Water supply in Hamburg
The water supply in Hamburg was the first modern water supply and disposal on the European continent. Its origin was due to the great fire in Hamburg's old town in 1842, which destroyed a third of the inner city. The completely inadequate supply of extinguishing water contributed significantly to the extent of the destruction. In the same year, the establishment of an effective extinguishing water supply as well as an advanced water supply and sewerage system began step by step. The extensive construction work was completed in 1848. The original line and pipe network grew continuously and is partly still in operation. An efficient water management system with currently 17 waterworks has emerged to this day . The water supply in Hamburg was in the hands of the state from the start and is managed by the public company Hamburg Wasser .
From field fountain to Elbe water art
Until well into the 14th century there was no regulated water supply in Hamburg . Households and businesses had to meet their water requirements by collecting rainwater in tons or by laboriously transporting water from draw points or wells to the place of consumption. Those who were not able to do this or who could afford it bought the water from moving water carts or from water carriers . At the time, carrying water was mostly women's work. The most famous Hamburg water carrier was Johann Wilhelm Bentz , who has become one of Hamburg's landmarks.
The organized water supply for the Hamburg city area did not begin until 1370. At that time, field well pipes were laid into the city from the Catharinen field well , the main source of which was behind Gärtnerstraße (today Thadenstraße) in Altona . The field well pipes consisted of pierced tree trunks . The spring water was fed into them and supplied private households with water. The Rödingsmarkt-Feldbrunnen with two springs on the Hamburger Berg and one in the Hornwerk was added from 1430. Another century later, in 1533, the Dammtorbrunnen and its spring were opened at today's Valentinskamp.
In 1531 the so-called Alsterwasserkünste - as these early "waterworks" were called - were set up as a water supplier. Coming from the north, the Alster river runs directly through the city center to later flow into the Elbe . The river water was dammed in the area of the Oberdamm (today's Reesendamm and Jungfernstieg ). The river water flowing out of the reservoir set large water wheels in motion, which in turn drove piston pumps. The fully filled vessels were first lifted into large collecting containers under the roof of the Kunsthaus. From there, the water was transported through pipeline systems to wealthy households who could afford the fees. Poorer residents of the city, on the other hand, were dependent on the laborious and exhausting self- sufficiency. Another Alsterwasserkunst was put into operation in 1535 on Niederdamm (today Großer Burstah), and a third waterworks followed at Graskeller.
In 1828 the English engineer Edward James Smith (1779–1854) established the “rock water art” on the Alster. At that time, however, the people of Hamburg not only took drinking and service water from the Alster and the canals for their households, they also fed all types of wastewater , including urine and feces, back into the same waters. In addition, tanneries, calico bleachers and laundries pollute the Alster with their sewage. In addition to pollution and unpleasant smells, this type of wastewater disposal also caused serious illnesses such as typhoid and cholera . The bacteria that cause these diseases are primarily spread through contaminated drinking water. In Hamburg, 482 people died in this way in 1831 from the first of several cholera epidemics. In 1832, the second cholera epidemic claimed 1,652 lives. In 1822, the "Bieber'schen Elbwasserkunst" (Bieber'schen Elbe Water Art) was the first waterworks to draw water from the Elbe at today's St. Pauli Landungsbrücken . At high tide, the Elbe water was channeled into settling basins and pumped into a tower tank. It reached consumers via a 15-kilometer cast-iron pipe network. Initially the pumps were driven by horses (Rosswerke), after 1832 by steam engines. Later the engineer Smith also built an Elbe water art, the "Smith'sche Elbwasserkunst" in the wooden harbor of Moorfleet .
The great fire as a trailblazer
On May 5, 1842, the Great Fire broke out in Deichstrasse and with it an unprecedented chaos in the city: Thousands of people left their apartments and houses with their belongings and fled headlong from the flames. Gangs looted the abandoned houses and robbed the refugees, who in turn clogged the streets and hindered fire fighting. The city chronicler Johann Gustav Gallois wrote: "For several days the city was almost unhindered by perfect anarchy" , the city was "almost abandoned to the regiment of a robbery and vandal-destroying mob" . The flames spread quickly. An emergency plan with coordinated processing did not exist. Help arrived from the neighboring towns, a total of 1,150 firefighters with 34 land and eleven ship syringes initially failed to control the fire.
The fire hit 71 streets with around 1,749 houses, over 4,000 apartments and 102 stores. The stored trading materials such as arrack , shellac and rubber quickly caught fire and continued to fuel the fire. Almost the entire old town was on fire, the fire took on catastrophic proportions. Initially hesitantly, then more and more frequently, the syringe masters blew up private houses and public buildings such as the old town hall to prevent the flames from spreading to the new town. After four days the fire was finally extinguished. 51 people were killed, 151 others were injured. 20,000 people, about ten percent of the population, had become homeless . A third of the city was destroyed. Almost all buildings in the affected area - including most of the public buildings - were in ruins. This also applied to the three early waterworks, the Alsterwasserkünste, as well as the two Elbe water arts. The extinguishing water supply was inadequate and unable to cope with the flames. The extinguishing water had to be brought in to refill the fire engines . If a syringe had used up its extinguishing water, it could not be used until the next filling. In this emergency, the city's fire water supply had failed. The citizens had to re-regulate the drinking and extinguishing water supply in the urban area.
Creation of the modern supply network
The British genius
It was ultimately the Great Fire that prompted a complete reform of the city's water supply. The inner city of Hamburg at that time comprised the area of today's old town and today's new town , i.e. about 4.6 square kilometers. This meant that Hamburg was nowhere near its current size of around 755 square kilometers.
The citizenship pursued three goals: They wanted to rebuild the city conceptually from the ruins. She wanted to build a new, state water supply network for the entire city, which would also take on the function of sewage disposal, and she wanted to set up a fire fighting network of so-called emergency posts - i.e. hydrants - so that the fire brigade quickly had enough extinguishing water at every location in the event of a fire could dispose of.
