Protocols of the Elders of Zion

The cover of a 1934 American edition of the Protocols by the Patriotic Publishing Co. of Chicago. It implies that possession of these documents could result in immediate death in Soviet Russia .

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion are a on counterfeit BASED anti-Semitic pamphlet . It was created at the beginning of the 20th century by unknown editors on the basis of several fictional texts and is considered to be an influential program font for anti-Semitic conspiracy thinking . The minutes claim to be secret documents from an alleged meeting of Jewish world conspirators .

A first, Russian-language version appeared in the Russian Empire in 1903 . After the First World War , the text was increasingly circulated internationally, although the minutes had already been exposed as a forgery in the London Times in 1921 . The edition from the 1920s by Henry Ford in the United States and the German editions by Gottfried zur Beek and Theodor Fritsch became particularly well known . Despite the discovery as a forgery in the Bern Trials 1933–1935, among others, anti-Semites and supporters of conspiracy theories around the world, especially in Islamic countries and Russia, still believe in the authenticity of the protocols .

text

contents

The text, 40 to 80 pages long, depending on the edition, is divided into 24 sections. Each is supposed to correspond to an alleged meeting and contains a speech reportedly given by a Jewish leader to the "Elders of Zion " congregation . The bureaucratic term “ protocols ” in the title is intended to give the text credibility. The poorly structured text revolves around three themes with numerous repetitions: a criticism of liberalism , the alleged plans of " world Jewry " to take over the world , and the future Jewish world empire . The speaker professes to a crude Machiavellianism and to the slogan “The end justifies the means” , which up to now has mainly been subordinated to the Jesuits . The democracy is a pernicious form of government as freedom and equality are incompatible with human nature. Nevertheless, one must promote liberalism and popular rule in order to disrupt the non-Jewish states. It is therefore necessary to eliminate the privileges and land ownership of the nobility , which is "the only means of defense of the non-Jewish peoples and states against us", to undermine the prestige of the clergy and the power of the Pope , seemingly contradicting, corrosive doctrines like this by Karl Marx , Charles Darwin and Friedrich Nietzsche and to stir up political differences. To this end, they would have put the most diverse political directions such as monarchists , liberals, democrats and communists under their yoke. Anti-Semitism was also set up by the Jews themselves in order to "keep our brothers from the lower classes together". Intentionally caused economic crises would lead to social tensions, in addition the peoples would have to be worn down by "envy and hatred, by strife and war, even by privation, hunger and the spread of epidemics".

The tool for this would be an artificial shortage of the means of payment and the resulting national debt , through which the Jews, who supposedly already had the most money capital in the world, would make the states dependent on them. Therefore, they are also responsible for the introduction of the gold standard - commentators see an allusion to the currency policy of the Russian finance minister Sergei Yulievich Witte in the years 1896/97. In addition, they would make use of the press , which is supposedly controlled by Jews , and the Masonic lodges , all of which are under Jewish directorship. For every newspaper that was not well-disposed towards the Jews, there should be two others that only served Jewish purposes. To make the camouflage vis-à-vis the public perfect, these controlled newspapers should have different views and feign feuds with one another. The president of the new democracies should all personally suitable and also "a Panama any" be blackmailed by her past: The text alludes to the Panama scandal of 1892, in the well Arthur Mohr home , the Russian ambassador in Paris , was involved. If their governments were nevertheless not to obey the Jews, they would exert pressure on them through terror and assassination attempts or incite neighboring countries to war against them, possibly to world war. Should the European states unite against the Jews, this would be answered with an attack by the United States of America , China and Japan on Europe. According to the American literary scholar Jeffrey L. Sammons, the mention of Japan is a reflection of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. In addition, one has "a last, dreadful means in hand, before which even the bravest hearts should tremble": What is meant is the subway , which was built in Paris from 1897:

“Soon all the capitals of the world will be criss-crossed by underground tunnels. From these tunnels we will blow up the whole cities with state administrations, offices, document collections and the non-Jews with their belongings in case of danger for us. "

Endless disputes and fatigue fueled by the Jews, as well as the allegedly inherent tendency of democracy to despotism, would lead the peoples to ask for a world ruler on their own initiative. This “King of the Blood of Zion” - an allusion to the messianic tradition - will take over power in all states simultaneously through a coup d'état . He is described as charismatic and virtuous, since he has to subordinate all "personal joys for the good of his people and humanity". In this realm, all freedoms for which the "Elders of Zion" had campaigned in the non-Jewish states would be reversed: the press would be subjected to severe censorship , the rule of law would be restricted by the abolition of the right of appeal and state control of all lawyers , the ruler ruled autocratically . At the first suspicion of a political offense, the person concerned is arrested, public political discussions are not tolerated, Masonic lodges and all other secret societies are banned, and government informers are everywhere. The freedom to teach at the universities will be abolished, and at schools the worship of the ruler will be taught. This will actually be very popular among the population, as it pursues a paternalistic social policy . It is financed by a progressive property tax and a currency policy in which the amount of money depends on the cost of living and population growth. Corruption and abuse of power are made impossible by strict controls on the officials. Alcoholism will be forbidden, stock exchange trading will be abolished, as will unemployment by reintroducing the domestic industry , in which there is always something to be done. The successor of the ruler is not determined by inheritance law, but rather on the basis of his personal suitability, since his character has to be impeccable. The aim of the alleged conspiracy was not tyranny , but “a conflict-free 'realm of reason'” in which the masses would live completely manipulated and controlled by state welfare .

Anti-Semitic Discourse

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion combine a multitude of clichés that shaped the anti-Semitic discourse before and after. So Jews are basically portrayed as enemies of Christians: They are “mindless”, “a flock of mutton, but we Jews are wolves. Do you know, gentlemen, what happens to the sheep when the wolves break into their flocks? ”The aim of the Jews is the worldwide rule of their faith and belief in their divine chosenness in the universal state they rule, and they are also given ambition , Revengefulness and hatred of Christians. The idea that the Jews are fundamentally hostile to Christians is rooted in anti-Judaism , which accuses them of “stubborn” refusal to convert and baptize, murder of God , desecration of the host and alleged alliances with the devil . British historian Norman Cohn sees the Protocols as a modern return to this demonological tradition. The image of the snake traditionally belongs to the “devilish character” of the Jews and is not missing in the protocols : Here the snake is referred to as the “symbol of our people” because it is increasingly holding the peoples of Europe in its stranglehold. In the first German edition of the protocols , this alleged clasp was also illustrated with a map.

The protocols take up the medieval accusation that the Jews caused the plague of 1347-1350 by poisoning wells . Here the speaker explains how hunger, epidemics, etc., induce non-Jews to accept Jewish rule. Another cliché of the Middle Ages and the early modern period was that of the money Jew who practiced usury . The interest prohibition enacted at the Second Lateran Council of 1139 was relaxed with the increasing importance of the credit system for the late medieval economy, as a result of which Christians suddenly stood in competition with the Jews, who until then had only been allowed to lend money. The charge of taking interest was a means of ousting and marginalizing Jews from banking. In the early modern period, the stereotype of the "rich Jew" was widespread. Well-known examples are the Württemberg court factor Joseph Süß Oppenheimer (1698–1738) and the Frankfurt banker Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812) with his descendants, whose wealth was generalized in an (incorrect) inductive conclusion and still provides material for conspiracy theories today . This accusation is almost omnipresent in the minutes and culminates in the claim that the Jews actually owned all the money in the world at the time they were written.

The central idea of ​​the protocols , namely that the Jews would conspire to carry out their evil plans against Christianity, has been in the Christian imagination since the 13th century, when the English monk Matthaeus Parisiensis (1200–1259) in his Chronica major claimed that the Jews had secretly allied themselves with the " Tartars " in order to take revenge on the Christians. This idea has been increasingly found in anti-Semitic discourse since 1869. In this year, the converted to Orthodox Christianity Yakov Alexandrowitsch Brafman (1824–1879) presented his work Книга Кагала ( Kniga Kagala , "The Book of Kahal"). In it he presented the Kehillahim , the Jewish community organizations, as part of a comprehensive secret organization that would be controlled by the Alliance Israélite Universelle . The term kahal is also used in the logs . Kniga Kagala is considered to be one of their intellectual precursors.

