History of garden art

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The history of garden art describes the development of garden art from prehistory and antiquity to modern times .

View over a park ( Killesberg )

Garden art is understood to mean the artistic and landscape-architectural design of limited private or public open spaces through plants , paths , embankments, levels , architectural elements , water features or sculptures , whereby the type of design is or is an expression of a certain style of aesthetics , art, culture and architecture of an era represents artistic creativity.

M. Conan points out that the idea of ​​the garden as a work of art is a Western idea that arose with the Renaissance and Baroque . “Garden history imposes a western framework on the understanding of other cultural traditions.” In addition, it is primarily connected with the gardens of the ruling class, which were used for representation. Islamic gardens, on the other hand, celebrated the enjoyment of God's creation. In this respect, garden historiography is guilty of orientalism .

For a long time, the history of garden art is, due to the source, only the history of stately gardens. Food-producing gardens did not deserve the attention of garden historians and were not considered works of art. The so-called cottage garden ( Cottage garden ) is only apparently an exception, since it is in its documented form an artifact of the upper class. For Francis Bacon (1625) God was the first gardener, he created the Garden of Eden.

Garden art in antiquity

Garden art in ancient Egypt

Garden representation from the burial chapel of Nebamun
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Due to the extensive archaeological excavations, grave inscriptions and wall paintings , the development of garden art in ancient Egypt is well documented. For example, a small garden model from the tomb of Meketre , a chancellor of Pharaoh Mentuhotep II (2061-2010 BC), has survived. We therefore know that the pyramids that stand in the desert today were once surrounded by extensive gardens. The religious cult provided flower, food and drink offerings in honor of the dead and the gods, so that gardens were built around the temples and graves. In the time of Ramses III. 513 temple gardens are proven. In these gardens, which were laboriously wrested from the desert, artificially created ponds played a central role. Vine arbors, avenues, vegetable and flower beds surrounded them in a strictly symmetrical arrangement.

Ancient Egyptian garden art reached its peak during the New Kingdom between 1550 and 1080 BC. Chr.

The gardens of the Assyrians and Babylonians

Even the Sumerians made a distinction between kitchen gardens and ornamental gardens .

Stephanie Dalley cites a Babylonian poem about the dispute between the date palm and the tamarisk as the oldest description of a Mesopotamian royal garden. It describes how the king plants two trees, a tamarisk and a date palm. In the shadow of it, meals and gatherings take place, music is played and the king receives his subjects. He eats the fruits of the date palm, the gardener receives the remaining fruits and furniture, drinking bowls and tools such as the loom are made from the wood of the tamarisk. Several gardeners were employed in the palace of Mari . Cuneiform finds show that the King of Mari and his entourage ate meals in the garden, which was probably located in an inner courtyard. An inner courtyard with a water basin was excavated in the Ugarit palace from the 14th century. The earth at the edge of the courtyard was loose and is interpreted by the excavator as evidence of the planting of flowers or bushes. Inscriptions show that sacrifices for Reshef were made in the palace gardens.

The Assyrian Royal Gardens were landscaped gardens that mimicked wooded hills with watercourses. They are compared to the Amanus in the inscriptions. Assyrian rulers left indications of their gardens on inscriptions. So boasts Tukulti-apil-Esarra I. (1115-1077 v. Chr.) Lush gardens. He set up a wildlife park in which he kept exotic animals that he received as tribute, including a crocodile, a female monkey and a yak . He had hunted various kinds of deer, gazelles and ibex in the mountains and brought them into this garden, "like a flock of sheep". In his orchards he grew trees from the newly conquered parts of the country that were unknown to his forefathers. He mentions cedar , boxwood and Kanisch oak. He also added new species to the orchards of Assyria . In Nimrud a stele was found that describes the royal garden of Aššur-nâṣir-apli II (883–859 BC). To create it, he had a canal dug that brought water from the little Zab . He irrigated meadows on the Tigris . Aššur-nâṣir-apli had orchards planted in which all the fruit trees in the area grew. He also had plants that he had found on his campaigns exposed: various types of spruce, cypress and juniper, almonds , dates, ebony , rosewood , olive trees , oaks, tamarisks , walnuts , terebinths , ash trees, pomegranates , pears, quinces, figs and wine. The water of the canal "Abundance" streamed into the gardens from above. The king praises the fragrances of the garden and describes how he “collects fruit like a squirrel”, an image that is difficult to reconcile with the otherwise very grave depiction of the king. A relief of the Aššur-bāni-apli shows the garden of Sîn-aḫḫe-eriba . It lies on a mountain and is criss-crossed by canals and overgrown by all kinds of trees. At the top of the mountain there is a pavilion (bîtan) or palace. Sargon's palace garden contained a pond. A cuneiform tablet in the British Museum , London, lists the plants in the garden of the Babylonian King Marduk-Apla-Iddina II (721–710 BC). A relief of the last important king of the Assyrian Empire , Aššur-bāni-apli (668–627 BC) from the North Palace in Nineveh, in the British Museum , gives an impression of an Assyrian pleasure garden: the heads of slain enemies hang on the trees. Musicians with stringed instruments and resting lions are also shown. The following plants were identified: date palms, conifers, grapevines, a sun-like plant, lilies and a mandragora . Other reliefs from the same palace (room S) depict a servant picking lilies and a servant transporting lilies in a cane basket.