On September 1, 1842, the citizens passed a plan for the construction of a newly designed old town, which a commission of experts , the so-called Technical Commission , worked out. In this context, the citizens passed their own expropriation law , which expropriated many landowners in the devastated areas. Larger fires should be prevented by jumping on wider and straight roads and the fire brigade should get to every fire site quickly in the event of a fire. Among other things, the city center was relocated from the Trostbrücke (where the old town hall stood) to the area between the stock exchange and the Inner Alster. Among other things, the Alsterarkaden and the Alsterdamm (today Ballindamm ) were built. In addition to the architects Alexis de Chateauneuf and Gottfried Semper , the Technical Commission also included William Lindley .
Lindley was considered a capable engineer . As early as 1834, he was involved in the construction of the Hamburg – Lübeck railway line as an assistant engineer and from 1837 on the Hamburg – Bergedorf railway line . After the Great Fire, he made his expertise available to the Council and Citizens' Deputations before he was appointed to the Technical Commission . On June 26, 1844, the citizens decided to build a comprehensive state water supply system for the entire city. The Senate entrusted Lindley as the responsible engineer with the design and implementation of the resolution. It was of crucial importance to him.
At that time, only England had an efficient underground pipeline system in Europe . However, the wastewater there was also discharged unfiltered into the smaller rivers, which led to considerable odor nuisance, especially on warmer days. The European continent itself did not have any such modern systems.
drainage
Before a city-wide water network could be installed, the prerequisites for water drainage had to be created. The first groundbreaking took place on November 29, 1842 in the Große Bleichen . This first Hamburg sewer went into operation in 1843 (and lasted until 1992). Lindley used the principle of alluvial sewerage, which was previously unknown on the European continent . According to this principle, in addition to the incoming rainwater and street dirt, household wastewater is also washed away, preventing stagnation and standing water. In order to increase the flow rate required for this, Lindley had egg-shaped channels built, which narrowed towards the bottom with the same capacity . The sluices - the Hamburg term for sewers - were accessible and standardized. They were made of burned bricks . The sluice was rinsed with dammed Alster water. Unlike in London , for example , the foul-smelling sewage was not discharged into the small rivers. Rather, the tailpipes ran into the Elbe river, which has sufficient power and water flow to absorb the wastewater. However, the problem arose with the tides to which the Elbe is subjected. In particular, the frequent high water levels and the occasional violent storm surges were suitable for forcing the Elbe water into the sewer system, allowing it to run out and flooding parts of the city. Lindley got this difficulty under control by installing automatically closing flood gates that closed when the Elbe rises and that let the dammed sewage flow out again when the Elbe rises. Even with long-lasting storm surges with heavy rain , the sewer system in Hamburg could not overflow because Lindley planned emergency outlets from the canals into adjacent waters. His recommendation to homeowners to install self-closing flaps to prevent the ingress of accumulated sewage through the in-house connections became a regulation in 1843 and is still in force today. The first sewer law of 1854 stipulated that buildings had to be connected to the sewer network within ten years of the construction of a sewer in the relevant street. The second sewer law of 1875 provided for immediate connection to a newly constructed sewer.
Water supply
From the start of construction of the network in 1845, Lindley used the British technology he was familiar with and was guided in particular by the social hygiene ideas from Great Britain , according to which the state supply system had the function of allowing poorer sections of the population to participate in the flowing water in order to contain diseases and epidemics .
The first cornerstone was the construction of the waterworks in Rothenburgsort , which at that time was still in front of the city and was sparsely populated. The system had a pumping station with two steam pumps, which took comparatively clean water from the Elbe using so-called Cornwall pumps and pumped it into three newly constructed storage basins. The suspended particles of the Elbe water sank to the bottom in the storage basin. The purified water could now be pumped into the elevated tanks through the pressure pipe in the water tower into the new drinking water network, which consisted of feeder, main and supply lines . From there it got to the households. The 65-meter-high tower of the pumping station, which still stands today, had the function of a chimney for the steam pumps. Secondly, it had the function of a water tower: The elevated position of the storage basin and the pressure pipes ensured constant pressure in the city's water network.
The second cornerstone was the possibility of laying water pipes in every house due to the sewage system that was already partially built. As a result, this modern meant bathroom and modern flush toilets ( water closets ), which was considered a major contribution to hygiene and health care. According to Lindley's socio-reformist and hygienic attitude, "out of consideration for the poor classes of the population", every hamburger should be able to use "this indispensable food and cleanliness product free of charge" in order not to "fall ill from the " consequences of uncleanliness " and " burden the state " to fall. In 1850, 4,000 of 11,500 households had their own water connection, which corresponded to a quota of over a third. After completion of the work, the length of the pipeline system was 62 kilometers.
At the same time, with the drinking water supply network, an extinguishing water network was created with the corresponding emergency posts so that in the event of a fire, water does not have to be brought in, but rather has a large area permanently available. Furthermore, the creation of open fountains as well as washing and bathing establishments was a suitable way to at least provide the means for an almost free body cleansing with running water. The first hot bathing establishment on the European mainland, the washing and bathing establishment Schweinemarkt (today Steinstrasse / Steintorwall) was opened on April 5, 1855 and offered 65 baths, 49 for men and 16 for women. A second such facility, including a swimming pool , was built on Schaarmarkt in 1881. The tax-financed construction of the water supply was "free" for the population, but the in-house water connection to the network was still quite expensive, so that the poorer residents still did not have access to their own running water.
Establishment of the city water art
Expansion of the water supply
In 1848 the construction work was completed, the so-called "Stadtwasserkunst" went into operation. This ancient term describes the entirety of the water supply, i.e. the waterworks in Rothenburgsort including the pipeline network. The supply by water carriers like Johann Wilhelm Bentz was then superfluous. In addition, a state authority for the management of the facilities developed from the supervision and administration of the city water art . In any case, Hamburg had an ultra-modern water supply and sewage disposal system for the time. In the following years, the expansion of the water supply continued: In 1859 the construction of a nearly twelve million liter underground water tank began in the Sternschanzenpark , which went into operation in 1864 and was filled by the Rothenburgsort waterworks. The first "real" water tower was built at the Berliner Tor in 1855 with a storage volume of around 2.3 million liters ; it served as a buffer. As early as 1863, the water supply pipe network had grown to 145 kilometers. In the meantime, not only was the inner city, but the suburbs were already connected to the network. 11,000 households had access to the water supply and 1,800 hydrants served as access for extinguishing water.