In 1869 there was also Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens by the French right- wing Catholic Henri Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux (1805–1876). In it he linked the two branches of the conspiracy theories that had prevailed up to that point, the anti-Semitic and the anti-Masonic : Freemasonry was an "artificial Judaism" created by the Jews with the aim of recruiting Christians for Judaism. Cohn calls the book the "Bible of Modern Anti-Semitism". As a result, the supposedly closest connection between synagogues and lodges congealed into a fixed topos of anti-Semitic literature. According to the Israeli historian Jacob Katz , it was virtually impossible for French anti-Semites not to attack Freemasonry as well.

Other constitutive elements of modern anti-Semitism do not appear in the minutes of the Elders of Zion : The accusation that Jews desecrate Christian virgins and commit blood atrocities is missing, as is the motive behind racial anti-Semitism , such as the assumption of physical inferiority or the alleged deviance of Jewish thought . The race theory had after Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines of Arthur de Gobineau from 1853, who also was present since 1901 in German, and initiated by Darwin in 1859 published (1816-1882) Origin of Species , increasingly resorted to. Neither Darwin nor Gobineau were anti-Semites, but their works were reinterpreted anti-Semitically by authors such as Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), who now asserted a biological difference between Jews and other people. Völkisch circles in Germany were so imbued with these ideas in their thinking that they could not help but understand the protocols in this racist sense as they were reading them after 1919. For them, the schemes described there were a typical expression of the innate Jewish racial soul, for them the imaginatively depicted world conspiracy was the result of a destructive instinct that was not religious or cultural, but racial. According to Norman Cohn, the logical consequence of this racist understanding of the conspiracy theory was the biological annihilation of the alleged backers of the conspiracy.

Emergence

author

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion are a forgery using older, fictional texts or, since there is no original text, a pure "invention", a fiction without reference to reality. Norman Cohn dated the forgery to 1897 or 1898 and found evidence that points to the Bibliothèque nationale de France as the location of the forgery. The French historian Henri Rollin (1885–1955) believed in his 1939 work L'apocalypse de notre temps that the original version came from Elias von Cyon (1843–1912), a conservative Russian writer who had lived in France since 1875. He had rewritten a French satire by Maurice Joly published in 1864 in order to polemicize Finance Minister Witte and his liberal modernization course . Pjotr ​​Ratschkowski (1853–1910), who headed the Paris- based department for foreign affairs of the Russian secret service Ochrana from 1885 to 1902, got hold of this text in 1897 and rewrote it in an anti-Semitic sense. Often, Ratschkowski is simply given as the author or client. Since the publication of the Russian literary historian Mikhail Lepjochin from 1998 will ratchet Kowski assistant Matvei Golovinsky (1865-1920) as the author of the protocols mentioned: He had the moment Dreyfus affair the text on behalf of his boss in French written in order To incite Tsar Nicholas II against liberalism. The Scottish historian James Webb , on the other hand, sees the Russian occultist Juliana Glinka, who was in contact with Ratschkowski in Paris, as responsible for the text.

According to the German historian Michael Hagemeister , these versions go back to two sources: On the one hand to the Polish Princess Catherine Radziwill (1858–1941), who in 1921 spread from her exile in New York that Golowinski had her in Paris in 1904/1905 the French original of Protocols shown that he had made on Ratschkowski's order. On the other hand, the French Count Alexandre du Chayla (1885–1945) relied on them in his memoirs, also published in 1921, of one of the first editors of the Protocols , Sergei Nilus (1862–1929), with whom he worked closely after his conversion to Orthodox Christianity Had been in contact. Chayla later appeared as a witness in the Bern trial . Hagemeister doubts the credibility of these sources and, because of several Ukrainisms in the text , advocates the thesis that the forgery was fabricated or at least edited by right-wing nobles from southern Russia.

The Italian literary scholar Cesare G. De Michelis comes in his text-critical investigations to the conclusion that the oldest printed Russian version, which appeared in late summer of 1903, no translation from French is, but goes back to an original version by Russian right-wing extremists recently had been written down in Saint Petersburg. Since the minutes were first mentioned in the Russian press in April 1902, the period of origin can be narrowed down very precisely. The first version was a parody of Theodor Herzl's Jewish state , which was written with reference to the fifth Zionist congress of December 1901. The journalist Thomas Grüter also points out that important political events in Western Europe that could have served to prove alleged Jewish world domination plans, such as the Dreyfus affair , the Franco-German War 1870/71 or the colonial policy of the European powers in Africa and Asia, not mentioned. This speaks against the fact that the protocols were created in Western Europe. It is still unclear who the author or authors were.

Literary material used

The forgers used the satirical text Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu ("Conversations in the underworld between Machiavelli and Montesquieu ") by the Paris lawyer Maurice Joly , which was published anonymously in Brussels in 1864 , as a template in plagiarism , while maintaining the diction , the intention of the original pamphlet was tendentiously twisted into the exact opposite. In the literary tradition of conversations with the dead , the author lets the French enlightenment argue with the Italian Renaissance philosopher. At the same time, the latter is cynical in defense of moral free political tyranny. Jews play no role in the fictional dialogue; rather, Joly uses the figure of Machiavelli to caricature the authoritarian rule of the French emperor Napoléon III. who, after his coup in 1851, increasingly eroded civil rights and the rule of law in France. According to Cohn, one of the copies of the satire in the Bibliothèque nationale de France contains notes that match the borrowings in the minutes . Forty percent of the text of the minutes is taken verbatim from Joly's satire. However, Joly's thoughts are much more coherent. The minutes give the impression of being hastily copied. As the media scholar Umberto Eco shows, Joly borrowed from popular French entertainment novels of the 19th century, namely from Alexandre Dumas' Joseph Balsamo from 1846 and from Eugène Sue's Le Juif errant ("The Eternal Jew") from 1845 and Les Mystères du Peuple ("The People's Secrets") from 1856 - this is where the Jesuits' plans for world conquest were put into the mouths of the Jesuits .

The sensational novel Biarritz by the German writer Hermann Goedsche , published in 1868, also played a role in shaping the text of the minutes . It describes a secret meeting in the Prague cemetery in 1860, overheard by the hero of the novel, a "Doctor Faust", and his companion, a converted Jew. Allegedly, representatives of the twelve tribes of Israel (plus one more for the "outcast and wanderers") meet every hundred years to discuss progress in the plan to conquer the world: all gold in the world should be put into Jewish hands. As a means to this end, the individual speakers expound the program of liberalism and the negative consequences of social modernization, bracketed with horror images of Jewish malice, including the indebtedness of the state and the nobility, the emancipation of Jews including Jewish landed property, and mixed marriages of Christian women with Jewish people Men, the proletarianization of the craftsmen , the separation of church and state, the promotion of revolutions and the conquest of the press, trade, public service and cultural life. This is the true content of Jewish secret knowledge, the Kabbalah . Goedsche himself used Elderflower for this scene in Wilhelm Raabe's story , which had appeared five years earlier. Goedsche's cemetery scene appeared again in 1876 in a Russian script, which now depicts Goedsche's still fictional story as a factual report. A year later, the speeches appeared in Germany, France and Austria. Some of the speeches were ascribed to a single person and republished as "The Rabbi's Speech". In 1881, the right-wing Catholic newspaper Le Contemporain in France reprinted the story somewhat changed by combining the twelve speeches into a single one. Le Contemporain stated to have taken the "report" from a soon to be published book by the English diplomat "Sir John Retcliffe"; this name was only the pseudonym under which Goedsche had published his novel. The idea that there is a council of representatives of all Jews in the world goes back to the Sanhedrin , convened by Napoleon in 1806 , who was a starting point for anti-Semitic conspiracy theories as early as the 19th century.

