and one 137.50 × 34.50 meters in the south. The campus was bordered on three sides by elongated porticos and closed halls. On the long sides in the west and east they had two aisles and probably carried an upper floor. Statue bases and the lower leg of a life-size statue were found in the porticoes. Perhaps the bronze statue of Emperor Severus Alexander once stood there , whose head is on display in the Carnuntinum Museum. On the north side there was a 6.20 meter deep pillar hall. In the south-east, the campus was closed off by a 27-meter-wide hall structure, to which apses were subsequently added on the east and west sides, which delimited the narrow sides of the building at a distance of around 150 meters. Since they were exactly aligned in the central axis, it was believed that this building was probably a market hall (basilica). But it is much more likely that it served as a training hall (basilica exercitatoria), where the garrison could carry out their military exercise program even in rainy weather or in winter. Later the hall was separated into two long rectangular rooms by a partition wall with pilasters. In post-Roman times a blacksmith's workshop was set up in the eastern part of the hall. The campus axes were aligned with the governor's villa. The campus probably served the civilian population as a central market and for the garrison as a roll call and training area. It is one of the largest structures of this type that have become known on the territory of the former Roman Empire.
Governor's villa
At the end of the 2nd century the villa of the governor and legionary legate ( praetorium ) was built 400 m west of the camp, north of the Limes road and directly on the bank of the Danube. Due to landslides caused by erosion, only small remains of it (foundation walls of two 20-meter-long, hall-like rooms and one room) have survived. The rooms were decorated with wall paintings and floor heating. An altar found there and donated to the goddess Aequitas / Eudikia between 246 and 248 is now in the Museum Carnuntinum. It was commissioned by the governor Titus Pomponius Protomachus and made it possible to identify the building. Excavations in this area are still difficult and dangerous, as the steep bank is in acute danger of falling.
Castra Singularis
Carnuntum is one of the few Roman residential cities where the lodgings of the governor's bodyguard ( castra singularis ) could be located. In 2015, a building complex surrounded by a wall was discovered between the Praetorium (south) and the campus using ground penetrating radar . It was oriented to the east, towards the legionary camp, and not, as is usual with most of the Limes fort, to the north, towards the Danube. The fort bordered other buildings in the south and west at a distance of only 4–6 meters, while the Limesstrasse was likely to have passed directly on the northern front. Its area covered an area of approx. 183 × 99 meters, around 1.8 hectares. Immediately outside the south wall was a group of buildings, some of which were hypocausted, perhaps a thermal bath. Judging by its location and structure, this complex could only have been occupied by the guard troops (equites and pedites singularis) . The camp had a long rectangular floor plan with rounded corners and had at least three entrance gates (north, east and south). However, two of them (north and south gate) were not placed centrally, but positioned in the eastern part of the fortification. At the south gate, a tower-like extension could be recognized during the image analysis. Presumably at least this gate was flanked by one or two towers, as is common in medieval castles. However, there were no intermediate towers and ditches that were customary in Roman forts. In contrast to the other military camps in Carnuntum, it was not particularly strongly fortified, but only separated from the camp city by the approximately 1.8–2.0 meter wide wall.
In the eastern half of the area there were at least six other buildings, the function of which has not yet been precisely defined. The camp headquarters ( principia ), the commandant's house ( praetorium ) and the armory ( armamentarium ) and a team barracks were probably located there . In the western part there were another four 8-meter-long crew barracks, lined up closely, which suggests a crew strength of 400 to 500 men. All of them had a slightly wider head structure at their northern end - in which the officers were accommodated - and were laid in pairs, back to back. The scan evaluations showed that a residential unit consisted of two chambers ( contubernia ) and was probably much larger and better equipped than the one in the barracks of the legionary camp.
Therme on the Mühläckern
One of the largest building complexes of the Canabae was on its southeastern periphery. The remains were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the south of the Mühläcker corridor, near the railway line. Among other things, numerous altars, reliefs and statues were recovered from him. The consecration monuments and statues found there, e.g. B. from Iuppiter Dolichenus and Minerva did not favor a certain deity and its cult. Since the floor plan differed significantly from the Roman thermal baths known at the time, the excavators interpreted it as a therapeutic or legionary bath and filled it in again after the research was completed.
There was no internal access or subdivision by side streets or alleys. The orientation of the structure was also not based on the road network of the Canabae. Apparently the bath was only built later on the southeastern periphery of the settlement. Later aerial photographs showed that it was much larger than the first excavations suggested. The building, with a total size of 200 × 220 meters, was apparently divided into several functional areas due to its spatial structure and the orientation of the building lines. It consisted of up to 60 nested rooms. On the north side was a west-east facing hall. The majority of the rooms are based on this orientation. The actual bathing facilities were in the eastern part. There, the excavators found several apses, circular rooms, water basins, heating channels in the walls and floors, and an extensive channel system. The rooms had marble or brick floors and were decorated with locally made statues, imported marble slabs, and wall paintings. In the north and west one found more halls and long corridors and courtyards, surrounded by porticoes . Only a few of the rooms could be heated.
The dating of the building complex is uncertain. During the excavations, a consecration altar of Licius Vitalis, stable master (strator legati) of a commander of Legio XIIII from the period between 222 and 235 was discovered in one of the walls . The building was probably built on a large scale during these years. It cannot be said whether it was created at this time. The foundation stone could also have been laid in the 1st or 2nd century. While ceramics and military equipment were still represented until the second half of the 4th century, their use in the 5th century can no longer be clearly identified. Despite its peripheral location, the area is unlikely to have been used as a burial ground in the late period. Even in later investigations, no conclusive hydrogeological or archaeological evidence was found that would have supported an interpretation as a thermal bath. Perhaps in reality it was just a representative magnate's villa or a palatial building with a lavishly equipped bathroom.
Road system
The Canabae road network was irregular; During the investigations, however, streets arranged at right angles were also recognizable in some sections. The camp city was essentially developed through three streets:
- the Limesstraße, which crossed the legionary camp as a via principalis and then continued westwards, always along the banks of the Danube, to the civil town,
- the Via praetoria / decumana which left the legionary camp through the south gate and continued south-east to the fort of Gerulata ( Rusovce , Slovakia), as well as
- the Amber Road , which ran from the west gate of the legionary camp to the south-west and on which one reached Italy via Scarbantia , Savaria and Poetovio .
amphitheater
The amphitheater I is the only archaeological site of Canabae to be fully visit. It served primarily as a weapons training area for the legionaries. Gladiator fights (munera) and show hunts (venationes) also took place there, presumably also games specially arranged for the troops. The amphitheater was initially a largely free-standing structure that cut far less into the terrain than previously thought. Since the 3rd century, residential and commercial buildings have been built around the theater, which spread towards the Caveamauer. Some were equipped with hose heaters. As a result, there was a mixed development, with residential and commercial buildings overlapping. Two dome ovens and a pit in which lime was burned could also be detected. An extremely rare coin with the portrait of Dryantilla, wife of the usurper Regalianus, was discovered in one of the ovens.
The early theater was built in the second half of the 1st century and was made entirely of wood except for the substructures. It was burned down, perhaps according to plan, in the 2nd century. According to a fragmented building inscription from the legionary camp, the stone-built amphitheater was donated to the Legion in the second half of the 2nd century by a certain Caius Domitius Zmaragdus from Antioch , councilor of the civil city and perhaps as an army supplier. It was probably destroyed again at the beginning of the Marcomannic Wars. After its reconstruction, it was still in operation until around 300 and was repeatedly repaired until then (herringbone walling), but finally demolished to obtain building material for the renovation of the legionary camp under Valentinian. The wall structures visible today are all reconstructions that were not built until the beginning of the 20th century.