From Phrygia in the 8th century BC A rose garden proven.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon , which were considered one of the seven wonders of the world in ancient times, are only known from Greek lore. They could not be located until today. Kai Brodersen therefore suspects that they existed only in the imagination, Dalley that the palace gardens of Nineveh are described.

The Persian Royal Gardens

We only know about ancient Persian gardens through Greek historians and archaeological excavations. The Book of Esther mentions a palace garden, perhaps with a pavilion.

In the dialogue De Senectute , Cicero Cato lets the elder relate the anecdote handed down by Xenophon about the visit of the Spartan general Lysander to the gardens of Cyrus († 401). He praises the regularly planted trees and the fragrant flowers. Two such gardens are ascribed to the younger Cyrus , shady avenues and groves of plane trees , cypresses and palm trees , between which the broad-leaved aloes , rose bushes and numerous fruit trees , numerous flowers , dainty kiosks , shady resting places, fountains , birdhouses and observation towers were distributed.

Arabic texts (description of the Bahār-e Kisra carpet ), archaeological excavations and pictorial representations provide information about the appearance of Sassanid gardens .

Garden art in ancient Greece

Garden art in ancient Rome

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In Italy the Romans had separated the kitchen gardens (for vegetables and fruit) from the pleasure garden. The latter was regularly designed when it joined the villa , with numerous creepers on the veranda, flower beds and trees cut into figures.

55 BC In BC Pompey donated the first park in Rome . It was lying on the field of Mars at the theater of Pompeius and was planted with plane trees. A statue of Venus Victrix came from the family's private gardens.

The imperial villas, like other Roman villas, also had a peristyle, often with an architecturally designed basin with water features .

The parks were extensive and enclosed by walls and the like. They were also zoos. There were fish ponds set in stone, a poultry yard and marble pools, near which seats and garden sheds were inviting to look at the ornamental birds.

The most famous was the Villa Hadriana of the Emperor Hadrian in Tibur in the Sabine Mountains. The complex was twelve Roman miles (about 18 kilometers) in circumference, and contained hills and valleys, waterfalls, grottos, forests, a hippodrome , theaters and many other magnificent buildings. Using the remains of these buildings, the Villa d'Este was built here in the 16th century . Through Tacitus we know other imperial gardens in Rome, including the park at the “Golden House” of Nero . They contained man-made lakes and forests, so they were roughly similar to our present-day parks. In the Italy of the Roman Empire, too, the irrigation systems were of high perfection.

The development of garden art in Asia

Byzantine gardens

Many Byzantine palace complexes were provided with extensive gardens, such as the Mangana Palace in Constantinople . From Emperor Constantine IX. It is reported that he had fully grown trees moved in order to complete the garden of the Manganapalast as quickly as possible. There were also intimate, private gardens. Ponds and running water played an important role , as they did later in the Ottoman systems.

Garden art in China

The development of Chinese garden art can be traced back to 3000 BC. Trace back to BC. Chinese gardens contain numerous signs, metaphors, and symbols. In contrast to the gardens in ancient Egypt and the Middle East , the plant was not in the foreground in China. Rather, Chinese gardens are conceived as the image of an ideal universe, the essential components of which were man-made lakes and hills, unusually shaped vegetation and stones. No people on earth have so cultivated the garden as the Chinese; In it, rulers and empires developed a luxury that endangered agriculture because of the consumption of land, water and labor and often interfered with the fortunes of the country. The "Imperial Garden" near Beijing is 80 kilometers in circumference and is an artistic imitation of nature, in which landscapes of all kinds, from the smallest to the most extensive, are represented; Plants from different regions, streams, rivers, lakes, villages and castles enliven the picture. The villagers, however, were some kind of actors; For the emperor, depending on the orders of the court marshal, they represented fishermen, sailors, workers, merchants, peasants, soldiers, etc. in beautiful clothes and gave the ruler, whose etiquette forbade him to appear before the real people, a refined reflection of him in front.

Garden art in Japan

Japanese tea garden

The gardens of Japan are similar to the Chinese ones. They are based on the same idea, only those imitate nature even more faithfully and try to recreate large landscapes on a small scale. In Japan gardens are laid out according to the principles of Zen Buddhism or Feng Shui , which correspond to certain patterns. Particular attention is paid to the balance of the elements.

Influences on European gardens

Marco Polo had already described the Chinese gardens, which differed so completely from the European ones, but his descriptions were too vague to have a major influence on garden design in Europe. This changed when the Jesuit Matteo Ripa brought back numerous copperplate engravings from his trip to China , which could convey a picture of Chinese garden design. During his visit to England he met numerous representatives of the English aristocracy who willingly adopted these ideas in the design of their landscaped gardens . As part of the chinoiserie fashion of the 18th century, Chinese motifs were picked up across Europe. Imitations of Chinese gardens and pagodas were part of the exotic furnishings of Sanssouci , Versailles , Schönbrunn and Pillnitz Palace near Dresden .