First publications

Russia

Sergei Nilus , Близ грядущий антихрист ( Blis grjaduschtschi antichrist , "The approaching Antichrist is near"). Title illustration of the 1911 edition containing the text of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion . The individual illustrations come from Dogme et rituel de la haute magie by the French occultist Éliphas Lévi : In the middle the Antichrist as a rendering of the tarot card The chariot between a pentagram adorned with Kabbalistic symbols and a Star of David , both of which are called печать антихриста (Eng .: " Seal of the Antichrist ”) are marked. The Russian cross with the slogan Сим победиши (Eng .: You will win in it ), the motto of the Black Hundred, triumphs over this demonic symbol .

The Protocols were first mentioned in April 1902 in an article by a Petersburg journalist and anti-Semite, who, however, dismissed them as an obvious forgery. The oldest version of the Protocols was published on 26 August to 7 September 1903 in nine episodes in the right-wing Petersburg Sankt newspaper Znamya (Russian for "The Standard"), entitled "The Jewish program for world conquest." The editor Pawel Kruschewan (1860-1909) was an anti-Semite close to the Black Hundred who had organized the Kishinev pogrom in the same year . He claimed that these were authentic "meeting minutes of the World Alliance of Freemasons and the Elders of Zion" that had been made in France. There are also the "secret archives of the Central Chancellery of Zion", whose representatives should not be confused with the Zionist movement . In 1904 the Polish anti-Semite Hipolit Lutostański printed part of the Russian text as an alleged translation from French in the second volume of his work Talmud i evrei (“The Talmud and the Jews”).

In 1905, the year of the first Russian Revolution , further editions followed in Moscow and St. Petersburg, which tried to explain the events. The journalist Georgi Butmi (1856-1919) from the Orthodox Nationalist League of the Russian People largely followed the legend of the origin of the Snamja in his popular edition, which appeared several times under changing titles from 1906 to 1907 , only he now gave a date: December 9, 1901 the text had been translated from French. In the 1907 edition he also stated that it came from the files of a "Masonic lodge of the Egyptian rite" Mizraim (probably referring to the Memphis Misraïm rite ), which was attended mainly by Jews, and brought him into spiritual closeness Zionism.

The version that was eventually distributed worldwide appeared in 1905, in the second edition of a mystical, apocalyptic work by the religious writer Sergei Nilus (1862–1929), The Great in Small, or the Arrival of the Antichrist and the Approaching Rule of the Devil on the Earth . In it he painted an eschatological conspiracy of the "Church of Satan" against Christianity based on the 2nd Letter to the Thessalonians , which would essentially consist of "Jewish Freemasonry". Allegedly the omens were already increasing, which is why the false Messiah of the Jews would soon appear, the Antichrist, who in turn preceded the second coming of Jesus Christ . In this dualistic view, the Jews were assigned the role of the adversaries of God who - quite against their intention - would drive the process of salvation history and would convert to Christianity shortly before the end of time. The “secret of malice” mentioned in 2 Thes 2,7  LUTH is the millennia-old conspiracy of the Jews, which Nilus claimed in a later work to go back to King Solomon . As a twelfth chapter, he had therefore inserted an expanded text of the protocols into his book. Nilus had reworked the text to reflect the current policy of 1905, but claimed that they were presented in 1902 or 1903. Nilus also added subheadings, which particularly emphasized the role of Freemasons in the imagined world conspiracy, which only play a subordinate role in the actual text. The alleged collaboration between Jews and Freemasons was completely fictional, as the lodges were anything but revolutionary and many refused to accept Jews well into the 20th century. Nilus understood the protocols not as a political text, but as eschatological . For him they were a Greek ἀποκάλυψις Apokálypsis , a revelation and unveiling of the struggle between good and evil that immediately preceded the Parousia. In this respect, he was not a racist anti-Semite, but thought along the traditional lines of religious anti-Judaism .

The work was reprinted several times under different titles until 1917 and was printed 15,000 times. In the fourth edition in 1917, Nilus claimed that he had been told that the author of the Protocols was Theodor Herzl , the founder of the Zionist movement. He had given the recorded speech at the First Zionist World Congress , which took place in Basel in August 1897. In editions of other editors a connection to the Zionist movement was again denied, the information on age and origin also diverged considerably: The range of speculated dates and places of origin ranged from Jerusalem at the time of King Solomon to the aforementioned Basle First Zionist Congress in 1897. It was also inconsistent in the various editions, the number of sections or “minutes” (between 22 and 27).

When they first appeared, the minutes attracted little attention. Frequently cited reports that they were read from the pulpit in Moscow or that the Tsar had criticized them are now considered legends. Nor can any reactions be proven, neither in the rest of the anti-Semitic journalism nor in pogroms. In the years that followed, few people were interested in the text, which was increasingly seen through as a conspiracy theory. That changed with the Russian October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war , when the counterrevolutionary “ whites ” used the protocols to understand what was otherwise inconceivable to them. It was rumored that Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna had the Protocols of the Elders of Zion with her before she was murdered . They were brought to Western and Central Europe by radical anti-Bolshevik emigrants such as Fyodor Winberg (1868–1927) or the Baltic German Alfred Rosenberg in the hope that they would be able to organize support against allegedly Jewish Bolshevism . As a result, editions of the protocols appeared in many countries . Even if they differ significantly in the formulations, they are all based on Nilus' edition from 1911. The main differences can be found in the commentary: that the secret purpose of building the subways was theirs To be able to blow up entire cities seemed too fantastic for several editors; they said that one had to understand this passage metaphorically . From now on, the minutes were no longer read as a religious warning against the evil of the end times, but as a political analysis of the present.

Germany

The first non-Russian version was based on Nilus' second edition from 1911. It was published under the pseudonym in January 1920 under the title “The Secrets of the Elders of Zion” by Ludwig Müller von Hausen , the founder and chairman of the Association against the Defiance of Judaism Gottfried zur Beek, who was in close contact with right-wing Russian emigrants in Berlin. In his introduction, Müller von Hausen / zur Beek adorned the legend according to which the minutes were drawn up at the Basel Zionist Congress in 1897: Allegedly, a "spy" from the Russian government bribed a Jewish envoy who wrote the minutes to the allegedly Jewish Masonic lodge "Zur Aufstieg Morgenröte ”was supposed to bring it to Frankfurt am Main and thus had the opportunity to write it off in one night - hence its fragmentary character. This text was then sent to Nilus, who translated it into Russian in 1901 and is said to have given him, zur Beek, the sole rights. The edition by Müller von Hausen / zur Beek had 22 editions by 1938 alone: ​​the historian Jacob Katz emphasizes that the protocols were just one of many anti-Semitic publications that flooded the country at the time. Nevertheless, their journalistic success shows that in the Weimar Republic there was a great need for a scapegoat for the overthrow of the monarchy and for defeat in the World War in view of the racial superiority that the völkisch movement had always proclaimed. The work has been published by the NSDAP party publisher since 1929 . In the foreword it was threatened that a National Socialist Germany would “present the bill to Judaism which will then no longer be paid in gold”. In addition, in his commentary, zur Beek enriched the spectrum of alleged conspirators with the Serious Bible Students , whose millennialism he misinterpreted as advocating a Jewish world empire.

The later NSDAP party ideologist Alfred Rosenberg submitted a detailed comment in 1923 in which he interpreted the post-war development as confirmation of the plans outlined in the minutes . A new element Rosenberg added a media-critical the accusation that the Jews would by them allegedly controlled press about by competition increasingly entertaining fashion so that their readers would lose the ability by as much distraction for independent thinking. The commentary was a journalistic success; it was reprinted in 1924, 1933, 1938 and 1941. In 1927 Rosenberg's work “The World Conspiratorial Congress in Basel” appeared, in which he adopted Nilus' thesis that the minutes contained the secret resolutions of the Zionist Congress of 1897.