The 97.55 × 76.40 meter, multi-phase building stood around 110 meters away from the northeast side of the legionary camp, just off the Limesstrasse in a natural depression. It was about 14 meters lower than the legionary camp and therefore did not restrict the view of the apron. The building had an elliptical floor plan oriented from east to west, the arena (cavea) measured 72 × 44 meters, the surrounding rows of seats offered space for 8,000 spectators. Since the square sank towards the north towards the Danube, the outer wall had to be built a little higher and reinforced with supporting pillars. The arena wall, which was made up of quarry stone at the core and was 1.5 meters wide, was clad with hand-made blocks and was originally painted red. It was connected to the outer wall by the supporting walls arranged in the shape of spokes and to the inner cave wall by walls lined up radially or in the shape of spokes, which carried the wooden benches of the spectator stands. The bottom row of the seats was directly on a pile of earth. The higher ranks on a wooden structure could be reached via stairs. In front of her was a wall made of ashlars, the so-called podium wall, which delimited the battlefield. Their blocks, connected with metal dovetail clips, were originally covered with a light whitewash and bordered in color. In addition to incrustation painting (imitations of gemstones), which could be detected on plaster residues, battle scenes were probably also depicted on it.
The arena floor was rammed earth; only a small section had been paved with stone slabs, presumably only afterwards. In the middle there was a rectangular water basin which, provided with an overflow, could be drained through the north gate via a canal if necessary and was probably also used to clean the battlefield. The basin, which is now covered for safety reasons, is fed by a still functional ring collector, which at the same time also drains away the rainwater. The drainage channel consisted of clay pipes that led the sewage directly into the Danube. During the performances it was covered with wood. There was another canal along the arena wall, which should also drain the battlefield.
In the center of the southern auditorium was the elaborately designed “Imperial or Governor's Lodge ” (pulpitum) . It could be entered via its own entrance. The two pillars were only brought there from the legionary camp during the renovation of the theater in the 19th century. The box was probably only intended for particularly high-ranking guests of honor at the Games. Opposite her, directly above the north gate, was the one for the city magistrate of the civil town with stone benches. The inscription in honor of the four councilors has been reconstructed. The north gate also served as a mortuary, for the removal of animal carcasses and for the passage of the drainage canal.
The main entrances were to the east and west of the building. It was a tripartite, lockable gate system that tapered in a funnel shape from the outside to the inside. They were designed in an elaborate stone architecture, with a block weighing up to 750 kg. The audience entered the amphitheater from outside via so-called vomitoriums. Traces of these stairs were found north of the east gate, among other things.
Animal kennel
In the west gate there was a small niche to accommodate a statue of a god and on its north side there was a subsequently added U-shaped "animal kennel" (vivarium) consisting of twelve stone pillars with conical inlet grooves for grids that are still visible today. The area around the kennel was paved. Inside was a paved middle path. At the entrance to the arena, the stone threshold and a bolt and door pan hole were still present. The shape of this alleged kennel, missing supports or those that found no counterpart in the findings, as well as the extremely massive pillars, the grooves of which are said to have accommodated wooden concertina bars, are partly free interpretations of the traces in the original building findings.
Nemesis sanctuary
Next to the west gate of the amphitheater was a three- room, small nemesis temple (nemeseum) in front of it . A previous wooden building stood there before the middle of the 1st century. The wooden temple was probably replaced by two separate buildings that were built in stone in the last quarter of the 1st century. It consisted of a cella with a southern apse for setting up the statue of the gods. The top of the apse was decorated with fired clay rosettes and stone coffers painted white. Due to the sloping terrain, the cult room was a little lower and could be accessed via three steps on the southeast side. When it was discovered, the fragments of the Nemesis statue as well as nine altars and statue bases were still located there. Next to the apse, a stone bench with a back step ran along the wall, which was used to set up votive offerings. The cella was extended towards the end of the 3rd century by a vestibule and a vestibule with further stone benches and in the south by a small, one- room sacellum . In the vestibule there was a pool of water that had been chiseled out of the calyx of a column. The vestibules were red, the cella painted in multiple colors. The remains of statues of Diana Nemesis, Hercules with his son Telephos in his arms and nine consecration altars were found in the temple . Most of the inscriptions were dedicated to the goddess Nemesis, others to the emperor Commodus and the god of war Mars. The statue in the apse was donated in 184 by the highest ranking centurion of the legionary camp ( Primus Pilus ) of Legio XIIII, Quintus Ref […] Mansuetus. One of the Nemesis altars was commissioned in 187 by the administrator of the Nemeseum (curam agens Nemesei) . During the excavations in the ruins of the temple, numerous slingshot balls from a Roman torsion gun (balistae) were discovered. In the ground between Amphitheater I and the legionary camp there was a large number of iron toe traps. Perhaps the attackers had taken cover there during a siege of the camp, after which the Nemeseum was massively fired by the defenders.
Water supply
How the water supply to the military camps was handled has not yet been fully clarified. During the excavations, numerous brick water pipes, sewers, running wells, wells, distributors, wooden and lead pipes, but also scoop and draw wells and cisterns were found. Although we now know in great detail about the settlement structure of the Carnuntine Canabae and, thanks to the old excavations, the plan of the legionary camp is almost completely available, the water supply to the eastern half of Carnuntum's settlement cannot be adequately reconstructed. A major reason for this was the lack of extensive investigations in this area. No other related projects have been initiated since Josef Dell's research activities on the Solafeld in the 1890s. Different pipeline systems led to the settlements from the south, west and apparently also from the east. In addition to the Solafeld pipeline or the Roman aqueduct in the western Canabae, two other supply lines are likely: a pipeline coming from the western slope of the Pfaffenberg, which was led over an aqueduct bridge in the direction of Canabae, and one running from the south to the Reiterkastell.
Pfaffenbründl
In 1928 a 1 meter high and 2 meter wide arched aqueduct from Roman times was discovered during excavation work in Langen Gasse. Other sections had already been observed in the old schoolhouse and in the parish garden. It ended in a "domed outlet" at the so-called Pfaffenbründl, approx. 200 meters east of the parish church of Petronell and still provides fresh drinking water today.
Solafeld water pipe
At the end of the 19th century, Josef Dell examined a walled fresh water pipe running from north to south over a length of 1070 m, approx. 1.5 to 2.5 km south of the legionary camp. The beginning and end of the line had already been destroyed. The source was probably in the corridor of black earth floors. The approx. 60 cm wide pipe, the walls of which consisted of quarry stone walls, was covered with stone slabs laid horizontally in a roof shape. It reached a height of between 1.20 and 1.50 m and was completely accessible. In the northern third of the aqueduct came a branch from the south-west, which could still be followed for about 200 m. Josef Dell counted nine entry openings on both pipe sections. There were probably many more. They had been laid at intervals of about 33 to 55 m. At entrance opening VII, Dell discovered a branch branching off to the north, but after about 1.20 m it was walled up and could not be followed. In aerial photographs one can see at least three linear vegetation features north of the excavated aqueduct, the south end of which is oriented towards the Solafeld line, while they drift radially apart in the north. They run towards different areas of the southwest canabae. One can almost certainly interpret these structures as a continuation of the aqueduct that crossed the depression between the Solafeld and the Burgfeld, i.e. the settlement area of the Canabae and the legionary camp.
Canabae West Aqueduct
In the western area of the Canabae, the main sewer of the Reiterkastell and a vaulted water pipe were found at the end of the 1970s, which crossed with each other. While the sewer pipe was passed under the drinking water not far from the northeast corner of the forum, the decision was made to lay the water pipe under the canal at the Reiterkastell. The direction of flow of the water pipe, which was interrupted by a sand trap and whose drinking water channel narrowed in front of the sink shaft, ran from west to east. It is not known why the sewer was not deepened. Perhaps they wanted to save the extensive digging work in the unstable, gravelly underground. A section of water pipeline north of the Canabae campus, discovered by Groller-Mildensee in 1902 and coming from the southwest towards the legionary camp, represents a third reference point for the water supply to the legionary camp and canabae, secured by excavations. Located 50 to 60 m from the south-western camp wall a trough-shaped installation in the wiring harness, the function of which is not fully clarified. It was probably a small distribution basin from which four lines ran. The basin presumably served as an inlet for a pressure pipeline that overcame the storage trenches and at least supplied the buildings in the vicinity, such as the camp hospital, with fresh water. However, this pipeline probably did not serve as the main water supply for the camp. Its continuation, which had the same cross-section as the section in front of the trough, apparently took up the overflow and directed it further north, possibly in the direction of the west gate or the governor's villa. The evaluation of aerial photos showed a connection between the crossing structure at the equestrian camp and the Groller water pipe. Between two spur streets that led to Gräberstrasse and Limesstrasse, there was a striking, linear moisture mark that leads directly into the Groller'sche line at the forum. It should have been the unexplored section of this aqueduct.