By including the suburbs, not only did the demand for water increase, but also the amount of wastewater. Therefore, the mighty Geeststammsiel was completed in 1875 as the backbone of disposal . On the one hand, it ran east of the Alster and drained the suburbs of Uhlenhorst , Winterhude , Barmbek , Eilbek and Hamm . The western fork drained the suburbs of Rotherbaum , Harvestehude , Hoheluft (then part of Eppendorf ) and Eimsbüttel . The connection between the two arms was directly under the then new Lombard Bridge - a so-called culvert - and flowed into the Elbe near the St. Pauli Landungsbrücken at St. Pauli Hafenstrasse . It had a wooden extension to the middle of the stream to dilute and distribute the waste water.
Over the years, new waterworks were built in and around Hamburg, for example the Baursberg waterworks of the Altona gas and water company in 1859 . Right from the start, the drinking water there was bacterially and organically purified using slow sand filters based on the London model. Regular bacterial tests were later introduced. The Bergedorf waterworks was built in 1867, and the Hammerbrook sewer pump was built in the same year . From 1875 a new pumping station was built on Anckelmannsplatz, which discharged the dirty water from Hammerbrook into the Geeststammsiel.
In the 50 years or so since the establishment of water supply and disposal from 1843 to the next major hygiene disaster in Hamburg in 1892, Hamburg's population had tripled from 190,000 to 620,000 inhabitants, particularly due to the expansion of the city. This circumstance brought about a considerable deterioration in the quality of the drinking water.
Cholera and Filtration
The Elbe water that had been removed was still unfiltered, although the plans for filtration were in place from the start. However, the filtration was abandoned for financial reasons. In 1872, just 20 years after the system was put into operation, the Hamburg medical authorities complained about the poor quality of the unfiltered water, which was "considered a disadvantage for drinking" . A popular poem at the time read:
- “From the animal in the Hamburg water pipe
- There are 16 types:
- A lamprey, stickleback and eel
- Three worms live in the beam
- Three clams and three sluggish snails
- Tease yourself with the lively woodlice
- A sponge, a moss animal, a polyp
- They make fun of the sieve
- Come out on dead animals
- The dog, the cat and the mouse
- Still not found, mishap
- The architect and engineer. "
In 1876 there were 18 animal species in Hamburg's drinking water and in 1888 there were already more than 40. The fire brigade had to attach sieves to the emergency posts so that eels that had previously been sucked into the net with the Elbe water would not get into their steam syringes.
Several cholera epidemics broke out in the city during the 19th century . The last epidemic of 1892, which lasted about three months, was by far the most severe (→ cholera epidemic of 1892 ). On August 18, 1892, the first cases of Asiatic cholera occurred. The poorer areas, such as the densely built-up Gängeviertel in Hamburg's Neustadt district, were particularly affected . One of the reasons was the poor hygienic conditions, as in the less affluent neighborhoods there were still no expensive water connections of their own, but the residents were still taking the water from public hubs at the expense of the frequency of cleaning. Another cause was the poor quality of drinking water in Hamburg. The physician and discoverer of the cholera pathogen Robert Koch came to Hamburg on August 24, 1892 and declared: "I forget that I am in Europe." At the zenith of the cholera wave on August 27, 1892 1,102 people fell ill that day alone. Until the official determination that the city was free from epidemics, the epidemic cost 8,605 lives and 16,596 residents fell ill.
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A filtration plant could have prevented the cholera epidemic from spreading. Because in the city of Altona, which had been supplied with filtered Elbe water for 33 years, the authorities hardly registered any cases of cholera. A filtration plant in Hamburg had already been decided in 1887. The financial means of nine million Reichsmarks were approved in 1888, but were not released until 1890. Construction began in 1891 and should be finished in 1894. Member of the Bundestag saw the responsibility for the high number of deceased and sick people. Gieschen in the citizenship meeting on October 1, 1892 at the Senate: “The citizenship is not to blame for the delay in the filtration. In June 1888 we already approved the costs, but the Senate put a condition on the bill, the question of the water tariff, and this lost another two precious years until 1890. The attack on the building was delayed by a measly 50,000 marks and that alone brought cholera into the country. " The doctor Ferdinand Hueppe came to the same conclusion in 1894: " The councilors of the rich Hanseatic city, who only thought of profit, always followed their eyes outside, facing the sea and over the sea, had no time to think about the necessity of hygienic measures, despite the fact that the polluted Elbe water had to be cleaned by sand filtration as early as 1873. "
Thanks to the work of soldiers, the building was completed a year earlier, on May 1, 1893. The new system was located on the Kaltehofe peninsula , very close to the previous waterworks in Rothenburgsort. The work consisted of a new scoop and four high water basins on Billwerder Island . In the storage containers there, the particles suspended in the water should first sink to the bottom. From there, the water to be purified was fed into the 2.4 km long, underground sewer line to the filtration system at Kaltehofe. The filter bodies of the 18 filter basins there consisted of sand and gravel , so that organic and bacterial contamination was filtered out. The 18 filter systems each delivered 12,000 tons of purified water a day, which was pumped through masonry canals and wrought-iron pipes under the Norderelbe into two huge storage tanks and from there into the pumping systems of the Stadtwasserkunst in Rothenburgsort. From the waterworks, the clean water entered the city's pipeline network.
The engineer responsible was Franz Andreas Meyer , who was also responsible for the Speicherstadt in the Port of Hamburg .
The time of the water towers
Despite the filtration of the Elbe water, the water quality deteriorated further. The reasons for this were, among other things, the constant silting up of the filter systems on Kaltehofe and the fact that industrial companies discharged their sometimes toxic waste and their highly toxic hazardous waste into the Elbe in a completely uncontrolled and unfiltered manner. So it happened that, for example, the chlorine content per liter rose from around 50 milligrams to more than 300 milligrams within a short period of time. In addition, the cities of Hamburg and Harburg continued to dispose of their wastewater in the Elbe, from which the drinking water was obtained.