Dearborn Independent front page , May 22, 1920. With this issue the newspaper began reprinting and annotating the Protocols of the Elders of Zion .

1924 brought Theodor Fritsch , entitled The Zionist protocols. The program of the international secret government launched a third German version on the market, this time as an alleged translation "from English according to the original in the British Museum ". In the foreword, Fritsch cited as an argument for authenticity that an Aryan head could not even come up with such a system of mischievous baseness, and demanded that Judaism should now be called “to account as the only guilty party: the sworn enemy of honorable humanity”.

English speaking countries

The English translation of the Protocols , entitled The Jewish Peril , hit the British market in early 1920 . In the same year, the conservative Morning Post published a collection of texts on the minutes under the title The Cause of World Unrest , but made their authenticity appear as an open question. In the United States, the industrialist was Henry Ford from 1920 to 1922, a four-volume compendium of several articles in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent , under the title The International Jew : The World's Foremost Problem (German: The International Jew ) out that the text of the protocols contained and extensively commented. The publication reached a circulation of 500,000 copies, translations appeared in Germany , France , Norway , Denmark , Poland , Bulgaria , Italy , Greece and finally also reached Japan and China . Ford, who had distanced itself from the protocols since a legal battle in 1927, thus contributed to their worldwide dissemination.

France

Three different translations appeared in France. The most widespread was that of Monsignor Ernest Jouin (1844-1932), a Catholic priest, who appeared in 1920 in the Revue Internationale des Sociétés Secrètes . The monarchist Action française and Catholic traditionalists who wanted to fight the French Judéo-maçonnerie , the allegedly existing anti-Christian conspiracy of Jews and Freemasons , contributed to the spread of the protocols in France . The American anti-Semite Leslie Fry (alias Paquita Louise de Shishmareff , 1872–1970) claimed in a newspaper article in 1921 that the author of the Protocols was in fact the cultural Zionist journalist Ascher Ginzberg . He wrote it around 1890 in Odessa in Hebrew for his secret society Bnei Moshe (Sons of Moses). A French translation of the text was sent to the Alliance Israélite Universelle , an internationally active Jewish cultural organization, and from there to the Basel Congress in 1897, from where Nilus' copy came.

Detection of the counterfeit

Extract from the London Times of August 16, 1921 with an article by Philip Graves.

Doubts about the authenticity of the protocols arose very early on. Even before the First World War, the Russian Interior Ministry had an investigation carried out, which came to the conclusion that they were fake. The London Times initially gave the book a positive review. In August 1921 her correspondent published in Istanbul Philip Graves then a series of articles in which he proved the first time that the protocols a plagiarism represented: They were written off long stretches of Joly's book from 1864, and that too on an awkward and easy to see through manner. This proved that it was a forgery - forgery not in the sense that a document that actually existed would have been falsified , because such a document had never existed. Rather, Graves demonstrated that the entire text was a maliciously fanciful product. In his opinion, this was intended to slander the Jews, and especially the Bundists, for their alleged role in the Russian Revolution of 1905. In 1924, the German journalist Binjamin Segel published a "settlement" of the belief in the authenticity of the protocols . In the foreword he warned against underestimating the stupidity and gullibility of even educated people, and put together all the arguments that pointed to a falsification. Also, because his book was published by a Jewish publisher, it had little effect, as it was dismissed by anti-Semites as an interest-based limitation of damage.

The character of the protocols as a forgery in the Bern trial , which was conducted from November 1933 to October 1934 and from April to May 1935 before the Higher Court of the Canton of Bern , gained greater publicity . It was about a criminal complaint that the Swiss Association of Israelites and the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde Bern had filed on June 26, 1933 against five members of the National Socialist Federal Workers' Party and the National Front . The defendants had distributed anti-Semitic propaganda material , including the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Fritsch edition. Last but not least, the plaintiffs were concerned with proof that the protocols were a forgery. The process dragged on, among other things because both sides consulted experts from abroad. Several participants and observers at the First World Zionist Congress in 1897 testified that the only concern there was to create a secure home for Jews in Palestine and that all deliberations had taken place in public. There could therefore be no secret protocols of any kind. Above all, the plaintiffs tried “to put everything on the Russian trail,” as their lawyer Boris Lifschitz put it. In fact, they worked out a history of the origins of the protocols , according to which they were drawn up around 1903 in Paris by employees of the Russian secret service. This version was to dominate research for decades and has only recently been questioned.

The German expert, the National Socialist Ulrich Fleischhauer (1876–1960), then declared Nilus' legend of origin to be incorrect and claimed that in August 1897, parallel to the Zionist congress, a “congress of the B'nai B'rith order and Jewish high-level lodges” took place which the protocols had been adopted. The court was not deceived by this unproven claim and stated in its judgment on May 14, 1935:

"Any proof that the so-called protocols, as they are contained in the Fritsch brochure, were worked out, presented, discussed somewhere and at some point by one or more Jews on behalf of a secret Jewish world government, has not been provided."

The minutes are a plagiarism by Joly and also junk literature . It therefore sentenced two of the defendants in the first instance to symbolic fines and partial payment of the court costs for violating Article 14 of the Act on Cinemas and Measures against Trash Literature . On appeal, the judgment was overturned in November 1937 by the Bern Higher Court because the term trash literature was not applicable to political literature that lacked the component of fornication . The court did not question the fact that the protocols are a fantasy product, the defendants were refused payment of damages on the grounds: “Anyone who brings such hateful articles into circulation must bear the resulting costs himself. "

The discovery of the forgery by Graves and the Bern judgment had largely no consequences. Zur Beek, Rosenberg and other supporters of the Protocols simply claimed that Joly was a Jew and that his real name was "Moïse Joël". In this respect, his satire from 1864 does not refute the authenticity of the protocols , but rather reinforces them. That in the Dialogue aux enfers there was no mention of the Jews at all, only Napoleon III. went, did not challenge her. Fleischhauer's report, which the court had not believed, was published and served from then on as further evidence of the authenticity of the minutes . In the period that followed, his employees found new parallels between the works of Joly and Herzl in the National Socialist magazine Welt-Dienst and cited them as confirmation of their original convictions.

reception

Völkisch Movement and National Socialism

Konstantin von Gebsattel , the secret head of the Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund , to which the protocols were already available at the beginning of March 1919, commented on them in a letter to Heinrich Claß : "Whether it is a forgery or not - in any case it corresponds to reality." Murders and assassinations in the Weimar Republic are associated with the effect of the protocols . In 1922, for example, the most important leader of the Russian emigrants, the historian Pavel Nikolajewitsch Miljukow , was assassinated in Berlin . One of the perpetrators, Fjodor Winberg, had brought the protocols to Germany in 1918 and published them in his Berlin journal Луч света ( Lutsch Sweta - "ray of light"). More spectacular was the murder of German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau on June 24, 1922 , who had previously been exposed to an unprecedented anti-Semitic smear campaign because of his Jewish descent. His statement that the fate of the world was directed by around 300 powerful men - Rathenau was thinking of entrepreneurs, bankers, etc. - was taken up by Müller von Hausen / zur Beek and reinterpreted as the denunciation that Rathenau himself was one of the "300 wise men of Zion ”who came to power with him. The right-wing student Ernst Werner Techow , who had driven the assassin's car , relied on this assumption in his defense in court.

In 1921, the German national journalist Ernst Graf zu Reventlow was sued by Ascher Ginzberg for spreading the word that he was the author of the minutes . In 1923 Reventlow had to retract his claim.