Garden art in post-Roman times

Islamic gardens

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  • Generalife, Granada (Spain)

  • Alhambra, Granada

Whether there is "the" Islamic garden is disputed. Irrigated oasis gardens are known from the homeland of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula . The Qur'an describes the Sabeans who owned gardens "on the right and on the left" until they turned away from God and God destroyed their dams . Now only the “bitter harvest”, tamarisks and a few jujubes grow in their country ( Sura 34 , 16). Today's Yemeni cities have inner-city kitchen gardens, the extent to which this also applied to the pre-Islamic period can probably only be clarified through excavations. The Koran describes gardens with irrigation channels ( Sura 13 , 4) and trellises ( Sura 6 , 141). “He (God) makes you grow grain with it, and olive trees , palms , vines and all fruits. Verily in that is a sign for people who ponder. ”It says in sura 16 , the bees (16, 11).

The greatest influence on the development of the “typical” Islamic garden, a pleasure garden laid out on the model of a Chāhār Bāgh , but which could also serve representative and government functions, is attributed to the royal gardens of the Sassanids : Ibn Chaldūn sees the garden of Taq- e Kisra Palace of Chosrau II in Ctesiphon , which was conquered in 637, the trigger for the adoption of Persian luxury and Persian architecture. For Dickie, on the other hand, the so-called “Islamic gardens” are Timurid gardens that were further developed in Persia, India and Andalusia. The Mughal Gardens, however, are hybrid forms, as they transfer an architectural style developed in the mountains into the plains.

For M. Conan there is no uniform “Near East” garden art. Rather, it is composed of many different elements and traditions. Gardens with religious, economic and political functions also merged seamlessly, and a garden could serve several purposes. A garden with a water basin and an axial structure that includes paths and plants, as in the classical Tschāhār Bāgh, is by no means common to all Islamic gardens. The Ottoman gardens are usually much less formal and sometimes even mimic a wilderness. The Mughal hunting parks, the Moroccan and Andalusian agdals and the urban gardens of the Islamic world are laid out on completely different principles. However, the entire Islamic world formed an exchange network for architectural traditions, hydraulic engineering practices and for useful and ornamental plants. It is a specific way of perceiving the garden as a celebration of God's creation that defines an Islamic garden. It can be enjoyed in the garden through its sight, taste and smell, and can be used for religious contemplation, but also for pure enjoyment. Unlike in the West, the garden is not perceived as a work of art.

India

Taj Mahal in Agra, India

Lahore was considered the garden city of the Mughal Empire .

In addition to the Mughal gardens , important gardens were also created in Karnataka in the Deccan under the Muslim Bahmani dynasty (1347–1538).

European Middle Ages

Paradise garden , around 1410

A distinction was made between gardens with predominantly symbolic meaning ( hortus conclusus - garden closed off from the world, equipped with Christian symbolism in plant and form) and the hortus amoenus - the beautiful, lovely garden of the senses.

The most important work of the 13th century on garden art comes from Albertus Magnus : he describes what the ideal pleasure garden should look like. Other important works for the design of a garden are the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by Francesco Colonna and Leon Battista Albertis De re aedificatoria .

Garden art of modern times in Europe

The development of garden art in modern times is closely related to the impulses from the building history of the palaces and their palace parks.

Ground floor of the garden of Villa Lante

In 1492 America and in 1498 the sea route to the East Indies was discovered by the Europeans and the newly flourished trade introduced a great luxury, which was also expressed in the garden. The Italian Renaissance garden emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries through dealing with the legacy of Greek and Roman antiquity and through cultural contact with the Orient . It contained high, evergreen hedge walls and plantings, which at the same time provided shade, the element of water, resting in basins or moving in fountains and cascades, grottos, which also served to store the orange trees in winter, flower beds, the shape of which corresponds to the architecture of the house , as well as ornamental birds. Numerous statues and unearthed sculptures from earlier times were used, sometimes in abundance, and usually arranged symmetrically. The villas with such gardens were very numerous in Italy in the 16th century and some of them are still preserved today, and many have since been extended by landscaping.

These private landscaped gardens in Italy include: B. that of the Chevalier Forti in Chiara near Brescia , the garden "Casa Ramboldi" near Vicenza, the Boboli garden of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, that of Prince Stigliano Colonna in Naples, Olivuzza and the Villa Tasca near Palermo.

This style was hardly widespread in France, at that time there were mainly kitchen gardens.

Semper Augustus tulip variety from the 17th century, which achieved the highest prices during the tulip mania

During the Renaissance , numerous, mostly exotic, ornamental plants were introduced to create lavish gardens and parks. The so-called oriental period , which lasted from around 1560 to 1620, is of particular importance . During this time, plants such as tulips, hyacinths and daffodils came to Central Europe from southern and southeastern Europe. The first tulip bulb probably arrived in the luggage of a Habsburg courier from Constantinople to Vienna in 1554, but five years later the first tulips bloomed in Augsburg and a little later in the gardens of other European countries. The high point of occupation with these plants was the tulip mania , a speculative bubble in the trade in tulip bulbs. The first such wave of speculation occurred in France in the 1610s. However, the peak of speculation with these plants took place in Holland between the years 1632 and 1637.