The solution was to complete the first groundwater works in Billbrook in October 1905 (which remained operational until 1985). Stadtwasserkunst prepared the water pumped from the ground in Rothenburgsort. Initially, this waterworks only supplied a quarter of the Hamburg population with groundwater. In any case, the first step towards independence from the Elbe was taken. In the years that followed, a number of new waterworks were built around Hamburg, for example in Bergedorf , Harburg, Lokstedt , Stellingen and Billstedt .
In Hamburg, the earth container in the Sternschanzenpark was taken out of service in 1905. A large water tower, known today as the Schanzenturm , was built on its foundations in 1910 . Its capacity is given by one source with 6,000 cubic meters , according to another source, however, it had two water tanks arranged one above the other, each with a capacity of 2,300 cubic meters. In the same year, Stadtwasserkunst built another water tower with less volume on the Uhlenhorst. The elevated water tank at Berliner Tor, which was decommissioned in 1908, was demolished in 1911. For this purpose, the water tower in the city park was built from 1913 to 1916 . Its capacity is given by one source with 6,000 cubic meters, according to another source, however, it held 3,000 cubic meters of water.
There were two different pressure zones in the Hamburg water supply. Since Stadtwasserkunst wanted to merge both pressure zones, they shut down the two water towers in Sternschanzenpark and Stadtpark in 1924. The water tower in the Sternschanzenpark is now used as a hotel after violent disputes. The shutdown of the water tower in the city park turned out to be a fortuitous stroke of luck without any arguments: In 1925 the city of Hamburg bought a complete planetarium from the Carl Zeiss company in Jena , but was unable to accommodate it because no money was invested in financing a corresponding building. The city accepted the offer to use the decommissioned water tower for this purpose. The water tower was converted into a planetarium. The Hamburg Planetarium, which has meanwhile become a Hamburg institution, opened in 1930.
- See also the list of water towers in Hamburg
Hamburg waterworks
renaming
On April 1, 1924, the part of the city water art, which was responsible for the water supply and the hot baths, became the Hamburger Wasserwerke GmbH (HWW) . The part of the municipal water art that was responsible for the drainage was initially transferred to a deputation from the building authorities. At that time, the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg was still the sole shareholder, and the Hamburger Wasserwerke had become a state-owned company. They supplied 1,079,000 residents, the water output was 56.3 million cubic meters - i.e. over 56 billion liters - and the length of the pipe network had increased to 997 kilometers.
The second groundwater works in Curslack , 18 kilometers from the city center, went into operation in 1928. This significantly improved the quality of the drinking water. The waterworks produced 90 million liters a day. From this year on, the groundwater works in Billbrook and Curslack covered around two thirds of the drinking water requirements of the Hamburg population.
Together with the city of Wandsbek and the Stormarn district , HWW founded Wasserwerke Hamburg-Ost GmbH on October 5, 1928 . They used the water from the Großensee waterworks .
1930s and 1940s
The Greater Hamburg Act passed in 1937 came into force on April 1, 1937 and April 1, 1938 in two stages. This expanded the national territory from 41,498 to 74,661 hectares, as the former Prussian cities of Altona, Harburg-Wilhelmsburg and Wandsbek were united with Hamburg. The city of Bergedorf, which already belonged to Hamburg, was now directly part of the national territory. The population increased from 1.2 to 1.7 million. Twelve waterworks were added under the administration of the HWW: Hamburg-Ost, Altona, Harburg-Wilhelmsburg, Wandsbek, Lokstedt, Billstedt, Lohbrügge , Bergedorf, Altenwerder , Francop , Cranz and Neuenfelde . This year the proportion of groundwater was almost 89 percent, the pipe network was 2,744 kilometers long, and the sewer network doubled to around 1,800 kilometers.
In the period from July 24 to August 3, 1943, as part of Operation Gomorrah, seven Allied bombings were carried out on the Hamburg civilian population and parts of the industrial facilities, causing extensive destruction. The dropped air mines and high-explosive bombs also burst numerous water pipes because of their explosive power. The pure water transport line from the Curslack waterworks to the main pumping station in Rothenburgsort as well as the entire pipe and sewer network were badly damaged. The Kaltehofe waterworks alone received 88 bomb hits, which put the majority of the 176,000 square meter filter surface inoperative. The waterworks could only achieve 65 percent of its previous output, so that instead of the usual 220 million liters, only 143 million liters could be filtered daily. The main pumping station in Rothenburgsort and the pure water tanks located there were also bombed and failed. The storage capacity decreased from 60 million to ten million liters. The water supply in the Hamburg core area collapsed. The population had to be laboriously supplied with drinking water by tank trucks and hydrants.
The Hamburg waterworks as an authority were not spared either: the bombing raids destroyed almost all documents such as files, books, card files and pipe network plans. The water money income was almost completely absent due to the bombing raids. In addition to the water supply, the energy supply was also disrupted. In addition to the population, the damage also affected the companies: the electrically operated waterworks could only be operated 40 percent with electricity, the remaining 60 percent of the water had to be transported into the water network by steam pumping stations. At the end of March 1945 the fuel supplies were only sufficient for four days, so that the water supply threatened to come to a standstill. The water losses due to damage to the pipe network were initially 25 to 35 percent. This gave rise to the profession of water detector, who found damaged pipes with the help of a device made of a sensitive membrane. The 1,850 kilometer long Hamburg sewer system was damaged or destroyed by bombs in 2,100 places.
The end of the Elbe water supply
In 1947 Hamburg had 1.4 million inhabitants. The HWW supplied them with 111 million cubic meters of drinking water this year. The length of the pipe network was around 3,000 kilometers. The main pumping station in Rothenburgsort received the first electric centrifugal pumps . Because of the bombing of the population, many residents had moved to the outskirts of Hamburg , which were not affected by the destruction to the same extent as more populous areas. In 1951, of the city's 1.6 million inhabitants, only 1.2 million were connected to the sewer network, so that around 400,000 Hamburgers had to get by without a sewer system.