The NSDAP relied heavily on the protocols in its propaganda and from 1921 onwards distributed their “sensational revelations” in high-circulation leaflets. The National Socialist theorist Gottfried Feder wrote his 1923 work The German State on a National and Social Basis , to which Adolf Hitler contributed a preface, expressly as a counter- writing against the Protocols of the Elders of Zion . At one point in Mein Kampf he referred to the minutes and cited the fact that the allegedly Jewish-dominated Frankfurter Zeitung declared them to be forged as proof of their authenticity. In 1927, Hitler's friend Hermann Esser published his work The Jewish World Plague , which saw several new editions during the Nazi era. In it he quoted extensively from the protocols which, like the Talmud, allegedly prove hatred of people, depravity, greed, despotism, dispossession frenzy and numerous other negative traits of the Jews. There is therefore "only an appropriate punishment for Judaism: mass extermination".

On October 13, 1934, Education Minister Bernhard Rust decreed that Rosenberg's work The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and Jewish world politics from 1923 should be addressed in school lessons on the “Jewish question”. In 1936 Eugen Freiherr Engelhardt published the work Jewish World Power Plans , which saw several editions. In it he linked the protocols more closely with the anti-Masonic discourse and established connections with the Order of the Illuminati , a German radical-enlightening secret society that had been dissolved in 1785. Since Augustin Barruel's publications in 1797/1798, conspiracy theorists made them responsible for the French Revolution and all other revolutions worldwide. Engelhardt now claimed that the Illuminati, for their part, were only tools of the "Elders of Zion" and cited all possible authorities to prove the authenticity of the protocols . In 1937 the protocols were urgently recommended for reading in the party's official training letter , which appeared monthly with a circulation of 1.5 million copies. Even Julius Streicher praised them in his propaganda sheet Der Sturmer , the 1933-1941 nineteen cover stories with reference to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion harausbrachte. Until 1939, the protocols were reissued in large numbers in National Socialist Germany . As an explanation for the fact that no further editions were made during the war , Michael Hagemeister believes that the Nazis' concern that a comparison between their methods of rule and the methods of rule of the alleged world conspirators could lead to clear parallels is plausible.

In the instructions of the Reich Propaganda Management of the NSDAP and the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda , however, the protocols were only rarely mentioned. They only played a subordinate role in Hitler's anti-Jewish polemics. In one of his first published statements, the “Dialogue between Adolf Hitler and me” published by his friend Dietrich Eckart , he describes a “Jewish prophetic map” - obviously the one in the Beeks edition, which was supposed to illustrate the Jewish embrace of Germany. On April 10, 1924, Joseph Goebbels noted in his diary that he considered the minutes to be a forgery - not because the aspirations of the Jews described therein were too utopian or fantastic, on the contrary: Goebbels said they were confirmed by reality, but because the Jews would be too smart not to keep this important text secret. In his later speeches, Hitler rarely returned explicitly to the minutes . On May 13, 1943, he talked to Goebbels, who declared them to be still relevant and very useful for propaganda, but left the question open whether they were real or "invented by a brilliant critic of the times". Hitler expressed himself convinced of their "absolute authenticity" and said that they would always show the same nature of the Jews: "So the modern peoples have no choice but to exterminate the Jews ."

Whether the National Socialists really believed in the authenticity of the protocols or only used them as propaganda against their better judgment is disputed in research. The American political scientist Daniel Pipes, for example, is convinced that Hitler, if not in every detail, at least in broad lines was convinced of the conspiracy theories "according to which [he] acted politically and from whose dire consequences the world suffered." The German historian Peter Longerich also believes that Hitler was convinced of the authenticity of the protocols . Norman Cohn sees in him both a cynical tactician of power who incorporated any conviction into his propaganda if it only served his power, as well as the “driven man who was obsessed with fantasies about the Jewish world conspiracy”. Which of the two was currently actively present in Hitler cannot be distinguished. The American publicist Walter Laqueur, on the other hand, believes that the National Socialist leadership was motivated by hatred and contempt for Judaism, but not by fear of a conspiracy as portrayed in the protocols . The German historian Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein proves that doubts about the authenticity of the protocols were widespread in the Jewish department of the Reich Security Main Office . Adolf Eichmann himself stated in the Eichmann trial in Israel in 1961 that he had never read the minutes and described the "Elders of Zion" as "fairy tales".

The American communication scientist Randall L. Bytwerk believes that the National Socialists used the protocols in their propaganda purely for reasons of usefulness, without believing in them themselves. Even today it is a common strategy of conspiracy theory rhetoric to amass massive amounts of data, even from dubious sources, so that their sheer mass leads uncritical readers to believe that at least some of it must be true.

Anti-illuminatic and esoteric conspiracy theories

The English journalist Nesta Webster took in its 1924 published work Secret Societies and Subversive Movements ( " secret societies and subversive movements") five conspirators groups: the illuminating tables Freemasonry, the Theosophy , the Pangermanism , the international financial and socialism . All would be under strong Jewish influence. As evidence, Webster attached the Protocols , which she claimed came from an "international circle of world revolutionaries working in unison with the Illuminati."

The assumption that the “Elders of Zion” are connected to the Illuminati is widespread among conspiracy theorists to the present day: The Canadian author William Guy Carr spun the idea in 1957 in his book The Red Fog Over America (translated roughly: “The red Fog over America ”) and claimed that Nilus, by calling the Jews world conspirators and thus diverting suspicion from the Illuminati, played them straight into the hands of the Illuminati. Similar claims are made by Milton William Cooper in his 1991 book Behold a Pale Horse , in which he gives the full text of the Protocols , but points out that the word "Jews" must be replaced with "Illuminati" every time.

In the 1982 published bestseller The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail , the authors suggest Henry Lincoln , Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh , the protocols esoteric order: In your opinion, is about a centuries-old conspiracy with the aim of the Merovingian to bring back to power, for which they construct a direct descent from Jesus of Nazareth . Also, Zion is not meant at all , but the allegedly much older Prieuré de Sion, founded in 1956 .

In the work Secret Societies and Their Power in the 20th Century , published in 1995, the German author Jan Udo Holey also disseminated the Protocols in an esoteric-occultist interpretation under his pseudonym Jan van Helsing . In addition, he listed almost all the alleged culprits from right-wing extremist conspiracy theories: the Illuminati, Freemasons, extraterrestrials, etc. In this historical revisionist representation, Hitler appears as a puppet of the "Elders of Zion". Jews are thus to blame for the Holocaust themselves. The work was confiscated by the public prosecutor in 1996 . Likewise, the esoteric author Stefan Erdmann cites the protocols as evidence of a desired " New World Order " and claims in his book " Secret Files Ark of the Covenant " published by Holeys Verlag in 2005 . The greatest secret of mankind is that they are "undoubtedly" "already largely implemented". In Britain, ex-sports reporter David Icke advocates similar esoteric conspiracy theories that culminate in the belief that the "Elders of Zion" are reptilian aliens who feed on human flesh. It does not matter whether the minutes were drawn up by Jewish members of this world conspiracy or for the purpose of wrongly accusing the Jews.

Today's Western Europe and North America

Since the end of the Second World War , the protocols have largely disappeared from the public eye in Western and Central Europe . Only a few conspiracy theorists and anti-Semites refer to the protocols , such as Horst Mahler . In Germany, their dissemination is prosecuted as incitement to hatred. Most recently, in 2015, an organizer of a “peace party” in Koblenz was fined and warned for publicly recommending the minutes to be read. The Federal Inspection Agency assesses them as harmful to young people and indexes media such as websites or CDs that refer to them positively. Nevertheless, the text is easily accessible in a scientific edition published by Wallstein Verlag in 1998 and on numerous Internet websites.

In 2000, Richard Williamson , Bishop of the Pius Brotherhood, known for his Holocaust denial, recommended reading the Protocols to all “who want to know the truth” . Like representing the right-wing sedisvakantistisch -Catholic theologian John Roth wreath in his book The Protocols of the Elders of Zion - met! . The later Baden-Württemberg member of the state parliament, Wolfgang Gedeon ( AfD ), referred to the minutes in two writings in 2009 and 2012 .

In January 2021, the right-wing extremist party, Nationally Oriented Swiss (PNOS) began to print the minutes in its party magazine “Harus”. The Swiss Association of Israelites (SIG) then filed a criminal complaint for inciting hatred and spreading anti-Semitic ideologies.