Aqueduct on the Pfaffenberg
Josef Dell discovered a third line on the northern slope of the Pfaffenberg, which, however, led in the direction of Hainburg. The first concrete indications for a further aqueduct on the western slope of the Pfaffenberg were provided by aerial photographs. It could be seen on them that numerous linearly arranged, approximately 200 m long dry marks ran across the Weingartfeld corridor. However, it was not a question of continuous, but only point-shaped vegetation features, possibly the supporting pillars of a Roman aqueduct . The source of this aqueduct is likely to have been on the western slopes or at the foot of the Pfaffenberg, perhaps near the Hundsheim waterworks. It probably supplied the thermal baths in the southeastern Canabae .
Cult and religion
The soldiers' most important religious duty was to take part in the ritual acts of the Roman state religion, because this was also intended to express loyalty to the ruling imperial family. However, soldiers returning home in particular also introduced other cults and religions into Carnuntum, which has been archaeologically proven. Most of the time, they simply merged their highest imperial god, Iuppiter, with those gods whose cults they had come into contact with during their campaigns (syncretism). Among them were Iuppiter Dolichenus, Iuppiter Heliopolitanus, Iuppiter Tavianus and Iuppiter Casius. Typical for a military site, Mithras in Carnuntum in particular enjoyed great veneration, as several documented places of worship of this god, who originally came from Persia, attest. There were also finds of Syrian and Egyptian deities (Isis, Serapis). The breakthrough for the successive expansion of Christianity was the Milan Agreement of 313. Through it, Christianity, like all other religions of the empire, advanced to a religio licita . That means, one no longer had to hide one's faith from the authorities when this edict came into effect. Although there is no clear evidence of church buildings or meeting places in Carnuntum that would suggest the existence of a Christian community, at least some everyday objects with clearly Christian symbolic decorations attest to a gradual penetration of ancient culture with its ideas and content.
Temple district on the Pfaffenberg
The originally 500 m long and 330 m high limestone ridge of the Pfaffenberg lies in the east of Carnuntum and is part of the Hundsheim Mountains. The Romans probably called this mountain range mons Karnuntinus . From there you had a good view of the Barbaricum in the northwest, Vindobona in the west, Lake Neusiedl and the foothills of the Alps in the southwest. Lively Roman cult and building activity took place there for several centuries. As an elevation visible from afar, it was made for a temple district, where the inhabitants of the Canabae, but probably also those of the civil city, the Capitoline Triassic ( Jupiter Optimus Maximus ) and the Roman state - personified by the deified emperors - could pay their respects . Nevertheless, it seems to have belonged more to the camp city as a place of state representation with a propagandistic character.
The cults corresponded to those that were also practiced in the rest of the Roman Empire, but in their specific form an unmistakable local color could be recognized, which manifested itself not only in the veneration of Iuppiter Carnuntinus, but also in the early and strong involvement of Eastern mystery religions. The inscriptions for this god are also provided on the Pfaffenberg with the epithet “K”, which is now unanimously regarded in research as standing for K [arnuntinus] . The multiple mention of "III IDVS IVNIAS" is also striking. It was probably a special holiday to commemorate the dedication of the first Roman capitol of the province of Pannonia in Savaria ( Szombathely ). The mountain, as sacer mons Carnuntinus, may also have played an important role in Carnuntum's choice of location, since, according to the architect Vitruvius, the cult site for the highest state gods should be built at the highest point in the city.
The earliest building finds date from the second half of the 1st century. The first temples were not built until the reign of Hadrian (117-138). The plateau was obviously not, as is often assumed, previously used by the Celts for religious purposes or the like. The administration and maintenance of the temples as well as the organization of the ritual acts were entrusted to the priests of the mountains (magistri montis) , who were named several times in inscriptions , and a college of four who carried out the ritual and sacrificial acts in the temple district on behalf of the townspeople. The cult community, the cives romani consistentes Carnuntni intra leugam , was mainly recruited from the residents of the camp city. It is assumed, however, that two of the magistri monti each came from the civil city, since in some inscriptions decuriones can be added as consecrationes, whose membership of the Sergia tribe would suggest an origin from the civil city. This suggests that the sanctuary has a significance that extends beyond the narrow area of the canabae (extra denial) .
During the time of the Tetrarchy, the temple district experienced another brief boom, which manifested itself in a series of consecrated monuments. The last verifiable consecration for Iuppiter Optimus Maximus comes from the year 313, when the Milan agreement between the emperors Constantine I and Licinius came about, which put Christianity on an equal footing with the other religions recognized in the empire. In the time after that, the official rituals for the old gods are likely to have been finally discontinued. Most of the statues and altars were probably forcibly destroyed at the end of the 4th century. At this point the use of the temple area ceased abruptly. Many of the artifacts clearly showed signs of being hacked by hoes or similar tools. The buildings were then either left to decay or demolished for the extraction of building materials. Numerous consecration altars were partly made into spoils on the spot . The trigger was probably the elevation of Christianity to the sole state religion under Theodosius I. The related imperial edict of 391/392 forbade the further practice of Pagan cult activities in the empire. The iconoclasts obviously tried very hard to chop up the statues into as small parts as possible in order to prevent a revival of the old cults in the "places of worship of the cursed demons" (omnia daemonum templa) . The last remnants of the ancient temple district finally fell victim to the steadily advancing quarry work by 1985. The archaeologists were able to recover the most important artifacts in the course of a multi-year evacuation operation or document them before they were destroyed.
Development
The buildings of the approx. 7000 square meter mountain sanctuary consisted of a number of smaller temples, an assembly building, numerous column monuments, consecration altars and a small theater for ritual games. They were probably also visible from the adjacent Barbaricum. The epigraphic legacies of the Pfaffenberg in particular are very extensive. The oldest dedicatory inscriptions go back to the middle of the 1st century AD. The ancient building structures were fully uncovered during the excavations. According to the location, function and form of the findings, the following typology could be established:
- Cult theater
- Temple buildings of Jupiter
- Imperial Altar (ara Augustorum)
- Jupiter and imperial columns
- Consecration altars and chapels
- Priest or meeting house of the magistri montes
Holy road
The temple district was most likely to be reached via a processional path (via sacra Carnuntina) , which started from the camp city and led over the Kirchenberg and the gently rising northern slope to the plateau of the Pfaffenberg. The road probably also passed Mithraeum I.
Cult theater
The cult theater was in the southwest of the slightly sloping mountain plateau. It was used to hold ludi publici (including, for example, the Trojaritt or gerano dance performed by young people), as well as parades, processions, etc. Ä. That played an important role in the context of the gods or imperial cults. It is one of the largest structures on the Pfaffenberg and was probably built in Severan times.
An approximately 2 meter high "arena wall" enclosed a round oval square with a diameter of 40–42 meters. However, this shape was not created on the basis of a given building plan, but its course was adapted as far as possible to the natural conditions of the area. To the west of the entrance gate there was a grandstand with rows of seats that could be reached via a staircase. The substructures were made of stone, the pillars and rows of seats were made of wood. On the east side there was another, albeit somewhat smaller, grandstand. She was u. a. Decorated with relief plates and probably only reserved for legion officers and other guests of honor. The dating of the complex is based on the assumption that an inscription discovered in 1912, in which the building of a 100 feet long and 7 feet high wall by the youth association of the Iuppiter Dolichenus cult (iuventus colens Iovem Dolichenum) is reported, should be regarded as the building inscription of the cult theater is. However, since the first find report mentions that this inscription plate was built into the foundation of the theater, it may have been used secondary. It is therefore more likely to be assigned to the entrance gate to the west of the sanctuary, the corridor-like walls of which corresponded exactly to the length given in the inscription. This gate system of the cult theater (propylon) was located in the northwest of the summit plateau, about 30 meters from the center of the temple area. It was uncovered by Groller-Mildensee in 1898 and its floor plan was documented. The gate, dating from the period between 128 and 138, consisted of two parallel walls, 45 centimeters wide and 15 meters long. The walls formed a 3.80 meter wide entrance, the front of which was decorated with two pilasters. In 1970 it was completely destroyed by the quarry work.