In February 1962 there was a very severe storm surge that broke the dikes and flooded large parts of Hamburg, especially south and east of the Elbe. After the “flood of the century”, many residents had to be supplied with emergency drinking water. The filter basins of the Kaltehofe waterworks were flooded by the Elbe water. The plant was able to supply safe water again after just one week. The situation was different for the Wilhelmsburg, Süderelbmarsch and Haseldorfer Marsch waterworks: they had to remain out of service for months. The Moorburg waterworks was so badly damaged that it could not start operating again.
The year 1964 marked a special point in time for Hamburg's water supply. The Hamburg residents were initially supplied with unfiltered or filtered water from the Elbe by the Stadtwasserkunst and later by the Hamburg Waterworks. The share of Elbe water decreased continuously - after a brief increase from the mid-1940s. The complete changeover to a supply exclusively with groundwater did not take place until 116 years after the start of the revolutionary introduction of modern water supply. Since then, the quality of the drinking water has been at today's high level due to the low degree of hardness and the fact that it clearly falls below the legal limit values. The groundwater that is exclusively used is mainly created by precipitation such as rain , hail and snow as part of a natural water cycle. The precipitation absorbs dust particles, exhaust gases , oxygen and germs on their way to the ground . If the precipitation seeps into the near-surface soil layers, it is cleaned of pollutants by mechanical filtering, chemical-physical reactions and bacterial degradation. The water is collected in cavities in the earth's crust and enriched there with minerals , elements and gases . Wells pump the groundwater to the surface, the individual waterworks clean it and prepare it for drinking. For this purpose, the groundwater is aerated and oxygen is added to it. The oxygen ensures the volatilization of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide . Iron and manganese oxidize and flocculate. Sand filter sift out the solid flakes. If necessary, the groundwater can be disinfected with chlorine or chlorine dioxide .
From 1987 to 2004 was the time to switch from property to apartment water meters. The changeover resulted in a change in the calculation from flat-rate to individual consumption. The individual calculation as well as the introduction of water-saving technology led to a considerable decrease in water consumption in Hamburg households.
The city drainage has been a department of different Hamburg authorities over the years. Most recently, it was affiliated with the environmental authority as the municipal drainage office and was finally outsourced from the Hamburg administration on January 1, 1995. The Hamburg city drainage AöR was created . Outsourcing from the health authority and conversion into an institution under public law did not change the ownership structure, which was still completely the responsibility of the city.
On January 1, 2006, the equal order group Hamburg Wasser was created , which comprised the two companies Hamburger Wasserwerke and Hamburger Stadtentwässerung. In 2007, Hamburg Wasser had a total of 2,437 employees.
Today's supply and disposal
Line network
Hamburg Wasser supplies around two million people with drinking water today. In addition to the state territory of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, the approximately 1,000 square kilometer supply area also includes 21 surrounding communities in Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony . The average daily consumption is around 300,000 cubic meters. On peak days, such as 2005, up to 435,000 cubic meters can be made available to consumers. The storage tanks, so-called pure water tanks, have a total volume of 100,000 cubic meters and are distributed over the 17 waterworks. The pure water tanks also serve to compensate: While the waterworks are usually constantly pumping and treating water, customer consumption fluctuates considerably depending on the day of the week and the time of day. When consumption increases, for example in the morning, the pure water tanks dispense water, but at night they store it.
The pipeline network for drinking water has now grown to around 5,478 kilometers. Its height is between below sea level in the inner-city area and 110 meters in the Harburg mountains . The difference in height requires a water pressure between 2.0 and 6.5 bar. This water pressure is enough to pump water up to the fourth floor. For higher buildings, pressure boosters must be installed, which the respective owners must take care of. To prevent damage, 80 kilometers of the pipelines are completely renewed every year, which causes renovation investments of 35 million euros per year. The cables have a diameter of five centimeters to one meter, depending on the amount being transported. They consist of 90 percent sturdy gray cast iron or cast iron that is deformable under load , the remaining lines are made of PVC , steel or fiber cement . The number of hydrants has now grown to 45,511.
About one third of the supply area of the Hamburg Wasser company is supplied with "soft" water, and about two thirds are supplied with water with a medium degree of hardness . Only a few districts have only "hard" water. The hardness of the drinking water depends on the calcium and magnesium content . The degree of hardness is irrelevant in terms of health, but it has an effect on the taste, for example: "Hard" water tastes more substantial, "soft" water allows the aroma of tea or cocoa to develop. Devices that produce hot water, such as washing machines or coffee machines, calcify faster with a higher degree of hardness than with a lower degree of hardness.
Hamburg and parts of the surrounding area are currently supplied by 17 waterworks. A distinction is made between so-called base load and regulations. While base load plants deliver drinking water into the pipe network around the clock, regulations dispense their drinking water in doses according to the water requirements of the consumer, so that in cooperation with the delivery through the pure water tanks, a seamless supply is basically guaranteed. The layers carrying groundwater in the Hamburg area consist mainly of sand and gravel. The clay and loam layers in the ground are unsuitable for water extraction because they are difficult to permeate.
The individual waterworks
- Baursberg
- The Baursberg waterworks is located in Blankenese . It was created in 1859, at a time when the place still belonged to the Duchy of Holstein and was ruled by the Danish king. The waterworks was the first with filtration. The current factory building dates from 1915. In the mid-1980s, the factory received a new filter system. Eleven wells between 40 and 320 meters deep pump an average of twelve million liters every day. Due to its relative height of 92 meters above sea level, the treated drinking water flows freely downhill to the consumers. The supply area includes the districts of Bahrenfeld, Blankenese, Groß Flottbek, Iserbrook, Lurup, Nienstedten, Osdorf, Othmarschen and Sülldorf as well as the Schleswig-Holstein town of Schenefeld. The water is very hard. The shallower wells lie in the sands of the Saale Ice Age , the deeper ones in the upper brown coal sands.
- Bergedorf
- At the time the local waterworks went into operation in 1899, Bergedorf did not belong directly to Hamburg's national territory. In 1982 it was modernized. Five deep wells deliver seven million liters of drinking water daily between 53 and 112 meters, some of which is pumped into the supply area outside Hamburg. The water from the lower brown coal sands with medium hardness supplies parts of Bergedorf as well as Reinbek and Wentorf .