In the United States, the right-wing extremist groups National States' Rights Party and California Noontide Press distributed the conspiracy theory in the 1970s . They are propagated today by representatives of the right-wing extremist militias as well as by supporters of the Nation of Islam . Wal-Mart , the world's top-selling company, sold the logs in the United States until 2004. They were also available in Canada after 1945.

Occasional reference to the Protocols is also made in the September 11, 2001 conspiracy theories . The journalist Mathias Bröckers connects the then Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon , whose government he assumes joint responsibility for the attacks, with the minutes . Bröckers calls it “propaganda”, but like Hitler, Sharon oriented himself towards the goals of the world domination fantasies outlined in them.

Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Russia

Rumors of a Jewish world conspiracy were already being spread during the Soviet Union . After the Six Day War in 1967, the state started a propaganda campaign that described Zionism as a global threat and followed the path of conspiracy theory. The Zionism researcher Yuri Ivanov published a work in 1969 Осторожно: сионизм! (“Caution: Zionism!”), Which essentially followed the basic lines of the protocols . In the 1970s, leading politicians in the Soviet Union repeatedly warned of a Jewish-Masonic conspiracy, the leaders of which were the dissidents Alexander Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov and the human rights organization Amnesty International .

After the collapse of the Soviet Union , the radical nationalist organization Pamjat disseminated the text and ideas of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the 1990s . Even today the memory of Sergej Nilus is cherished in Russia, he is considered a cult figure in church and patriotic circles. His books, especially those that contain the Protocols , find large groups of buyers. In an anthology of apocalyptic and anti-Semitic writings with the title Россия перед вторым пришествием (Eng .: "Russia before the second arrival "), which is expanded from edition to edition and now appears in two volumes, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion can also be found. The initial print run in 1993 was 100,000, the book is a bestseller and is also distributed in pirated prints; a Russian court described the surrender as anti-Semitism. The protocols and their symbolic language are also used in the fine arts and are assumed to be known: The popular painter Ilya Glasunov depicts the bloody history of Russia in the 20th century in his monumental painting “The Great Experiment” from 1990; exactly in the center of the picture, between the heads of Marx , Lenin and Stalin , he places the pentagram adorned with cabbalistic signs , as can also be seen in Nilus' 1911 edition. With this he indicates that Marx and the Bolsheviks are agents of a Jewish conspiracy.

Arab world and Islam

The protocols are popular all over the Arab world today . This does not only apply to Islamist circles: the idea of ​​a Jewish world conspiracy is also widespread in academically educated circles and among politically moderate Arabs. The idea that Jews could pose a threat or even want to usurp world domination was alien to Islamic thought well into the 20th century. Instead, the stereotype of the poor, cowardly, and despicable Jew dominated. Although translations of the Protocols into Arabic were made by Christian Arabs in 1921, 1926 and 1927 or 1928 , these did not have a broad impact.

Only since the beginning of the Palestine conflict has there been a noteworthy Muslim reception of the protocols . After the bloody riots between Jews and Muslims in Jerusalem , Hebron and Safed in 1929 , Mohammed Amin al-Husseini , the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, tried to use the protocols to prove that Jews were the instigators. In 1938, at an Islamic Parliamentarians' Conference in favor of Palestine , organized by the Muslim Brotherhood , Arabic translations of the Protocols and Hitler's Mein Kampf were distributed, which marked the beginning of the career of these writings in the Islamic world. After the traumatic defeat of the Arab states in the Israeli War of Independence in 1948 and the resulting flight and expulsion of the Palestinians , anti-Semitic statements and conspiracy theories increased significantly in the Islamic world. Since then, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion have had their greatest impact in the Arab and Islamic world: They are considered an important source of information on Zionism and Judaism, they are edited by major publishing houses, and prominent politicians, intellectuals and religious leaders of all worldviews rely on them. The Lebanese poet Said Akl (1911–2014), a Maronite Christian , claims that since the Protocols were published it has been clear that Israel represents not just a military but a “cultural and metaphysical threat”.

The impression is widespread that the West is culturally, technically, economically and politically humiliated and oppressed: The Crusades are seen here as the beginning of a tradition that spanned the imperialism and colonialism of the 19th and 20th centuries to the founding of the State of Israel in the 1948 and the Middle East conflict that has been simmering since then is enough. The numerous defeats that the Arab world has had to put up with against the West and Western-influenced Israel lead to feelings of powerlessness and anger, which in turn find expression in conspiracy fantasies: The cause does not appear to be backlogs in the modernization of the Arab countries or lack of unity between them, but the evil, conspiratorial work of a single overpowering opponent: Judaism. The ideal-typical formulation of this conspiracy discourse are the protocols .

In 1951, the Egyptian journalist Muhammad Halifa at-Tunisi presented the first Arabic translation of the Protocols by a Muslim. In his foreword at-Tunisi emphasizes that he warns against the Jews not only because of the conflict with Israel: "Even if they were driven from our countries to any part of the world, because wherever they were, they were enemies of humanity." Liberal Egyptian writer Abbas el-Akkad (1889–1964) contributed another foreword. Further Arabic translations appeared in 1951, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1968 - here Shawqi Abd al-Nasir, the brother of Gamal Abdel Nasser , of the Egyptian President acted as editor - and in 1969. In the 1980s, nine Arabic translations are to be published worldwide in ever new editions have been in circulation. That would make Arabic the language into which the minutes have been translated most often. Most of these editions not only contain the text of the protocols , but for the most part consist of prefaces from older editions and pseudoscientific articles by so-called experts. The fact that the protocols are a forgery is occasionally received, but this does not change the belief that there is a real Jewish world conspiracy. at-Tunisi, for example, was sure that the forger was a Jew, or at least must have been under Jewish influence. As evidence, he cites that the Russian edition of the Protocols was confiscated by the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution, most of whom were Jews or their helpers. And el-Akkad claimed it was an unquestionable fact that "the secret government exists - with or without the protocols ." In the introduction to the translation that it published in 1956, the Egyptian Ministry for National Leadership also doubted that the minutes were from the Basel Zionist Congress in 1897. The alleged agreement with various Jewish documents such as the Talmud and with current Jewish politics, however, proves their authenticity. The anonymous editor relied on Rosenberg's comment to make this claim. President Nasser referred to the minutes in an interview . Other high-ranking Arab politicians also referred positively to the protocols , such as King Faisal of Saudi Arabia , Iraqi President Abd al-Salam Arif and the Libyan dictator Muammar al-Gaddafi . In 1978 they were translated into Persian and in the following decades they were repeatedly reissued by government agencies in Iran, sometimes with changed titles such as Protocols of the Jewish Leaders to Enlighten the World .

The text Why we reject all peace with the Jews comes from the Palestinian Muhsen al-Antabawi ; it is widespread in the Arab world. It speaks of the “Jew” ( jahud ) par excellence, there is no differentiation between Jews and Israelis. Al-Antabawi advocates a “combination of Koran and rifle” to solve the Palestinian problem; Peace with Israel contradicts Sharia law . He makes extensive use of anti-Semitic clichés to show why there can be neither peace nor reconciliation with the Jews. He also refers explicitly to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion : "The Jews plan to rule the world and therefore they destroy morality and seize the economies of the influential countries and the media."