France

Under the French King Henry IV (1589–1610) luxury increased more and more. At the beginning of the 17th century, the pleasure gardens consisted of more or less square compartments that were laid out in a regular grid, a few lawns, a few trees and flowers, and a few water systems. They were all generally imitations of Italian gardens , but often borrowed French traditions inherited from the Middle Ages. Due to their neglect, the plants visibly became overgrown. With the general development of a French style that separated itself from the Italian model and the overcoming of the Renaissance in France, garden art in France also received a new image. André Le Nôtre was decisive for the development of the French garden . He laid out the garden of Versailles Palace on behalf of Louis XIV. Although the Italian forms were used in principle, they were much more disciplined and with a tight symmetry. The basic principle of the layout was of great simplicity, in particular the French did not take over the terracing of the Italian layouts, but developed the garden on the plain. The topiary of the plants was absolutely predominant, highlighting not only the highly decorative boxwood broderie parterres , but also the crowns of the trees planted.

Vaux-le-Vicomte

The equipment with water arts, sculptures and small buildings followed strict rules given by the representational function and its mythological “program”. The French style quickly made its rounds of the western world and survived until the end of the 18th century.

Significant examples are: The gardens of Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte , for the early, still strongly Italian gardens: Chenonceau Castle on the Cher and Brécy in Normandy. The late French plants already took over some elements of the English garden art, partly abandoned the topiary and other elements of the classic French garden. Examples of this late French style include: the Park of Monceau , the urban areas of Paris, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes , the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont , Ferrieres (owned by the Rothschilds), and the Gustav von gardener Rothschilds near the Palais d'Elysee .

Spain and Portugal

In Spain gardening flourished under the Moors and reached a high point around the year 1000 under Hashem II ; the courtyards of the palaces were decorated with oranges, flowering bushes, flowers, cascades and other water arts in strict regularity, according to the character of the building. The Arabs, however, were gradually driven back by the Christians of northern Spain, and in the end they were completely expelled. Under Philip III. all descendants of the Moors were expelled from Spain.

The first palace gardens based on the European model emerged in Portugal at the beginning of the 16th century after the Indian trade had made the nation rich. Of these gardens only Quinta da Bacalhoa in Azeitão has been partially preserved, it was laid out according to Italian models, but also preserved Moorish elements, such as the large water basin.

The Brazilian trade brought new wealth in the 18th century. Rococo gardens such as Casa da Ínsua in Beira Alta have now emerged .

Funchal : Botanical Garden

Portugal had old gardens in the area around Sintra near Lisbon, which Lord Byron in his Childe Harold described as “ glorious eden ”, a wonderful paradise; later the German King Ferdinand von Coburg had gardens laid out there.

The first English landscape garden in Portugal was created around the Pena Palace in Sintra in 1850 . The English traveler William Baxter gave a description.

Netherlands

The Dutch gardens were like a chessboard in their layout; the caves of the Italian and French gardens, among other things, became a gimmick here, the large lawns and the lines of sight to the horizon did not prevail. The curly, ornate line of the house ornaments, even the gable, was repeated in the gardens by the hedges, and the figures of the parterres repeated the same shapes. The lively connection between Holland and England was the reason why the landscape garden style found its way here too; Systems of greater importance but were not made, and the old Dutch style is not yet extinguished, that prove the gardens of the villa village Broek, where one particular of all gadgets in the tree figures, the topiary , finds.

England

Stourhead Garden
Baroque

In the Baroque era , the English garden was largely similar to its French model. Geometric axes, a bosque with boxwood ornaments and a strict focus on the ruler are his hallmarks. Often one can find mazes and long avenues of pruned trees. One example is Hampton Court Palace . Since England had an extensive maritime trade fleet, plants were repeatedly imported from distant regions and acclimatized and researched in the Botanical Garden of Kew . This is how the citrus plants came to England, which, like roses and tulips, were planted as rarities.

The landscaped garden

From around 1720 a new garden style emerged in England, the English landscape garden (or English landscape park ). The garden at Chiswick House , laid out by William Kent , is considered an important precursor ; early examples are preserved in Rousham and Stowe . The most important influences are the gardens of antiquity, perceived as natural, as well as the gardens of China and Milton's verse epic Paradise Lost .

Characteristics of the English landscape garden of the classical phase are the natural-like arrangement of plants, the curved path, the flowing transition into the surrounding landscape and the lack of decorative flower borders. The ideal was a walk-in landscape painting that was particularly influenced by landscape painters such as Gaspard Poussin and Claude Lorrain . Also the paintings come from the garden staffages , Follies called, in the form of small temples or ruins , the most eye-catching in the sight lines were arranged.

In the classic phase, Lancelot "Capability" Brown dominated with extremely spacious, hilly modeled garden areas, specifically planted groups of trees, large artificial bodies of water and relatively few staffage structures.

Important gardens are Twickenham , Chiswick , Rousham , Stowe, Stourhead , Blenheim Castle .