- History of the water supply in Bergedorf → Water tower Hamburg-Bergedorf
- Billbrook
- The Billbrooker waterworks was built in 1905 and is the oldest on the Hamburg state area within the borders of that time. (Decades later, Prussian areas were connected to Hamburg, and with them an even older waterworks.) The new Billbrooks plant has been in operation since 1982. The waterworks are fed by 25 wells between 21 and 340 meters. The average daily water release is 35 million liters. Together with the Curslack waterworks, it has the largest supply area in Hamburg, namely Allermöhe, Altengamme, Barmbek, Bergedorf, Billbrook, Billstedt, Billwerder, Borgfelde, Curslack, Eilbek, Hamburg-Altstadt, Hamm, Horn, Jenfeld, Moorfleet, Marienthal, Neuengamme, Neustadt, Ochsenwerder, Reitbrook, Rothenburgsort, St. Georg, St. Pauli, Tatenberg, Tonndorf, Uhlenhorst, Wandsbek and Winterhude. The drinking water for this area comes from the sands of the Saale Ice Age and from the lower brown coal sands and is medium hardness.
- Bostelbek
- The system, built in 1892 and located in what is now the Heimfeld district , was the first of the 16 waterworks currently in Hamburg. Bostelbek obtains its groundwater from six deep wells that pump at 76 to 300 meters and from four 25 meter deep shallow wells. It supplies parts of the districts of Harburg, Heimfeld and Wilhelmsburg with soft water. The shallow wells pump the groundwater from the sands of the Saale Ice Age, the deep ones from the brown coal sands.
- Curslack
- The waterworks was built in 1928 and is located in the Hamburg district of Curslack . The new waterworks is located directly next to the old building and was put into operation in 2004. More than 200 shallow wells and 14 deep wells are located in a fenced, seven kilometer long and about 100 meter wide strip in the rural Vier- und Marschlande . The wells are between twelve and 106 meters deep. The average daily delivery is 60 million liters. This makes the Curslack waterworks the largest in Hamburg. Together with the Billbrook waterworks, it supplies 350,000 residents in the center, in the southeast and partly in the east of the city. The degree of hardness is medium. The shallow wells extract from the sands of the Saale Ice Age, the deep wells lie in the lower brown coal sands.
- Glinde
- In 1966, this waterworks located outside of Hamburg went online. 14 wells at a depth of 80 to 212 meters deliver 23 million liters of treated groundwater every day, with which parts of the peripheral districts of Billstedt, Jenfeld and Lohbrügge as well as the surrounding communities of Barsbüttel , Glinde, Oststeinbek , Schönningstedt and Wohltorf in Schleswig-Holstein are supplied. The water from the sands and gravels of the Elster Ice Age and the lower lignite sands are of medium hardness.
- Großensee
- The plant in Schleswig-Holstein was built in 1892 and renewed in 1984/1985. Every day 13.5 million liters of water from ten wells that are 162 to 228 meters deep supply parts of the Hamburg district of Rahlstedt , the largest with 85,000 inhabitants, as well as the Schleswig-Holstein surrounding communities of Braak , Brunsbek , Hoisdorf , Siek , Stapelfeld and Stellau . The drinking water is soft. It is extracted from the lower brown coal sands.
- Großhansdorf
- This external system also supplies Rahlstedt and the surrounding communities. The building was built in 1933, and another facility was added in 1974. 28 million liters are dispensed every day from 20 wells that are at depths of 21 to 174 meters. The cities and communities of Ahrensburg , Ahrensfelde , Ammersbek , Großhansdorf, Hoisbüttel and Timmerhorn are supplied with moderately hard water that comes from the sands and gravels of the Elster Ice Age.
- Haseldorfer March
- 15 million liters are processed daily near the city. Three horizontal filter wells, two shallow and eight deep wells convey water from a depth of 17 to 107 meters. The system was built in 1960. The supply area includes the Rissen district and the Schleswig-Holstein area around Hetlingen, Holm, Uetersen and Wedel . The drinking water has a medium degree of hardness. The shallow wells draw the groundwater from the sands and gravels of the Saale Ice Age, the deep wells tap the groundwater of the sands and gravels of the Elster Ice Age.
- Longhorn
- This waterworks was the first Hamburg waterworks to be built after the founding of the young Federal Republic in 1952. A total of eleven wells pump 14 million liters of groundwater every day. The eleven wells produce from a depth of between 14 and 430 meters, making them the company's deepest. The districts of Fuhlsbüttel , Langenhorn and Niendorf are supplied with medium-hard water from the upper and lower lignite sands through this waterworks.
- Lohbrugge
- The smallest waterworks is also the youngest: it was built in 1991 and delivers "only" 5.5 million liters of medium-hardness drinking water to the Lohbrügge district from five wells located 68 to 125 meters deep. The wells are in the lower brown coal sands.
- History of the water supply in Lohbrügge → Water tower Hamburg-Lohbrügge
- New dig
- The waterworks is located in the southwest and also supplies this area with 15 million liters a day from nine wells with a depth of 82 to 311 meters. In 1908 the old factory went into operation. However, a new waterworks was built on the old square, which has been treating drinking water since 2002 and delivering it to the Hausbruch and Neugraben-Fischbek districts. The water is soft. This plant pumps its water from three different water-bearing layers: the sands of the Saale Ice Age, the upper and lower lignite sands.
- Nordheide
- This waterworks is located in Lower Saxony and the furthest from the city. It was created in 1982. The 50 million liters extracted and processed daily from 33 wells with a depth of 52 to 326 meters flow in a free gradient through a 28 km long transport pipe. In Ehestorf, the water is initially stored in order to then reach the Harburg and Wilstorf supply areas on the one hand and under the Elbe to the Altona, Eimsbüttel and Ottensen supply areas on the other. The degree of hardness is soft. The wells lie in the sands and gravel of the Saale Ice Age and in the lower brown coal sands. There is increasing criticism, especially in the area of Handeloh, as the already dry soil is further parched by the extraction of water.