Temple I.
A Iuppiter temple is documented as the first building on the Pfaffenberg. According to an inscription on an architrave found very close to the temple , it was inaugurated by Lucius Aelius Caesar , Hadrian's adopted son, who stayed in Pannonia superior for some time . The 9.16 × 5.32 m building was oriented from north to south and equipped with a cella and a column front (portico). In the sanctuary there was a painted seated statue of the deity.
Temple II
After the cult theater, this temple is the second largest known structure on the Pfaffenberg. The building was probably built towards the end of the 2nd century, either immediately after the Marcomann Wars or on the occasion of the elevation of Septimius Severus to emperor (193). It was a 13.45 × 10.40 meter hall building, to which a smaller, more or less square room (S 1) was connected in the northwest and a larger rectangular room (S 2) in the southeast. Both could be entered from the hall. One had an additional door in the southeast. The building had a porticus in front consisting of six pillars or columns. The 5.30 meter wide middle section of the hall had two U-shaped walls a little over 10 meters long at a distance of around 0.60 meters from the significantly thicker side walls. Eugen Bormann and Werner Jobst considered Temple II to be the Capitol Temple of the Canabae, since the camp city was probably given the same status as the civil city from the reign of Severus. Furthermore, the almost intact heads of the statues were discovered during the excavations, which had been erected there and could be assigned to a group of figures from the Capitoline Triassic. This interpretation is controversial in research. It could also have been a kind of meeting building for cult banquets. The two adjoining rooms, which were needed as a storage room or kitchen for such banquets, indicate a dining room. According to Groller-Mildensee, a rectangular set of brick slabs was found in room S 2 in the east corner, which probably served as a hearth. Temple II could also have served as a place of worship for an oriental deity.
Temple III
Oriented from east to west, this 5.91 × 4.73 m large Ante temple made of Leitha limestone was also dedicated to Jupiter, as demonstrated by fragments of a marble statue that was erected in it. Its foundations were completely exposed during the excavations. At the front of the building stood two columns with Corinthian capitals, behind the vestibule was the cella with the holy of holies. The temple is likely to have been built in the time of Antoninus Pius (138-161) or Marc Aurel.
Imperial altar or emperor and Jupiter columns
To the south of building E, three approximately rectangular foundations were found approx. 5 meters apart. There were probably consecration altars on them. There were also numerous fragments of statues, columns and a portrait head of Marc Aurel, some of which were larger than life. Possibly it was an altar for the imperial cult (ara Augustorum) . The complex was flanked by two columned monuments, one of which carried the statue of Marc Aurel, the other either that of his son and successor Commodus or of the enthroned Iuppiter. To the east of the imperial altar there were other columned monuments, of which only the cast mortar foundations were left. The pillars on square bases were mostly statues of Iuppiter. On their sides there were reliefs depicting Roman gods such as Iuppiter, Juno, Mars, Victoria and Hercules. Particularly noteworthy was a statue of Iuppiter Casius, a weather god originally from northern Syria, whose places of worship can be found throughout the Roman Empire. The specimen placed on the Pfaffenberg had an iron trident on its head, which was supposed to represent a bundle of lightning.
Consecration altars and chapels
Presumably up to 350 consecration altars were set up on the Pfaffenberg. They and some chapels were located on the large temple forecourt, which extended south and west of the above-mentioned cult buildings and took up most of the mountain plateau. There 20 smaller pedestals could be observed on which such altars were erected. The archaeologists recovered hundreds of fragments of their inscriptions during the evacuation work. The consecration altars can be divided into five processing types. The specimens consecrated to Jupiter were up to 1.80 meters high because of the long legend. Their donors were mostly soldiers or the residents of the camp city.
Official building of the magistri montis
The official building of the priests college, designated Building A, stood on the northeastern edge of the temple precinct. Groller-Mildensee wrongly identified it as a watchtower. In the course of the evacuation measures, it was completely exposed and its true function was recognized from the numerous inscriptions found. It had a slightly warped, 8.85 × 7.50 m square floor plan. The rising, 50 centimeter thick masonry (partially preserved over a meter high) stood on a 60 centimeter wide and 50 centimeter high rubble foundation. The stones of the walls had been layered one on top of the other using the spike or herringbone technique. There were also numerous spoils in the masonry . The rooms were plastered on the inside, the outer walls obviously not. Each of the priests was assigned a separate room to carry out his duties. The organizational structure of the priests' college is also reflected in the structure of the house and the division of the rooms. The building was probably not built until the 3rd century, traces of previous buildings could not be found.
Still images
The sculptures with statues of emperors and gods were also numerous and of high quality. Most of the sculptures from Pfaffenberg were recovered from excavations between 1970 and 1985. They were supplemented by some finds from earlier studies. The collection consists of around 40 works of art of various sizes and quality. With the exception of one marble statue, they were carved from local sand-lime stone, including at least 11 seated statues of the enthroned Jupiter. Some of these Iuppiter representations, some of which were larger than life, contained particularly interesting historical details. But statues of other deities, such as those of Juno, Minerva or Victoria, were also placed in the temple area. The sculpture found also included a now lost head of Emperor Marc Aurel, a genius statuette and a few fragments of sculptures by oriental gods.
Cult area of the oriental gods
In the south-east corner of the Canabae (Mühläcker corridor) was an extensive, multi-phase building complex from the 2nd century, of which approximately 10,000 m² of its area could be excavated. It consisted of several cult buildings, a thermal bath and the associated functional buildings. According to the inscriptions on two consecration altars and a tabula ansata, the sanctuary, which was founded in the Traian-Hadrian era, was dedicated to Iuppiter Heliopolitanus, who was venerated in a temple on the east side of the temple precinct. The temple district, which originally came from Baalbek in today's Lebanon, is the only known sanctuary of its kind north of the Alps. The buildings are grouped around a 30 × 20 meter large, trapezoidal courtyard. The cult district may have been walled on all sides. The entrance was in the east. A residential wing, perhaps for priests or believers, has not yet been completely excavated. Before the temple buildings were erected, there were wooden frame structures from the early phase of the canabae, which functioned as residential and farm buildings (so-called block house K).
Cybele temple
In the east there was a 9.50 × 4.80 meter podium temple (building A) which was probably dedicated to the goddess Cybele . According to the remains of the facade cladding, it could have been erected around 150 as a rectangular building with a column front. After the destruction of Temple A, south of it, at the turn of the 2nd to the 3rd century, a 18.5 × 17 meter courtyard (building C) was built, with a square 3.80 × 3.70 meter in the center measuring altar or chapel foundation. The entrance to the courtyard was to the west. After the chapel was abandoned, a podium temple (8.20 × 5.70 meters in size) was rebuilt around 200 next to the foundations of temple A (building B). It consisted of a cella and a vestibule (pronaeus) . A statue of Cybele was probably placed on the east side of the cella.
Mithraeum
The long rectangular Mithraeum (building H) stood in the south and measured 31 × 15 meters. The front of the courtyard consisted of a five meter deep portico. Two halls with reclining platforms could be entered via a common anteroom with the thermal baths. The smaller, three-aisled hall (10 × 15 meters) was equipped with hypocaust heating. The podiums only ran along the long walls. On the narrow side opposite the entrance there was a foundation for a cult image. In the larger hall (13 × 25 meters), the podiums ran along the wall on three sides, on the fourth there was a foundation block for an altar or a cult image. Two small rooms built into the upstream halls probably served as a kitchen or depot for the utensils required for the ritual meals of the cult community. All four inscriptions recovered in the cult area, two altars and two votive plates, refer to Iuppiter Heliopolitanus. It is all the more difficult to determine by which religious community the two cult halls were used and to narrow down their function.
Iuppiter Temple
To the west, an unusually large Iuppiter temple (building J) with a floor plan of 25 × 13.25 meters adjoined the Mithraeum. It was erected in honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus in the 3rd century based on an altar inscription found in 1872 by the legionary tribune Cornelius Vitalis . The axes of the temple were oriented from west to east. Access was probably via the portico of the mithraum. The interior was divided into three naves by the arrangement of the supporting pillars. There were masonry podiums on the long sides. The floor consisted of brick slabs laid at an angle.