Important thought leaders, gardeners and theorists were Charles Bridgeman , Joseph Addison (publicist), Alexander Pope (poet), William Kent (painter), Lancelot "Capability" Brown , Humphrey Repton (1752-1817), as well as William Chambers (architect) and his Jardin anglo-chinois .

Germany

Renaissance in Germany

Compared to Italy, the involvement of the nobility and patriciate in the German-speaking area plays only a minor role in the further development of garden art. There was indeed a botanical desire for collecting and pharmaceutical kitchen gardens, and also a general willingness to be receptive, but in principle there was hardly any going beyond the medieval custom of arranging orchards and vegetable patches in an ornamental, geometric manner. Especially from Italy, to a lesser extent from Holland, and later also from France, individual motifs and suggestions were adopted rather than subjecting the assignment and sequence to a varied but holistic plan. They are still "inside" (Hennebo), without reference to the environment or the architecture. Their paths are not part of a unifying system of order, but rather separate the quarters. The increasing contrast between town and country, and the idea of ​​the garden as a place of leisure and intellectual stimulation separate from the world of work, prompted the patrician bourgeoisie to create their own house gardens, often still divided by internal boundaries. The garden of the Breslauer Dr. Laurentius Scholz from 1588 is an example of this, as is the engraving from 1655 with the garden of the learned Nuremberg patrician Christoph Peller (Fig.). No garden of the sixteenth century has survived to the present, we only know it from descriptions or copperplate engravings, some of which are idealized and often remained unexecuted. In 1597 Johann Peschel produced the first German-language instructions for designing gardens. Even Joseph Furttenbach provides 1630-1660 his architectural studies with appropriate suggestions. Even if the humanistic background of garden culture was less pronounced in German court society than at Italian princely courts and in southern German patrician houses, the knowledge of Italian gardens on the cavalier tour was part of the noble educational program. The palace gardens reflect this.

A facility of its own, largely influenced by Italian models, are the Hellbrunn Fountains near Salzburg, a facility built from 1613 onwards, but less botanically equipped with grottos, joke fountains, pools and pleasure houses. This water garden is in excellent condition, other parts of the garden were later redesigned based on French and English models. Even the Grottenhof (“The beautiful little garden”), 1581–1586, in the Munich Residence now only gives a coarsened picture of the former gardens. The same applies to the court garden there , 1613–1617. For the first time, it shows a star-shaped division through diagonal paths, thus emphasizing the central pavilion, but its axial alignment does not yet relate to the palace architecture. The most famous German garden creation was (besides that of the Stuttgart pleasure garden, from 1584, and the gardens of the Munich residence) the Hortus Palatinus of the Heidelberg castle by Salomon de Caus, begun in 1616 . Its system of terraces on the sloping terrain, the multitude of changing points of view, the grottos and fountain niches are comparable to Italian gardens. Mannerist ornamental beds with knot ornament can still be found (they are probably derived from Islamic art in Italy) and the more modern, French, already baroque, calligraphic broderie patterns on the ground floor . The additive juxtaposition, the separation of the parts and the separation from the landscape and from the architecture characterize the Heidelberg Garden as a typical Mannerist complex. This garden was also never completed due to the Thirty Years War , it fell into disrepair until it was remodeled in the landscape garden style in 1805 . It was only after the war, which paralyzed all cultural activities, around the middle of the 17th century, that German gardening found a new beginning.

Baroque gardens

The main article Baroque garden provides information about baroque gardens (including rococo), including German ones , and there is also a list of links to individual baroque gardens in Germany .

Landscaped garden

The first landscape gardens did not appear in Germany until their late romantic and sentimental phase had already begun and were initially based primarily on this style. The probably first English park was laid out by Baron Otto von Münchhausen in Schwöbber near Hameln ad Weser in 1750; Then followed Jobst Anton von Hinübers Englischer Garten in Marienwerder near Hanover, in 1765 the park at Harbke near Helmstedt , which surpassed both , was owned by Count Friedrich August von Veltheim . The latter still exists and contains the oldest North American trees in Germany, especially oaks.

1768 was on behalf of the Anglophile Prince of Anhalt-Dessau Leopold III. Friedrich Franz laid out the Park of Wörlitz by Johann Gottlieb Schoch and Johann Christian Neumark in a Chinese-English manner. In addition to the first German iron bridge and the first neo-Gothic garden building built outside of England, it also contains an artificial volcano that could be made to erupt using fireworks. Christian Cay Lorenz Hirschfeld , professor in Kiel, was a pioneer in garden theory for the landscape garden style .

Weimar exerted a great influence on the development of the natural garden style in Germany in the second half of the last century. Johann Wolfgang Goethe , the founder of a new direction in botanical science, the morphology of plants, gave the impetus here. With his princely friend, who later became Grand Duke Karl August , he walked the area on the Ilm south of the city in a park ( Park on the Ilm ) to that still, in by Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau modified form, is .

The founder of the English Garden in the classical phase in Germany was Friedrich Ludwig Sckell in Munich, who created the English Garden there and in Nymphenburg Palace . Peter Joseph Lenné and his student and assistant Gustav Meyer created Charlottenhof and various new facilities at Sanssouci . Alone he created many urban systems in Berlin.