The conspiracy theory of the Protocols could also be easily fitted into the Islamist discourse . In his anti-Semitic essay Our Struggle with the Jews from 1950, in which he portrays the Jews as eternal adversaries of the Muslims since the days of the Prophet, the pioneering thinker of the Muslim Brotherhood, Sayyid Qutb , orientated himself to a large extent on the text structure of the protocols and quoted them several times in full. Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi , Sheikh of the Azhar from 1996 to 2010, based his dissertation from 1966 on his very similar theses, that the Jews had always been enemies of the Muslims, with quotations from the minutes . In 2011, Iran's Supreme Legal Scholar Ali Khamene'i referred to the Protocols when he said that "the weird and primitive" found in the world's leading opinion-forming media is related to the goals set out in the Protocols lie in a line. The Islamist website Radio Islam has been using the protocols as a weapon in its fight against Jews and Zionists since 1996 . In its 1988 charter, Hamas explicitly refers to the protocols . Thereafter, the Jews triggered both the French and October revolutions, as well as World War I , the purpose of which was to destroy the caliphate , and World War II , in which they made good money as arms dealers and which they used to found their own State to prepare. The founding of the UN and the Security Council can also be traced back to them, because with these institutions they could rule the world directly:

“Today it is Palestine, tomorrow it will be one country or another. The Zionist plan is limitless. After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion', and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying. "

“Today it is Palestine, tomorrow it will be some other country. The Zionist plan knows no borders. After Palestine, the Zionists will expand their territory from the Nile to the Euphrates . When they have digested all of the region they have taken over, they will move on to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion', and their present conduct is the best evidence of what we are saying. "

There are also references to the Protocols in the cultural life of the Arab world . In 2002, the television series "A rider without a horse" was broadcast in Egypt in 41 episodes, which was based on them; In 2004 a Lebanese broadcaster close to Hezbollah followed. Foreign-language editions from Arab countries were printed for other countries, including sub-Saharan Africa and countries in which Israeli development workers were active. They experienced numerous adaptations: An Arab journalist described them as the minutes of a “Zionist secret assembly” that took place in Budapest in 1954; other than the minutes of the Zionist World Congress in Basel in 1897. In a history book for the tenth school year newly published by the Palestinian Authority in 2004 , the minutes were presented as resolutions of the first Zionist congress in Basel. After international protests, a new edition had to be published without reference to the minutes . At the 2005 Frankfurt Book Fair , Iranian publishers' stands, along with other English-language editions of anti-Semitic books such as Ford's The International Jew, also offered the Protocols in a version published by the state Islamic Propaganda Organization under the title “Jewish Conspiracy” . The exhibition management only became aware of this after the end of the event as a result of press reports and filed a complaint. Several anti-Semitic books by Egyptian, Syrian and Moroccan publishers were also exhibited at the Casablanca Book Fair in February 2006 , including updated editions of Hitler's Mein Kampf and the Protocols .

Nevertheless, there are also dissenting voices in the Arab world: In 1948 Muhammad Fuad Shukri went to Nazi Germany in his work . Studies on contemporary European heritage (1939–1945) also look at the history of forgery of the protocols . The Egyptian journalist Mark Sayegh parodied the 2002 Protocols as the Protocols of the Arab Wise Men dealing with an alleged Arab world conspiracy. Together with his Lebanese colleague Hazim Saghiya , he opposes the widespread assessment of the protocols as authentic.

Other countries

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion resurfaced in Eastern Europe in the mid-1990s, and were previously published in Africa, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. The first edition had already appeared there in 1924. In the 1930s, at the time of the Anti-Comintern Pact and the war against China , the protocols had been state doctrine. For a new edition under the title Attack Japan, the last enemy! The Jewish Protocols to Rule the World was advertised intensively in 1993, the book became a bestseller - for Daniel Pipes an indication that anti-Semitism can also be successful in countries without a Jewish minority (compare anti-Semitism without Jews ).

On October 23, 2012, Ilias Kasidiaris , spokesman and MP for the Greek neo-Nazi party Chrysi Avgi , read from the 19th of the Protocols in the Greek Parliament .

Scientific interpretations

There is a consensus in scientific research that the Protocols of the Elders of Zion are a fictional text that in no way describes real conditions.

In her 1951 study Elements and Origins of Total Rule , the political scientist Hannah Arendt noticed that the utopia of a total state described in the protocols looked similar to the real totalitarian regimes. The work of a conspiratorial secret society described in the protocols is also very similar to that of a secret police . Hence she came to the thesis that the protocols provided not only the motive, but also a model for Hitler's practice of conquering power and exercising power:

"The Nazis began with their ideological fiction of a world conspiracy and organized themselves more or less consciously on the model of the fictional secret society of the Elders of Zion."

In doing so, Arendt took up the analysis of the Jewish journalist Alexander Rubinštejn , which he published in 1936 in Karlsbad , Czechoslovakia .

A first monograph to the protocols laid Norman Cohn in 1967 under the title Warrant for Genocide (translated as "authorization to genocide ") before. He saw in them a return of demonological anti-Judaism. The conspiracy theory circulated in the Protocols was an important motivation for the Holocaust.

The Italian media scientist Umberto Eco believes that the traces of widespread successful novels that he can identify in the minutes contributed to the fact that they appeared credible: the reader found ideas and clichés in them that had long been familiar to him. Jeffrey Sammons advocates a similar thesis: Precisely because the protocols are recognizably fictitious and have their roots in novels, they are beyond the control of logical discourse and are "freed from verification based on verifiable truth".

The American political scientist Daniel Pipes sees the key to the broad impact of the book in the contradictions and the lack of concreteness of the content. Names, dates or determinable individual facts are not mentioned, such contradicting phenomena as philo- and anti-Semitism, such as capitalism and socialism , such as democracy and tyranny are presented as tools of the Jewish conspiracy, so that everyone feels threatened by them in their respective interests.

The Berlin anti-Semitism researcher Wolfgang Benz explains the effectiveness of the protocols in their function as a political myth . At the core of this myth is not a real event, but a pure fiction, through constant repetitions, associations and connotations the meaningful narrative apparently gains reality and persuasiveness. The stereotype of the Jewish striving for world domination can be used anywhere, from Tsarist Russia to Nazi Germany to the Middle East. Because it is rooted in certain emotional needs, it is not accessible to explanatory counter-arguments and is therefore particularly effective.

The Austrian historian Helmut Reinalter sees the effect of the protocols less in their content, which is crudely pieced together, poorly structured and in part contradicting itself. Rather, their sheer existence is more significant: they alone seem to prove the alleged fact of an all-encompassing conspiracy, regardless of the concrete content. This means that the protocols , the content of which has always varied from edition to edition, can be used in a variety of ways: Instead of the Jews, other imagined subjects of conspiracy theories, such as Jesuits , Freemasons or Illuminati, could be used without any difficulties in terms of content .

The media scientist John David Seidler warns against overestimating the effectiveness of the protocols . There is no direct causal connection between them and the Holocaust, as Cohen claims in his book Warrant for genocide . Even if the National Socialists invoked the text, it should not be understood as the cause of their mass crimes .

The historian Michael Hagemeister also considers a reading to be plausible in which the protocols are interpreted as a satirical anti-utopia that anticipated the totalitarian dictatorships of the 20th century with their care, their cult of leadership , their mass propaganda, their denunciation and their striving for world domination. They would thus be an expression of a culturally pessimistic fear of globalization , industrialization , the surveillance state and modernization in general, as the protagonists of which the Jews were seen.

Artistic processing

In 1934 the German writer Stefan Heym published the satire “Interview with the Elders of Zion” in the Prague exile magazine Simpl , which is caricatured in the everyday practice of the world conspiracy. The German representative arrives too late - it is Joseph Goebbels , about whose little Aryan appearance opponents of the National Socialists had previously joked.

The American comic artist Will Eisner created a graphic novel called The Plot shortly before his death in 2005 . The Secret Story of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . A German edition was also published in the same year. Eisner uses the comics to tell the origin of the protocols as they are presented in older research. In addition, the volume contains an introduction by Umberto Eco, evidence of plagiarism through column-by-column comparison of text passages from Joly's book and the minutes, as well as a bibliography. The comic does contain several historical errors - for example, Eisner lets the Tsar reside in Moscow instead of St. Petersburg, he makes Nilus a rival of Rasputin at court and relocates the fire in the Reichstag before Hitler's " seizure of power ". Nevertheless, it received extremely positive reviews in the feature sections of quality newspapers. In the Handbook of Anti-Semitism , the comic is praised as a “reflection on the handling of information in the 20th century” and as a “useful reference work for educating about anti-Semitism”, especially for young people. Wolfgang Benz, on the other hand, judges:

"The sympathetic and clumsy attempt [...] to make a contribution to enlightenment with a comic series, however, remains unsatisfactory because it does not go beyond the illustration of a fascination and - following the laws of the medium - encourages the formation of new stereotypes ."