Thermal bath
A small thermal bath (building F) with dimensions of 19.5 × 20.5 meters stood east of the Mithräums. The building could be entered on its north side. Then you came through a narrow corridor to the changing room. Behind it, in the south, the bath rooms (cold and warm water bath) with sitting and immersion tubs in two apses were connected. The warm water bath was heated by underfloor and wall heating. The prefurnium stood on the east side of the thermal baths. There was also a 5.50 × 3.50 meter large latrine, which was connected to the sewer of the thermal baths to the Altenburger Bach. The floors and linings of the water tubs were made of terrazzo and marble slabs. According to the brick temples recovered there, the bath was built by members of Legio XIIII.
Port of the warehouse city
Large parts of the buildings directly on the river have fallen victim to erosion over the centuries. Including, of course, landing stages or port facilities. Such systems were probably located near the civil town (Petronell Castle) and the governor's palace in the area of the northeastern canabae and the legionary camp. A large storage building that was excavated near the banks of the Danube in 1899 speaks for this location.
Mithraea
Mithraeum I (Mithras Grotto Am Stein)
The cult building was located between Bad Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell, near the quarry (Am Stein) on the northern slope of the Pfaffenberg. The importance of this place for the inhabitants of the early Carnuntum can be explained by the transition over the Danube and the proximity of the Morava estuary. In 1853 the kuk Münzkabinett organized an excavation there under the direction of Eduard von Sacken. According to his report, which is not very detailed, the Mithraums grotto is said to have had a semicircular floor plan. Their cracks and bumps were evened out with masonry. Probably only a semicircular apse of the building was left when it was discovered. In the north of the apse, a remnant of the stucco was found, which was decorated with horizontal yellow-red lines. Part of the entrance wall could also be examined. According to a building inscription, Mithraeum, which was already badly dilapidated at that time, was repaired in the 4th century at the instigation of Caius Atius Secundus, a member of the knighthood.
The inventory consisted, among other things, of six consecration altars donated by legion officers, priests and slaves. In an inscription Mithras is referred to as the "creator of light" (genitor luminis) . The central cult image, which depicts the god killing the bulls, was about 1.80 × 1.50 meters in size. Only the bull has survived from him. In addition, there were representations or sculptures of the rock birth of the god (petra genetrix) , the torchbearer Cautopates, Mercury and a lion with open jaws in the Mithraeum . They were made of Leitha sandstone and were originally painted. Almost all the finds from Mithraeum I are kept in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
Mithraeum III
The altogether 3914 meter sanctuary was located in the western part of Petronell, on a farm near the Hintausried corridor, Lange Gasse No. 80. This sanctuary, which was probably built in the late 2nd century, was one of the largest sacred buildings in Carnuntum. The building, oriented from east to west, with a long rectangular floor plan, essentially consisted of a vestibule with a kind of cross corridor, the cult room and the sanctuary, all of which were vaulted by a wooden structure supported by beams. The slightly sloping floor was made of rammed earth. The walls and the vault of the Mithraum were probably painted black and red, the vault and roof were made of wood. The cave-like cult room, whose stucco ceiling was probably painted with a starry sky, should symbolize the universe. The large cult relief of the Mithras cave in the entrance hall of the Museum Carnuntinum, which depicts the god killing the bull, comes from this sanctuary.
The 8.50 × 8.50 meter vestibule in the east was about 1.40 meters higher than the cult room. This was followed by an 8.50 × 3.50 meter cross passage through which one entered the actual cult room, probably via a staircase, through another unusually large anteroom. The vestibule was probably the original location of the Mithras altar donated by the participants of the Imperial Conference of Carnuntum, which was commissioned for the restoration of this temple.
The cross aisle was separated from the 24.50 × 9 meter cult room by two small wall cheeks. The cult room was divided by a 4.00 to 4.50 meter wide corridor, on each side of which there were 0.60 × 1.50 to 1.85 × 15.00 meters measuring benches made of masonry (quarry stone with horizontal brick strips ). At the east end of the aisle stood the sculpture of a lion holding a beef's head between its paws. Next to it stood a stone shell, which probably contained holy water. Two stone bases were placed on the inward protruding bank walls, on which the reliefs of the dadophores (torchbearers) Cautes and Cautopates might have stood. They adorned the entrance pillars of the aisle. Their scattered fragments were all over the central corridor.
Two building inscriptions were found on the southern wall of the bank, which tell of the restoration of the dining podiums. The masonry base for the cult relief was set up on the western rear wall of the cult room. There, the excavators found the ruins of the large, high-quality cult relief of the bull-killing from the 2nd century and a seasonal altar. Another 76 centimeter cult image showed the birth of Mithras in the rock. The originally 3.60 x 2.40 meter large relief was painted and consisted of four 40 to 50 centimeter thick sandstone slabs that had been broken in St. Margarethen in Burgenland. In the upper part, the foundation inscription was carved, which said that a certain Titus Flavius Viator had commissioned the cult image. In front of it stood the artfully crafted, approx. 30 cm high main altar with elaborate figural decorations. His ensemble of figures represented the wind gods and the four seasons. According to the inscription, the altar was donated by Magnius Heracla. According to the findings, the cult figures of the Mithraum were violently destroyed.
The finds from the Mithraeum are kept in the Museum Carnuntinum.
population
The grave finds showed that people from all parts of the empire had settled in the canabae. The Italians formed the majority at first, but Dacians, Dalmatians, Spaniards and North Africans also lived there. Certainly people of the Germania magna were brought there as slaves or came to Carnuntum as soldiers. Through the deployment of the legion and the relocation of troops to numerous theaters of war, the Roman army in particular promoted this ethnic diversity. In late antiquity, Germanic tribes such as Sarmatians, Goths, East Germans and Burgundians settled there.
economy
The campus (or forum) next to the legionary camp was the center of economic and commercial activity. Many of the traders and craftsmen had set up their sales stands in its lobby and side rooms. Metal workshops were mostly located on the outskirts of the camp city because of the fire hazard. Utility ceramics were mainly produced for personal use and regional markets. High-quality tableware (terra sigillata) was imported from Gaul, Italy or the Germanic provinces. Another important line of business was the amber trade. The raw material was further negotiated in Carnuntum to the south and returned from there to the north in the form of refined products such as jewelry. The establishment of a large army base also brought a great need for agricultural products. In the course of time, a large number of farms or villas (villa rustica) and villages (vici) emerged in the hinterland of Carnuntum , but they could not always be precisely distinguished from one another archaeologically. The villa owners are likely to have primarily pursued agriculture, while the villagers were mainly engaged in commercial activities (e.g. spinning, weaving, woodworking). Around 50 people are likely to have lived on the large estates, who produced the food for the Legion, but also made clothing and consumer goods for their own use. Simple devices were made from the bones of slaughtered cattle. Repairs to tools or the like were done in the local blacksmiths' workshops. Most of the goods produced from the villages and villas, however, were certainly tailored to the needs of the Roman army.
Burial grounds
The population of the camp city and the soldiers of the legionary camp were mostly buried along the Amber Road in the early days of Roman rule. The section between the legionary camp and the Heidentor is known in research as the grave road. Gräberstrasse stretched along the Petronell-Rohrau connecting road a little beyond the Schafflerhof to the Heidentor. From then on she could be followed to Höflein, Bruck an der Leitha and on the west bank of Lake Neusiedl. It was not paved, its pavement consisted of a pounded, slightly arched ballast layer averaging 10 m wide.
The ancient graves have been systematically explored since 1885. The burial ground began about 500 meters southwest of the legionary camp. The burials are particularly dense about one kilometer from the camp. Mainly soldiers and the residents of the camp town found their final resting place here. In the 1st and 2nd centuries the dead were cremated. The ashes were buried in pits or urns, over which a tombstone (stele) or a memorial was erected. During this period, urn graves with steles were particularly popular. But there were also more elaborate pits lined with bricks and stone slabs, square grave houses, chapels, pillar monuments and grave temples decorated with lion sculptures or other sculptures, with which the monumental grave structures in the south of the empire were imitated. Some tombs were surrounded by rectangular or round enclosures. A crematorium (ustrina) was also found on Gräberstrasse . It was two and a half meters in diameter and sunk three feet into the ground. An urn filled with ashes lay in front of the heating opening. While in the early days body burials were still the exception, especially among the lower class of the local population, a significant increase in the number of skeletal graves can be observed in Carnuntum from 200 onwards. The burial ground on Bernsteinstrasse was occupied until the end of the 2nd century. Its looting probably began in Roman antiquity. When the grave of the soldier Lucius Centyllius Priscus was uncovered, the archaeologists found it completely disheveled. The contents of the grave had been scattered around the pit and were still on Roman soil level.