- Schnelsen
- In 1931 - when this waterworks went online - Schnelsen was not yet part of Hamburg. The complete renovation took place in 1990. The plant is fed from 14 wells with depths between 31 and 205 meters. Deeper wells would not be possible because this waterworks is the only one under which there is a salt dome from around 200 meters. It delivers 13 million liters of treated water every day, the supply area includes the districts of Eidelstedt, Großborstel, Niendorf and Schnelsen as well as the surrounding communities of Bönningstedt, Ellerbek and Hasloh. The degree of hardness is medium. The water-bearing layers consist of sands and gravels from the Elster Ice Age and the upper brown coal sands.
- Stellingen
- A waterworks was built here in 1909. Between 1930 and 1936, the city of Altona developed further well sockets and built today's waterworks right next to the old one. A complete renovation took place at the end of the 1980s. The daily delivery rate is 15 million liters, the product is extracted from ten 40 to 150 meter deep wells. The districts of Eppendorf, Hoheluft, Lokstedt and Stellingen are supplied with hard water. This plant is the only one to pump the groundwater from the water-bearing Pinneberger strata.
- Süderelbmarsch
- The waterworks is located in the Hausbruch district . It was built in 1952 and has been supplying large areas of the Harburg district with 38 million liters a day since 1956, namely the districts of Altenwerder, Cranz, Finkenwerder, Francop, Kleiner Grasbrook, Moorburg, Neuenfelde, Steinwerder, Veddel, Waltershof and Wilhelmsburg. The total of 15 wells are between 17 and 363 meters deep. The water supplied has a soft hardness and comes from the sands and gravels of the Elster Ice Age, the upper and lower lignite sands.
- Forest villages
- The Volksdorf plant has been pumping groundwater from 19 wells at a depth of 145 to 370 meters since 1965. The daily output is 38 million liters, the peak output is up to 60 million liters. The supply area consists of the districts Alsterdorf, Bergstedt, Bramfeld, Farmsen-Berne, Fuhlsbüttel, Hummelsbüttel, Ohlsdorf, Poppenbüttel, partly Rahlstedt, Sasel, Steilshoop, Volksdorf and Wellingsbüttel. The degree of hardness is medium. The wells lie in the sands and gravels of the Elster Ice Age and the upper and lower brown coal sands.
Sewage network and sewage treatment plants
The main task of urban drainage is to dispose of the waste water produced by 2.2 million private households as well as commercial and industrial companies. Since the sewers in Hamburg are called Siele , the sewer network is consequently called the Sielnetz. The Hamburg sewer network has a total length of around 5,400 kilometers, in the inner-city area it is 943 kilometers. Around 467 million liters of wastewater are produced every day. In addition, there is an average of 68.5 million liters of rainwater daily. In addition, the municipal drainage system also dumps the wastewater from 28 municipalities that are already located around Hamburg in the federal states of Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony. The disposal area is thus around 1,000 square kilometers.
Half of the sewer network consists of so-called mixed sewers, in which both the wastewater from private households and businesses and the rainwater are taken up. The other half of the sewer network is a separate infiltration system into which only the rainwater that has been taken in through the street inlets ( rocks or gullies ) flows into its own sewers. The drains are of different sizes, the size depends on the purpose and the amount of dirty water to be taken in. The small house connections only have a diameter of 15 to, in rare cases, 25 centimeters. The public sluices in the streets are 15 to 150 centimeters tall. The transport trays, collectors and old Hamburg trunks, on the other hand, are huge: They can be up to 3.85 meters high and 4.7 meters wide. The large sluices do not have a connection to the surface water, but mostly flow directly to the sewage treatment plant network in a free fall and have the task of relieving the local sewerage system, especially when it rains, and protecting it from overflows onto property and water. The size of the sluice depends on the catchment area and the amount of wastewater. In the case of separate infestation, smaller pipes are sufficient; in the case of mixed sewer systems, water masses from heavy rain must also be able to be discharged. The local pipelines are about two to five meters deep in the ground. The large sluices run into the ground at a depth of up to 27 meters.
The drainage is divided into four large sewer districts. The employees of the sewer districts are responsible for the trouble-free sewer operation, for the maintenance and long-term efficiency of the network as well as for the construction of new lines. New underground retention basins are also being built. Their function is to relieve the sewage system when it rains. When the sluices are full, they are filled and temporarily store the rain masses until the sluices can be absorbed again. In addition, over 800,000 technical systems must be maintained and kept functional, including shafts, pumping stations, retention basins and shut-off devices. The sewer system must also be kept free from blockages caused by deposits and obstacles. For this purpose, the sewer network is regularly cleaned by special treatment vehicles . Deposits in the sewer are loosened with high-pressure flushing nozzles and sucked into the tank of the vehicle via a suction hose. On average, the sewers are cleaned every two and a half years. Inspections take place approximately every ten years. In addition to inspections, robot-supported video cameras are also used for smaller channels.
Ultimately, the wastewater is diverted to the multi-stage cleaning process of the Köhlbrandhöft sewage treatment network in Steinwerder and Dradenau in Waltershof . The sewage inflow is 4,000 to 5,000 liters per second in dry weather. When it rains, the inflow can increase to up to 19,000 liters per second. The Köhlbrandhöft sewage treatment plant forms the first stage. It initially cleans the supplied wastewater mainly mechanically, with a rake system removing the coarse material and the sand trap sifting out the sand. The remaining solids are separated from the wastewater by settling and floating. In addition, the wastewater is partially biologically and chemically pretreated, so that the first stage removes a third of the pollutants from the wastewater.
The second stage is the Dradenau sewage treatment plant. There, the wastewater is enriched with microorganisms in the so-called activated sludge tank , which naturally break down the carbon and nitrogen compounds contained in the wastewater . For this metabolic process, oxygen is carried into the wastewater through surface aerators. The final cleaning step takes place in the secondary clarifier, where the activated sludge formed by the microorganisms during nutrient degradation settles and is separated from the wastewater. The wastewater is then fed into the Elbe, falling below the legal limit values. The sludge - over 40,000 tons annually - is provided with bacteria in the ten digestion towers , each with a capacity of eight million liters , and decomposes into gas and water.