View from Park Babelsberg to Park Glienicke in Berlin

Another horticultural artist of particular importance was Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau, who designed landscaped gardens around the residence of his estate in Muskau , later near Branitz, which are still famous today. He wrote one of the most important garden-theoretical writings of his time in Germany, the Allusions on landscape gardening . His Muskau pupil, Eduard Petzold , also became an important park creator: the park of the German legation in Sofia, the park of Philadelphia (USA), numerous estate parks (e.g. Altenstein ). Glienicke , laid out by Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia († 1883), the Rhine facilities of Empress Augusta in Koblenz, the island of Mainau in Lake Constance, the park of Babelsberg near Potsdam, are other important landscape gardens. At the end of the 19th century, so-called flora gardens came into fashion in Germany : magnificent and artfully decorated facilities with winter gardens , park-like facilities in which flowers are given a privileged role, with a magnificent flower parterre, in which carpet beds predominate, and to which the shady avenues and Parts of the park only form the framework. Water arts are not so common in these gardens. Significant examples of this type of garden are the Palmengarten in Frankfurt am Main , the Flora in Cologne and the Flora in Berlin-Charlottenburg, the latter with a palm house , the former with flower parterres, the Flora of Cologne with a gardening school.

19th century

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20th century

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  • Edwardian Garden in Hestercombe Gardens by Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens 1904-08

  • Theo van Doesburg: Garden sculpture from 1919 - the gray vessel was to be placed on a lawn and decorated with red, yellow, blue and white flowers.

  • Garden of the Villa Noailles in Hyeres (1925)

  • Fletcher Steele: Naumkeag (USA), completed 1938

  • Walter Gropius

  • Dan Kiley (USA)

  • Roberto Burle Marx: Design of open spaces in Brasilia (Brazil)

  • Water garden on the Friendship Island in Potsdam, laid out in the early 1950s

Today's garden art

MFO Park Oerlikon
Gas Works Park in Seattle by Richard Haag, opened in 1975
High Line Park in New York, 2006–2014

New gardens and parks are also being designed in the 21st century, but today they are preferred to be described as works of landscape architecture because the term garden art has more historical significance for experts. Important impulses for landscape architecture at the end of the last century came from the modern avant-garde. One important project is, for example, the garden of the Villa Noailles in Hyères designed in 1926 by the Armenian artist Gabriel Guévrékian (1900–1970) . The works of the Brazilian Roberto Burle Marx , reminiscent of abstract modern painting, were also influential . a. the Copacabana Beach Park designed by Isamu Noguchi , who anticipated ideas of Land Art , or by Luis Barragán . The design concepts of De Stijl and Bauhaus were formative .

The ideas about the natural garden or wild garden u. a. by Karl Foerster , Mien Ruys , Piet Oudolf (New Wave Planting) or James van Sweden as well as by Ian McHarg, Louis Le Roy and Urs Schwarz have found their way into contemporary landscape architecture and garden design. The Jardin en mouvement by the French landscape architect Gilles Clément can be seen as a further development of this concept .

Furthermore, ideas from Minimal Art and Pop Art , e.g. B. taken up by Martha Schwartz (USA). The Parc de la Villette by the architect Bernard Tschumi was designed according to deconstructivist ideas. Another highly regarded Parisian park is the Parc André Citroën by Gilles Clément and Alain Provost.

For the 1992 Olympics, the city of Barcelona had a number of parks built in the 1980s, which attracted a great deal of international interest. Bet Figueras is an important Spanish landscape architect. West 8 and Adriaan Geuze are well-known landscape architects from the Netherlands. Jacques Wirtz from Belgium works innovatively with topiary . The new botanical garden in Bordeaux , designed by Catherine Mosbach, is the latest example of ambitious European garden art, as is Ankar Park in Malmö by Stig L. Andersson.

Garden of the Four Rivers in the Gardens of the World , Berlin

The Lost Gardens of Heligan (a restored old park) and the Eden Project , both in Cornwall, are two popular projects by the Englishman Tim Smit . Heligan represents the attempt to completely restore a historical garden, but at the same time not to lose the charm of the old and "lost".

A newer theme of landscape architecture is the utilization of former industrial areas while at the same time preserving the essential historical and identity-forming substance of the respective location. A successful example of this is the Duisburg-Nord landscape park .

A system newly developed by Patrick Blanc to supply the plants enables facade greening through so-called vertical gardens , for example at the Musée du quai Branly in Paris.

Green Wall, City of London

Since the turn of the millennium, environmental protection and recycling have also increasingly become an issue in garden design, and recycled materials (or their imitations) are incorporated into gardens.