The custom of burial in sarcophagi in Carnuntum was popularized by immigrants from the Orient . The deceased were now increasingly buried in some magnificently decorated sarcophagi, simple stone boxes, brick-plate graves and brick-lined grave pits. One of these grave fields was located southwest of the camp and consisted of 96 burials, most of which had already been looted. The stone boxes consisted of gravestones that were probably dragged there from Grave Street in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Grave inscriptions from this period as well as a Nereid relief and a portrait stele were also found there.
On the south-eastern edge of the camp town, a burial ground from late antiquity was found. It consisted mainly of brick-plate graves , the bricks of which were stamped by Legio XIII. There were only a few sarcophagi and stone box burials. A girl's grave had not been looted and still contained valuable gold jewelry. The burial ground reached up to the built-up area of the Canabae.
Christian graves have not yet been discovered or recognized in Carnuntum.
Marching camp
In the 1990s, geomagnetic measurements in the vicinity of the Heidentor were able to detect three more previously unknown military camps. During the archaeological prospecting for the years 2012-2015, 20 (!) More such facilities in the run-up to Carnuntum have become known. Only their defensive trenches were visible in the measurement data. They are characterized by a floor plan in playing card format, i. H. the barriers describe a rectangle or parallelogram with rounded corners. Characteristic of temporary marching camps, which, in contrast to the stationary camps, were only intended for short-term accommodation of troops in tents.
Civil city
In the second half of the 1st century, parallel to the legionary camp, the civil settlement was built on the model of Roman cities in Italy. The built-up area of the civil town was about three square kilometers. It stretched two miles to the west-east and about one and a half kilometers from north to south. Its western end is one kilometer before Petronell (Gstettenbreite corridor) outside the zoo's enclosure wall. The eastern end is marked by the line Lange Gasse-Pfarrkirche von Petronell. In the north the houses were close to the steep bank of the Danube, in the south up to today's Bundesstraße 9 and the Heidentor. Since the beginning of the 2nd century, it can be assumed that there will be extensive development in the sense of an organized community. Around 50,000 people were probably already living there at this time. Emperor Hadrian subsequently granted the city the right to self-government. Under Trajan it rose to the provincial capital of Upper Pannonia. During the Marcomann Wars, Marc Aurel led his campaigns from there to the tribal areas north of the Danube. At the end of the 2nd century, Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by the Danube regions and the civil town was then elevated to the rank of colony. In 308 AD the tetrarchs held the Carnuntum Imperial Conference there . A severe earthquake devastated the region in the middle of the 4th century. This natural disaster combined with the steady reduction in the number of border troops and the effects of the great migration ultimately caused the city's economic and demographic decline. In the late 4th century the already very dilapidated place served Emperor Valentinian I as an army camp for a campaign against Transdanubian tribal associations. In the 5th century, the city was abandoned and abandoned by its Romanesque inhabitants.
Limes course from Carnuntum to the small fort at Stopfenreuth
| ON / name | Description / condition | Illustration |
|---|---|---|
| Watchtowers in the Canabae | 350 to 400 meters from the east gate of the legionary camp lay the remains of two rectangular stone towers under the Canabae houses. Its cast masonry was one meter wide. Since the valley of the Altenburg brook obstructed the view from the legionary camp, these towers were supposed to secure access to the camp from this side. In the course of the expansion of the canabae, they were probably eliminated. | |
| "Mattleturm" | 600 meters southwest of the west gate, in the Mattleacker corridor, was another 9 × 9.10 meter square watchtower that secured the Amber Road. Its cast masonry was 2.50 to 2.80 meters thick. The interior measured 4.0 × 3.30 meters. Presumably it served as a signal tower. The tower ruins were still visible until the 20th century. | |
| Watchtower on Pfaffenberg and small fort "Am Stein" | Whether there was a watchtower on the Pfaffenberg plateau could not be archaeologically confirmed, but it is very likely due to the favorable location. On the slope of the Pfaffenberg (Am Stein), near today's parish church of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg, a fortification and a three-arched gate system with inscriptions from the Legio XIV Antoniniana as well as the Legio X and XIII and a building inscription from the time of Caracalla were discovered around 1874 . The ruin was completely destroyed by the subsequent quarry work. It could no longer be clarified whether it was actually a small fort to secure a bridge over the Danube. | |
| Stopfenreuth bridgehead |
Main article: Small fort Stopfenreuth
This fortified bridgehead (small fort?) Was in the Stopfenreuther Au on the left bank of the Danube, near the mouth of the Roßkopfarm, three kilometers from the northeast corner of the legionary camp. At this point the Amber Road crossed the Danube , presumably over a ship bridge . It is unclear whether the fortification was on the northern or southern bank of the main river of the Danube in antiquity. |
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Depiction of a ship's bridge on the Trajan's Column
|
Monument protection
The facilities are ground monuments within the meaning of the Austrian Monument Protection Act . Investigations and targeted collection of finds without the approval of the Federal Monuments Office constitute a criminal offense. Accidental finds of archaeological objects (ceramics, metal, bones, etc.), as well as all measures affecting the soil, must be reported to the Federal Monuments Office (Department for Ground Monuments).
Museums
The Carnuntinum Museum is located in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. In the museum building built by Friedrich Ohmann from 1901 to 1904 in the style of an antique country villa, the largest Roman museum in Austria, the most valuable finds (e.g. amber) from the numerous excavations are presented to the public. It was opened personally by Emperor Franz Josef I in 1904 . Only a fraction of the archaeological finds from Carnuntum can currently be shown in the museum (around 4,000 specimens). The rest was temporarily stored in several depots. In addition to the Museum Carnuntinum, the promenade garden in Petronell (residential district of the civil town) with a city model on a scale of 1: 300 following the newly built visitor center, the late antique Heidentor and the two amphitheaters I and II can be visited. The foundation walls of the large thermal baths in the civil town have been preserved and are accessible to visitors. The legionary camp, which was largely excavated in the 20th century, was filled in again, its walls are only recognizable as an elevation. Petronell also houses the privately run museum of the Auxiliary Fort Carnuntum Association, in whose cellar a junction between the long-distance water pipe and the fort's sewer has been preserved; Temporary exhibitions are also held there.
See also
literature
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- Jaroslav Nikodem-Makovsky: Model of a Roman traveling carriage in the Carnuntum Archaeological Museum. In: Jahrbuch Carnuntum 1992. Vienna 1993, ISBN 3-85460-104-2 , pp. 49-59.
- Martin Mosser: The 15th Legion and their inscribed monuments in Carnuntum. In: Legionary Eagle and Druid Staff. From the legionary camp to the Danube metropolis. 2 volumes. Office of the Lower Austrian Provincial Government - Department of Culture and Science, St. Pölten 2006, ISBN 3-85460-229-4 ( Catalog of the Niederösterreichisches Landesmuseum. NF 462), (Exhibition catalog, Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg, March 21, 2006– November 11, 2007), pp. 253-258.
- Wolfgang Neubauer, Michael Doneus, Immo Trinks, Geert Julien Joanna Verhoeven, A. Hinterleitner, S. Seren, K. Löcker: Long-term Integrated Archaeological Prospection at the Roman Town of Carnuntum / Austria. In: Paul Johnson, Martin Millett (Ed.): Archaeological Survey and the City (= Monograph Series. No. 3). Oxbow, Oxford 2012, pp. 202-221.
- August Obermayr: Roman city Carnuntum. Ruins / excavations / finds. Austrian Federal publisher for teaching, science and art, Vienna / Munich 1967.