Consumption and forecasts
The average private water consumption per inhabitant and day in Hamburg is falling continuously. In 1998 it was 169.3 liters, in 2004 it was 142 liters, in 2010 it was 144.4 liters. 2014 134 liters. The main reason for the lower numbers lies in the consumption- saving technology such as water- saving showers and saving buttons on toilet flushes as well as more economical washing machines and dishwashers . Saxony has the lowest consumption with just 84 liters. In 2007, the average hamburger used around 40 to 50 liters a day to flush toilets. He needs 20 to 30 liters a day for bathing, showering and personal hygiene. The dishes, washing machines and dishwashers take up around 25 to 45 liters. Only three to five liters - by far the smallest proportion - are used daily for cooking or drinking.
The loss of water through damaged or leaky water pipes is low in Hamburg. Since the Hamburg Wasser company invests a lot of money annually in the repair of the pipe system, the loss rate is only four percent. The national average is already seven percent. For comparison: 22 percent of the water is lost in Great Britain and 28 percent in Italy.
The dangers for the groundwater from industry , agriculture , private households and waste management are not insignificant, especially for near-surface groundwater pumping. It is estimated that 40 percent of water abstraction is endangered in the long term due to soil pollution, for example from heavy metals. The Hamburg water management company is reacting to this, for example, by consciously leasing its own agricultural land to organic farmers in order to prevent the use of pesticides . The Hamburg administration counteracts the dangers by designating areas as water protection areas, in which particularly strict regulations apply. In Hamburg, on the other hand, there is no risk that the groundwater could become quantitatively scarce: every year the waterworks pump “only” 125 billion liters of water from the ground, while over the same period 900 billion liters - about seven times as much - sink into the ground through precipitation.
literature
Printed sources
- Jürgen Büschenfeld: The “Industrialization” of Water in the 19th Century - Natural Element in the Technical Age Science & Environment 2003 - Interdisciplinary No. 7 (July 2003) pp. 65–75
- Ernst Christian Schütt u. a .: Chronicle of Hamburg. 2nd updated edition. Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh / Munich 1997, ISBN 3-577-14443-2 .
- Franklin Kopitzsch , Daniel Tilgner (Ed.): Hamburg Lexikon. 2nd, revised edition. Zeiseverlag, Hamburg 2000, ISBN 3-9805687-9-2 .
- Daniel Tilgner (Ed.): Hamburg from Altona to Zollenspieker. The Haspa manual for all districts of the Hanseatic city. Hoffmann and Campe, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-455-11333-8 .
Web links
- Hamburg water
- "Hamburg's water - not just underground" , Unterwelten e. V.
further reading
- Alfred Meng: History of the Hamburg water supply , Hamburg 1993, ISBN 3-929229-15-3
- Richard J. Evans: Death in Hamburg , Reinbek 1991, ISBN 3-498-01648-2
Individual evidence
- ↑ Hamburg-Lexikon, Zeiseverlag Hamburg, pp. 304 and 490
- ^ Daniel Tilgner (ed.): Hamburg from Altona to Zollenspieker. The Haspa manual for all districts of the Hanseatic city. Hoffmann and Campe, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-455-11333-8 , p. 884.
- ↑ a b c d e Hamburg-Lexikon, Zeiseverlag Hamburg, p. 490
- ↑ a b Chronik Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 86
- ↑ Hamburg-Lexikon, Zeiseverlag Hamburg, p. 106
- ↑ Agenda 21 process Elbinsel Kaltehofe, water forum , Schutzgemeinschaft Deutscher Wald e. V., Hamburg regional association
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 214
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 216
- ^ Daniel Tilgner (ed.): Hamburg from Altona to Zollenspieker. The Haspa manual for all districts of the Hanseatic city. Hoffmann and Campe, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-455-11333-8 , p. 24.
- ↑ a b c d Chronik Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 224
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 217
- ↑ a b c pioneer of technical hygiene ( memento from February 6, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ) , Deutsche Bauzeitung, edition 6/2003
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l History of the company ( memento from February 5, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ^ Bathtubs at the pig market , Hamburger Abendblatt, April 7, 2007
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 240
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 247
- ↑ Hamburg-Lexikon, Zeiseverlag Hamburg, p. 67
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 273
- ^ Daniel Tilgner (ed.): Hamburg from Altona to Zollenspieker. The Haspa manual for all districts of the Hanseatic city. Hoffmann and Campe, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-455-11333-8 , p. 28.
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 320
- ^ "Chronology and consequences of Hamburg cholera of 1892" ( Memento from October 25, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 1.4 MB) , Hamburger Ärzteblatt, issue 12/1983 and 1/1984
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 324
- ↑ Hamburg-Lexikon, Zeiseverlag Hamburg, p. 324
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 354
- ↑ Mövenpick: "A hotel in the water tower, history" ( Memento of the original from October 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Water tower industrial monument in Hamburg's city park
- ↑ Chronik Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 445
- ^ Chronicle Hamburg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag Gütersloh / Munich, p. 469
- ^ Hamburger Atlas, Georg Westermann Verlag Braunschweig, 1st edition 1976, p. 35
- ↑ Group ( Memento from December 4, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ^ "Hamburg sells water from the Trave to Lübeck" , Die Welt of July 29, 2006
- ↑ Water supply, water distribution ( Memento from June 22, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ↑ Water supply, water distribution, pipeline network ( Memento from June 22, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ↑ Water supply, water quality, water hardness , Hamburg water
- ^ Water supply, water works ( Memento from February 27, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ^ Wastewater disposal, wastewater discharge ( memento from June 2, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ↑ sanitation, Sielbezirke ( Memento of 24 November 2010 at the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ^ Wastewater disposal, sewage treatment plant operation ( Memento of March 13, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) , Hamburg Wasser
- ↑ http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/255138/umfrage/wasserbedarf-je-einwohner-pro-tag-in-hamburg/
- ↑ a b Germany's large water consumption atlas investigation: The East saves, it works in the West ( Memento from June 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) March 16, 2015
- ↑ The company ( Memento from June 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) mentions only "around 110 liters".
- ↑ "Study: The water consumption of Hamburgers will continue to fall" , Hamburger Abendblatt from January 26, 2008
- ↑ Bread for the World - Human Right Water, "Hamburg - Water Supply for a City of Two Million" , October 2004
- ^ "Supply in Hamburg is assured - no price explosion expected" , Hamburger Abendblatt from July 19, 2008