RHS Autumn Fair, Lindley Hall London 2013, parts of Cloudy Bay Discovery Gardens as part of the Oxo Tower Remix Garden project

reception

literature

  • Garden . In: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon . 4th edition. Volume 6, Verlag des Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig / Vienna 1885–1892, p. 917.
  • Eva Berger: Historical Gardens of Austria , 3 vol., Vienna 2002–2004
  • Marianne Beuchert : The gardens of China , in: Hans Sarkowicz (Hrsg.): The history of gardens and parks, Frankfurt am Main 2001
  • Kai Broderson: The hanging gardens of Babylon , in: Hans Sarkowicz (Hrsg.): The history of gardens and parks, Frankfurt am Main 2001
  • Jane Brown: The modern garden. Garden history of the 20th century. Stuttgart 2002. ISBN 3-8001-3221-4
  • Bund Heimat und Umwelt in Deutschland (BHU) (Ed.): Collection of historical gardens and parks in the Federal Republic of Germany (CD-ROM), Bonn, 4th edition 2001
    • Collection of historical cemeteries in the Federal Republic of Germany (CD-ROM), Bonn 1998
    • White paper on historical gardens and parks in the new federal states , Bonn
  • Ronald Clark: Garden Guide. 1350 Gardens and Parks in Germany , Munich, ISBN 3-7667-1644-1
  • Karin Dzionara: The garden in ancient Egypt , in: Hans Sarkowicz (ed.): The history of gardens and parks, Frankfurt am Main 2001
  • Garden art Germany , ed. from the Association of State Monument Preservators in Germany and the State Monument Authority Berlin, Berlin 2002
  • Love of gardening and love of flowers. Hamburg's garden culture from the baroque to the 20th century , Ed. Claudia Horbas, Hatje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern 2006, ISBN 978-3-7757-1693-2
  • Garden tour - on the way to Germany's castles, parks and gardens. Labhard's travel magazine Garden Tour 2008. Konstanz: Labhard, 2008. 128 p., Numerous. Ill
  • Marie Luise Gothein : History of garden art . Volume 1: From Egypt to the Renaissance in Italy, Spain and Portugal. Volume 2: From the Renaissance in France to the present . Published with the support of the Royal Academy of Building in Berlin. Diederichs, Jena 1914. Reprint of the 2nd edition / 1926 as 4th edition 1997, ISBN 978-3-424-00935-4
  • August Grisebach: The garden: a history of its artistic design . Klinkhardt & Biermann, Leipzig 1910
  • Stefan Groß: The Weimar Classic and garden art. About the genre discourse and the “fine arts” in the theoretical writings of Goethe, Schiller and Krause. Berlin, New York 2009. ISBN 978-3-631-58321-0
  • Christa Hasselhorst: Master of garden art. The great gardens of Europe and their creators , Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-89479-138-1
  • Dieter Hennebo and Alfred Hoffmann: History of German garden art , 3 volumes, Hamburg 1962–1965
  • Hans-Rudolf Heyer: Historical Gardens of Switzerland , Bern 1980, ISBN 3-7165-0341-X
  • Michaela Kalusok: crash course garden art . Cologne 2003
  • Anna Lambertini: Vertical Gardens , with an introduction by Jacques Leenhardt, photos by Mario Ciampi, translated from Italian and French by Eva Dewes, DVA, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-421-03777-0
  • Iris Lauterbach: The European landscape garden, approx. 1710-1800 , in: European history online , ed. from the Institute for European History (Mainz) , 2012 Accessed on: December 17, 2012
  • Hermann von Pückler-Muskau : Hints about landscape gardening combined with the description of its practical application in Muskau , Oktav, Stuttgart 1834 (some new editions)
  • Michael Rohde u. Rainer Schomann (Ed.): Historical Gardens today , 2nd edition, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-361-00567-1 .
  • Stefan Schweizer, Sascha Winter (ed.): Garden art in Germany. From the early modern times to the present . Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg 2012. ISBN 978-3-7954-2605-7 .
  • Hans von Trotha: In the garden of romanticism . Berenberg Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-946334-01-9 .
  • Gabriele Uerscheln: Masterpieces of Garden Art , Reclam, Stuttgart 2006. ISBN 978-3-15-010594-8 .
    • (Ed.): Museum for European Garden Art , Foundation Schloss und Park Benrath Düsseldorf, Hatje Cantz, Ostfildern-Ruit 2005. ISBN 3-7757-1610-6 .
    • with Michaela Kalusok: Dictionary of European Garden Art , Reclam, 3rd edition, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-018656-5 .
  • Association of State Monument Preservators in the Federal Republic of Germany and State Monument Office Berlin (Ed.): Historical Gardens. A position assessment. Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-89541-161-2 .

Web links

Commons : Gardens  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Chelsea Flower Show  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files
Commons : International Garden Festival in Chaumont-sur-Loire  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

(contemporary artistic positions on the allotment garden)