- Matthias Pacher, Andreas Konecny: The thermal baths in the so-called Carnuntum promenade. In: Stefan Traxler, Raimund Kastler (ed.): Roman baths in Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. Colloquium Lentia 2010. Province of Upper Austria, Upper Austria. Landesmuseum, Linz, 2012, ISBN 978-3-85474-245-6 , pp. 129ff.
- Peter Pleyel: Roman Austria . Pichler Verlag, Vienna 2002, ISBN 3-85431-270-9 , pp. 68-78.
- Peter Scherrer: Cities on the Austrian Limes. In: Herwig Friesinger , Fritz Krinzinger : The Roman Limes in Austria, guide to the archaeological monuments . Verlag der Österr. Academy d. Sciences, Vienna 1997, ISBN 3-7001-2618-2 , pp. 93-103.
- Arnold Schober: The Roman times in Austria and in the neighboring areas of Slovenia . 2nd Edition. RM Rohrer Verlag, Vienna 1953.
- Otto Urban: Celtic Settlements on the Middle Danube. In: Herwig Friesinger , Friedrich Krinzinger (Hrsg.): The Roman Limes in Austria. Guide to archaeological monuments. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 1997, ISBN 3-7001-2618-2 , pp. 18-25.
- Office of the Lower Austrian Provincial Government Department of Art and Culture St. Pölten (Ed.): Carnuntum and Limes (Monument Preservation in Lower Austria, Volume 45). State of Lower Austria, St. Pölten 2011.
Interactive media
- CARNUNTUM Reborn City of the Emperors , DVD, Archäologische Kulturpark NÖ Betriebsgesellschaft mbH and 7reasons, 2011, ISBN 978-3-9501914-4-8 .
Web links
- Legion camp location on Vici.org
- The Roman Limes in Austria
- Carnuntum - official website
- Carnuntum 3d object database
- View of the Amphitheater I on Lower Austria 3D
- Entry on Carnuntum (military camp) in the Austria Forum (in the AEIOU Austria Lexicon )
- The first Romans in Carnuntum (marching camp of Tiberius) Animated film on YouTube
- Carnuntum in the 3rd century AD, animated film on YouTube
- Description of the equestrian camp and illustrations - Carnuntum Museum Association
- Petronell-Carnuntum Museum Auxiliary Fort
- Virtual reconstruction of the guard fort on 7reasons
Remarks
- ↑ Historia Romana 2, 109, 5.
- ↑ Bernard Maier : Dictionary of Celtic Religion and Culture (Alfred Kröner, 1994; Boydell, 2000), p. 69
- ↑ 2, 109, 5, "a Carnunto, qui locus Norici regni proximus ab hac parte erat."
- ↑ Naturalis historiae 4, 80: "usque ad Pannonica hiberna Carnuzti Germanorumque ibi confinium", 37, 45: "DC mp fere a Carnunto Pannoniae abesse litus id Germaniae".
- ↑ "City on the Danube", 2, 14, 3.
- ↑ The second book of this work was written by the Kaiser in Carnuntum.
- ↑ Severus 5, 1: “imperator est appelatus apud Carnuntum”.
- ↑ Occ. XXXIV, 13 and 15.
- ↑ 30, 5, 1-2.
- ↑ 9, 1, 12 on the year 374.
- ↑ On the year 805: "Capcanus princeps Hunorum aquis ad imperatorem venit, ut postulavit, inter Sabariam et Carnontum habitandi locum accepit." ) in: Johann Baptist Piker, Michael Bombardi, Nicolaus Csaki de Kerestszegh: Topographia Magni Regni Hungariae , Vienna 1750.
- ↑ 247, 4, 262, 3 and 8, 266, 14, 267, 12 (removal from Pettau 164 mp, Sirmium 311 mp).
- ↑ IV / 2 (enclosed with two towers), Vindobona-Villagai X-Aequinoctio III-Carnunto XIIII
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, p. 576.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, p. 663.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, p. 4.
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2002, p. 76., Kurt Genser 1986, p. 575.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, p. 12.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 37-38; Jaroslav Nikodem Makovsky 1993, p. 50.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 581–601, August Obermayr 1967, p. 20.
- ↑ August Obermayr 1967, pp. 108-109
- ↑ Christian Gugl 2006, p. 220; Franz Humer 2006, pp. 272-273; Peter Pleyel 2002, p. 73; Andreas Bichl 2003, pp. 27-28; Franz Humer 2009, p. 25; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 79-80, August Obermayr 1967, pp. 20-22.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 32–33.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 30-32; Franz Humer 2009, p. 6.
- ↑ "... ipse a Canunto qui logis Norici regni proximus ab hac parte erat, exercitum, qui in Illyrico merebat, ducere in Marcomannos orsus est ..." translated: Tiberius himself wanted from Carnuntum, a place in the Kingdom of Noricum, that region was closest to set out against the Marcomanni with the troops who were serving in Illyria. Historia Romana : 2, 109, 5.
- ↑ Historia Romana : 2, 109, 5 and 110, 1-2, Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 43–44; Franz Humer 2009, pp. 6-8; Peter Pleyel 2002, p. 69, Friesinger / Mitscha-Märheim 1973, p. 118.
- ^ Tacitus, Annales 1: 16-30.
- ↑ "Under Emperor Claudius, governor Lucius Gellius Publicola Vipstanus Gallus and Legion Prefect Quintus Iulius Cordinus, the Legio XV built this building" V 205, lost in Vienna
- ↑ Jaroslav Nikodem-Makovsky 1993, p. 50, August Obermayr 1967, p. 24.
- ↑ Building inscription from 73 on the Principia: "Under Emperor Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian, governor C. Calpetanus Raetianus Quirinalis Festus and the legionary prefect Quintus Egnatius Catus, the Legio XV built this building."
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 30-35; Gassner / Jilek 1997, p. 30; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 665.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 32; Franz Humer 2009, pp. 12-13; Peter Scherrer 1997, p. 99; Peter Pleyel 2002, pp. 70-71; Laszlo Borhy 2014, p. 41; Friesinger / Mitscha-Märheim 1973, pp. 121–123.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, pp. 14–15.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, pp. 14–15; Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 665-666; August Obermayr 1967, p. 245.
- ↑ Pedro Barceló : The Roman Empire in the Religious Change of Late Antiquity. Emperor and bishops in conflict . Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-7917-2529-1 , p. 42.
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2002, pp. 72-73.
- ↑ "cumque exinde (sc Valentinianus), Carnuntum Illyriorum oppidum introisset, desertum quidem nunc et squalens, sed ductori exercitus perquam opportunum." Res gestae : 30, 5, 1-3.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, pp. 14-17; Peter Pleyel 2002, pp. 72-73; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 666; Friesinger / Mitscha-Märheim 1973, p. 126, ND occ. 34, 12.
- ^ Béla Miklós Szőke: The Danube and the last days of the Avar. In: Ten Thousand years along the midle danube. Varia Archaeologica Hungarica XXVI, Archaeolingua, Budapest 2011.
- ↑ "Capcanus princeps hunorumaquisad imperatorem venit, ut postulavit, inter sabariam et carnontum habitandi locum accepit ..."
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2002, pp. 72-73; August Obermayr, p. 132.
- ↑ August Obermayer 1967, p. 26.
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2002, p. 77.
- ↑ Christian Gugl 2006, pp. 220–226; Franz Humer 2006, p. 138 (catalog volume).
- ↑ Christian Gugl: 2009, p. 1415.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 61–71.
- ↑ Christian Gugl: 2009, p. 1406, Kurt Genser 1986, p. 604–628, August Obermayr 1967, p. 28–29.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 604-623.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 604-628.
- ↑ a b Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 607-628.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 607-628; August Obermayer, 1967, pp. 52–53 ("During the lifetime of our victorious rulers Valentinianus, Valens and Gratianus and on their healing orders ...") .
- ↑ August Obermayr 1967, p. 29.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 50; August Obermayr 1967, pp. 22-23; Arnold Schober 1953, pp. 36-38.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 52-53; Arnold Schober 1953, p. 38.
- ↑ August Obermayer 1967, pp. 30–31.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 53–54.
- ↑ Franz Humer 2009, p. 26; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 55 and 62–71.
- ↑ Christian Gugl: 2009, pp. 1405-1406.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 68-69; August Obermayer, 1967, p. 46.
- ↑ August Obermayer, 1967, pp. 42–43.
- ↑ August Obermayer, 1967, pp. 41–42.
- ↑ Christian Gugl 2006, pp. 220-221; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 64-67.
- ↑ August Obermayer 1967, pp. 36–37.
- ↑ August Obermayer 1967, p. 37.
- ↑ Christian Gugl: 2009, p. 1416, Not. Dign. Occ. IX, 16-22: Fabricae infrascriptae: In Illyrico: Sirmensis scutorum, scordiscorum et armorum. Acincensis scutaria. Co [= a] nutensis scutaria. Lauriacensis scutaria. Salonitana armorum
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 69-70.
- ↑ August Obermayr 1967, pp. 29–30.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 69; August Obermayer, 1967, pp. 35-36.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 75–81.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, pp. 264–265.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, pp. 265–266.
- ↑ a b Manfred Kandler 2006, p. 267.
- ↑ Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 633-645.
- ↑ Berytus , Antioch , Cyhrrus, Chalcis , Hierapolis
- ↑ Martin Mosser 2006, pp. 253-258; Christian Gugl 2006, p. 222; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 639.
- ↑ CIL 3, 4480
- ^ ND Occ. XXXIV 28, Praefectus legionis quartae decimae geminae militum liburnariorum and a cohortis quintae partis superior in Carnunto .
- ↑ Mathilde Grünewald 1977, pp. 165–166.
- ↑ V [C] Arr [n] unto siue Vindomanae = previously in Carnuntum now in Vindobona
- ↑ Notitia Dign. Occ. 34, 28; Werner Jobst 1983, p. 84; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 646.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, p. 262.
- ^ Karl Strobel: Investigations into the Dacer Wars Trajan. Studies on the history of the middle and lower Danube region in the High Imperial Era . Habelt, Bonn 1984 (Antiquitas, series 1, 33). ISBN 3-7749-2021-4 . P. 112.
- ^ Karlheinz Dietz : The oldest military diploma for the province of Pannonia Superior. In: Report of the Roman-Germanic Commission. 65, Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1984, pp. 158-268; here: p. 215.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, pp. 262–263; Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 633-645.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, p. 263.
- ^ Barnabás Lőrincz , Zsolt Visy: The auxiliary troops of the province of Pannonia superior under Trajan. In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 39 , Budapest 1987. pp. 337-345; here: p. 344.
- ↑ Manfred Kandler 2006, pp. 263–264; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 646.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, pp. 86–87 and 234; Christian Gugl 2012, p. 413; Christian Gugl, Michael Doneus 2014, pp. 67–72; Laszlo Borhy 2014, p. 34; August Obermayr 1967, p. 132, THE ADLER ROMS - Carnuntum and the army of the Caesars. Exhibition in the Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg March 2017- November 2020. In it: Christion Gugl, Mario Wallner, Wolfgang Neubauer, Michael Doneus, Klaus Löcker: THE MILITARY FACILITIES IN CARNUNTUM, p. 82.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 87-93.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 93–96.
- ↑ Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris li, 23, Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 98–100, Franziska Beutler, Christa Farka, Christian Gugl, Franz Humer, Gabrielle Kremer, Eduard Poilhammer: DER ADLER ROMS - Carnuntum and the army of the Caesars. Exhibition in the Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg March 2017- November 2020, in it: Christion Gugl, Mario Wallner, Wolfgang Neubauer, Michael Doneus, Klaus Löcker: THE MILITARY SYSTEMS IN CARNUNTUM, p. 80.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 96–97.
- ↑ Unique garrison discovered in Carnuntum , orf.at from March 30, 2016 - Retrieved on May 3, 2016, Ludwig Boltzmann InstitutCarnuntum - Die Garde des Lieutenants / The governor's guard March 30, 2016 press release (LBI ArchPro, Land Lower Austria, Carnuntum Archaeological Park , ZAMG, ÖAW, 7reasons, summary of the scientific results on the castra singularium) , Franziska Beutler, Christa Farka, Christian Gugl, Franz Humer, Gabrielle Kremer, Eduard Poilhammer: DER ADLER ROMS - Carnuntum and the army of the Caesars. Exhibition in the Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg March 2017 - November 2020, in it: Christion Gugl, Mario Wallner, Wolfgang Neubauer, Michael Doneus, Klaus Löcker: THE MILITARY INSTALLATIONS IN CARNUNTUM, p. 82.
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2002, pp. 77-78; Christian Gugl, Michael Doneus 2009, pp. 107–120; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 106-108.
- ↑ Peter Scherrer 1997, p. 96.
- ↑ IIII viri municipii Aelii Carnunti Translation: "The four mayors of the city of Carnuntum who was granted city rights by Hadrian."
- ↑ a b Peter Pleyel 2002, p. 77; Andreas Bichl 2003, pp. 44-45; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 100-104; August Obermayr 1967, pp. 65-71.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 100-104; August Obermayr 1967, p. 68.
- ↑ Peter Pleyel 2003, pp. 37-38.
- ↑ Christian Gugl, Michael Doneus: For the water supply of the canabae legionis and the legion camp of Carnuntum. ugl, C & Doneus, M 2011, On the water supply of the canabae legionis and the legionary camp of Carnuntum in Römische Thermen: Research and presentation. Files of the international colloquium 17. – 18. September 2009 in the Kulturfabrik Hainburg, eds Franz Humer & Andreas Konecny, Horn, pp. 107–120.
- ↑ Werner Jobst: 1983, p. 191.
- ↑ De architectura 1, 7, 1.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, p. 234; Verena Gassner: Cult rooms with lateral podiums in Carnuntum. Reflections on Temple II in the Iuppiter Shrine on the Pfaffenberg, pp. 80–88.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 42–43, 196 and 2006, pp. 229–239.
- ↑ a b Werner Jobst 2006, p. 231.
- ↑ AE 1936, 132 : "Pro sal (ute) Imp (eratoris) C / aes (aris) Tra (iani) Hadr (iani) Aug (usti) / p (atris) p (atriae) porta (m) et muru ( m) per / pedes lon (gum) C altu (m) p (edes) VII / iuvent (us) colen (s) Iove (m) Doli / chen (um) inpe (n) sa sua fec (it) "( For the benefit of the emperor Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, father of the fatherland, the youth union of the Jupiter Dolichenus cult (from Carnuntum) had the entrance gate and the wall 100 feet long and 7 feet high built from its own resources), Werner Jobst 2006, p. 231-232.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, p. 232.
- ↑ Verena Gassner
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, pp. 232-233.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, pp. 193 and 232–233.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, pp. 233-234.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2006, p. 234.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 2004, pp. 4–124.
- ^ Manfred Kandler: Liber and Libera in Carnuntum. In: FW Leitner (ed.): Carinthia Romana and the Roman world. Festschrift for Gernot Piccottini on his 60th birthday (= From Research and Art 34). 2001, pp. 63-77; Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 113-118.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Eugen Bormann : Finds from Carnuntum I. The third Mithraeum. In: Archaeological-epigraphic messages from Austria-Hungary. 18, 1895, pp. 169-201 ( digitized version ); Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 168-176.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 123-124.
- ^ Franz Hummer 2007, pp. 180 and 209 (catalog volume)
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 121–122, August Obermayr, 1967, pp. 11–12.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 122.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 122–123.
- ↑ Franziska Beutler-, Christa Farka, Christian Gugl, Franz Humer, Gabrielle Kremer, Eduard Poilhammer: DER ADLER ROMS - Carnuntum and the army of the Caesars. Exhibition in the Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg March 2017 - November 2020, in it: Christion Gugl, Mario Wallner, Wolfgang Neubauer, Michael Doneus, Klaus Löcker: THE MILITARY INSTALLATIONS IN CARNUNTUM, p. 82.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, pp. 132-133; Franz Humer 2007, p. 180 (catalog volume).
- ↑ a b Werner Jobst 1983, p. 82; Kurt Genser 1986, p. 659.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 82; Kurt Genser 1986, pp. 659-660.
- ↑ Werner Jobst 1983, p. 84.
.JPG)
Coordinates: 48 ° 6 ′ 58 ″ N , 16 ° 51 ′ 30 ″ E