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Michel Conan: Learning from Middle East Garden Traditions. In: Michel Conan (Ed.): Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press 2007, p. 14
  2. ^ Michel Conan: Learning from Middle East Garden Traditions. In: Michel Conan (Ed.): Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press, 2007, p. 15, my translation (“ [...] garden history imposes a Western frame of understanding for gardens in other cultures [...] ”)
  3. ^ Michel Conan: Learning from Middle East Garden Traditions. In: Michel Conan (Ed.): Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press, 2007, p. 15
  4. ^ Gert Gröning, Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn 1989. Changes in the philosophy of garden architecture in the 20th century and their impact upon the social and spatial environment. Journal of Garden History 9/2, 53. doi: 10.1080 / 01445170.1989.10408267 .
  5. ↑ Mike Calnan, Why conserve? In: Fiona Reynolds (Ed.), Rooted in History. Studies in Garden Conservation. London, The National Trust 2001, 1
  6. ↑ Archived copy ( memento of the original from September 24, 2018 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / psd.museum.upenn.edu
  7. ↑ Stephanie Dalley: Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved. In: Garden History 21/1, 1993, 1. JSTOR 1587050
  8. ^ A b Stephanie Dalley, Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved. Garden History 21/1, 1993, 2. JSTOR 1587050
  9. ↑ Stephanie Dalley, Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved. Garden History 21/1, 1993, 3. JSTOR 1587050
  10. ^ A. Leo Oppenheim, On Royal Gardens in Mesopotamia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24/4 (Erich F. Schmidt Memorial Issue) 1965, 332. JSTOR 543640 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:46
  11. ↑ Stephanie Dalley, Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved. Garden History 21/1, 1993, 3-4. JSTOR 1587050
  12. ↑ Stephanie Dalley, Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved. Garden History 21/1, 1993, 4. JSTOR 1587050
  13. ↑ BM 124939
  14. ^ A. Leo Oppenheim, On Royal Gardens in Mesopotamia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24/4 (Erich F. Schmidt Memorial Issue) 1965, 328-333. JSTOR 543640 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:46
  15. ^ Stephanie Dalley, Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources reconciled. Iraq 56, 1994, fig. 1. JSTOR 4200384
  16. ↑ Pauline Albenda, Grapevines in Ashurbanipal's Garden. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 215, 1974, 6. JSTOR 1356313 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:47
  17. ↑ on the other hand, Dalley claims that there are no descriptions of Babylonian gardens, Stephanie Dalley, Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources reconciled. Iraq 56, 1994, 51. JSTOR 4200384
  18. ↑ a sun eye, as Albenda thinks, it can hardly be, as this is a New World plant
  19. ↑ a b Pauline Albenda, Grapevines in Ashurbanipal's Garden. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 215, 1974, 5. JSTOR 1356313 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:47
  20. ↑ Pauline Albenda, Grapevines in Ashurbanipal's Garden. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 215, 1974, 5. JSTOR 1356313 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:47
  21. ↑ Stephanie Dalley 2013, The mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive world wonder traced. Oxford, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5 .
  22. ^ A. Leo Oppenheim, On Royal Gardens in Mesopotamia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24/4 (Erich F. Schmidt Memorial Issue) 1965, 328. JSTOR 543640 . Accessed: 02/11/2013 11:46
  23. ↑ Cicero, De senectute 59
  24. ↑ Xenophon, Oikonomikós, IV.20 ff.
  25. ↑ see e.g. Arthur Upham Pope 1933, A Sasanian Garden Palace. Art Bulletin 15/1, 75-85
  26. ↑ Ann Kuttner 1999, Looking outside inside: ancient Roman garden rooms, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 19/1, 19
  27. ^ DF Ruggles 1997. Islamic Gardens and Landscape. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press; Louise Wickham 2012, Gardens in History, a political perspective, Oxford, Windgather Press, 51
  28. ↑ z. B. Ṣanʿā , cf. Ingrid Hehmeyer 1988. Mosque, Bath and Garden: Symbiosis in the urban Landscape of Ṣanʿāʾ, Yemen. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 28, Papers from the thirty-first meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in Oxford, 17-19 July 1997 (1998), 103 f., URL: http://www.jstor.org / stable / 41223617
  29. ↑ http://islam.de/13829.php?q=Palmen
  30. ^ Lionel Bier 1993, The Sasanian Palaces and their Influence in Early Islam. Ars Orientalis 23, 61
  31. ↑ James Dickie (Yaqub Zaki) 1985. The Mughal Garden: Gateway to Paradise. Muqarnas 3, 129
  32. ^ Michel Conan, Learning from Middle East Garden Traditions. In: Michel Conan (Ed.) 2007. Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press, Jan.
  33. ^ B. Deniz Çalış, Gardens at the Kağıthane Commons during the Tulip Period (1716–1739). In: Michel Conan (Ed.) 2007. Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press, 239-268
  34. ^ Michel Conan, Learning from Middle East Garden Traditions. In: Michel Conan (Ed.) 2007. Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Questions, Methods and Resources in a multicultural perspective. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington DC, Harvard Press, Jan.
  35. ↑ James L. Wescoat Jr. 1995. From the gardens of the Qur'an to the "gardens" of Lahore. Landscape Research 20/1, 19
  36. ↑ Helen Philon 2011, Deccani Gardens and architectural Landscapes in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. South Asian Studies 27/2, 157-184
  37. ^ Helena Attlee, The gardens of Portugal. London, Frances Lincoln 2007, 9
  38. ^ Helena Attlee, The gardens of Portugal. London, Frances Lincoln 2007, 10
  39. ^ Helena Attlee, The gardens of Portugal. London, Frances Lincoln 2007, 107
  40. ↑ Hennebo / Hoffmann, Vol. 2, pp. 32–34
  41. ↑ s. for example Stephen Orr, Tomorrow's Garden, Design and inspiration for a new age of sustainable gardening, New York, Rodale 2011150-161
  42. ↑ zv.uni-leipzig.de