In 2010 Umberto Eco, who had already dealt with the protocols in his novel The Foucault Pendulum in 1988 , published the novel The Cemetery in Prague . In it he recounts the history of the history of the Protocols from 1855 to 1900, with all the characters involved being historical figures with the exception of the protagonist Simonini, a figure that Eco invented and who is referred to as "perhaps the most cynical and unsympathetic figure in the entire history of literature" . He is said to be a descendant of the obscure Jean-Baptiste Simonini, who is said to have pointed out alleged Jewish conspiracies to Abbé Barruel , the forefather of the anti-Illuminati conspiracy theory, in 1806 . The novel met with divided echoes. The chief rabbi of Rome Riccardo Di Segni praised the “wonderful way” in which Eco had recorded the story of the forgery, but feared that the widely spread anti-Semitic lies could be believed by inexperienced readers. The reviewer of the Süddeutsche Zeitung found that the novel could not convince as literature "because its best punchlines come from the sources ".

Legal position

In Germany, the writing was confiscated in 2001 in accordance with Sections 94 and 98 of the Code of Criminal Procedure by a decision of the Hamburg District Court .

literature

• Maurice Joly : Power + Law, Machiavelli versus Montesquieu. Conversations in the Underworld (with a foreword by Herbert Weichmann, from the French by Hans Leisegang), Meiner, Hamburg 2016 (reprint of the 1979 edition), ISBN 978-3-7873-0467-7 .
• Norman Cohn : Warrant for Genocide. The Myth of the Jewish World-conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London, 1967 (German: The Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion. The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne et al. 1969; New edition. With an annotated bibliography by Michael Hagemeister. Elster-Verlag, Baden-Baden et al 1998, ISBN 3-89151-261-9 ), (detailed bibliography).
• Armin Pfahl-Traughber : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Proof of forgery and the actual history of its origin. In: Judaica. Contribution to the understanding of the Jewish fate in the past and present. Vol. 46, Issue 1, 1990, ISSN  0022-572X , pp. 22-31.
• Umberto Eco : Fictional Protocols. In: Umberto Eco: In the forest of fictions. Six forays into literature. Harvard lectures (Norton lectures 1992–1993). Hanser, Munich et al. 1994, ISBN 3-446-17833-3 , pp. 155-184.
• Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . Wallstein, Göttingen 1998 ISBN 978-3-89244-191-5 .
• Eric Stephen Bronner: A Rumor About the Jews. The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" and everyday anti-Semitism. Propylaea, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-549-05780-6 .
• Michael Tilly : The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" and the myth of the Jewish world conspiracy. In: Sachor. Contributions to Jewish history. 19 (2000), ISSN  0948-2415 pp. 67-75.
• Cesare G. De Michelis : The Non-Existent Manuscript. A Study of the Protocols of the Sages of Zion. Edition revised and expanded. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE et al. 2004, ISBN 0-8032-1727-7 .
• Wolfgang Benz : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. Beck, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-53613-7 .
• Malte Gebert, Carmen Matussek: "... even if they left our country". The Adaptation of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Arab World . In: Yearbook for Research on Antisemitism. Vol. 18, 2009, ISSN  0941-8563 , pp. 67-88.
• Michel Bernhardt, Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East. transcript, Bielefeld 2010, ISBN 978-3-8376-1341-4 , pp. 179-228.
• Esther Webman (Ed.): The Global Impact of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Century-Old Myth. Routledge 2011, ISBN 978-0-415-59892-7 .
• Martin Uebelhart: An endlessly plagiarized forgery and its stolen goods. Carl Albert Loosli and the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In: Jochen Bung, Malte-Christian Gruber, Sebastian Kühn (Ed.): Plagiarism. Counterfeits, imitations and other second-hand strategies. trafo Verlag, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-89626-961-4 , pp. 55–72.
• Carmen Matussek: Belief in a "Jewish World Conspiracy". The reception of the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” in the Arab world. Lit, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-643-11687-1 .
• Eva Horn , Michael Hagemeister (ed.): The fiction of the Jewish world conspiracy. On the text and context of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". Wallstein, Göttingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8353-0498-7 .
• Richard Landes and Steven T. Katz (Eds.): The Paranoid Apocalypse. A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . New York University Press, New York and London 2012, ISBN 978-0-8147-4893-0
• Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Volume 6: Writings and Periodicals. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2013, p. 552 ff. ISBN 978-3-11-025872-1 .
• Michael Hagemeister: The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" in court. The Bern Trial 1933–1937 and the «Anti-Semitic International». Publications of the Archives for Contemporary History of the ETH Zurich, Volume 10, Chronos Verlag, Zurich 2017, ISBN 978-3-0340-1385-7 .
• Christian Koller : 100 years ago: The falsified »Protocols of the Elders of Zion«. In: Social Archive Info 1 (2021).
• Binjamin Segel : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion critically examined. Eine Erledigung (1924), edited and commented on by Franziska Krah, Ça ira Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 2017, ISBN 978-3-86259-123-7 .
• Michael Hagemeister: Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of conspiracy theories. Salier Verlag, Leipzig 2018, pp. 209–215, ISBN 978-3-96285-004-3 .

Web links

Wikisource: Edition based on the text published by Sergei Nilus in 1905  - sources and full texts (Russian)

Commons : Protocols of the Elders of Zion  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Edition according to the Judaica Collection, Frankfurt University Library The Zionist Protocols. The protocol of the international secret government. Hammer-Verlag, Leipzig 4th edition. 1924
• Rosa-Luxemburg-Bildungswerk: Hamburger Skripte 3, June 2002: Michael Weh: Dangerous Fiction: The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" (PDF file; 179 kB)
• Nicole Heroven & Rochus Wolff: History of a forgery. The "PdWvZ" as an anti-Semitic conspiracy theory in society and the press of the Weimar Republic (Berlin 2000) (PDF file; 443 kB)
• Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: Between History and Fiction (2008) (PDF; 4.1 MB)
• Documents online on the Bern Trial 1933–1937 on the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion"
• Niklas Nau: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion - History of a forgery Bavaria 2 radio knowledge . Broadcast on November 18, 2019 (podcast)
• Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The myth of the Jewish world conspiracy . magazin.wienmuseum.at , February 23, 2021

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 43.
2. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): Introduction. In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 7.
3. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 34.
4. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 35.
5. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 56.
6. ↑ ^{a b} Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 64 f.
7. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, p. 105.
8. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 63.
9. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 53.
10. ↑ ^{a b} Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 59 f.
11. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 113.
12. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 110.
13. ↑ Michael Hagemeister : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. In: Stiftung Kloster Dalheim (ed.): Conspiracy theories - then and now . Book accompanying the special exhibition of the Dalheim Monastery Foundation. LWL State Museum for Monastery Culture from May 18, 2019 to March 22, 2020. Special edition of the Federal Agency for Civic Education, Bonn 2020, ISBN 978-3-7425-0495-1 , pp. 56–63, here p. 57.
14. ↑ Also on the following see Michael Weh: Dangerous Fiktion. The "Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion" (= Hamburger Skripte 3, edited by Rosa-Luxemburg-Bildungswerk eV, Hamburg, June 2002) ( online (PDF; 183 kB), accessed on December 29, 2011).
15. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, pp. 74 and 66.
16. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, p. 13.
17. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 38.
18. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 50.
19. ↑ Jasmin Waibl-Stockner: “The Jews are our misfortune.” Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories and their anchoring in politics and society. LIT-Verlag, Berlin 2009, p. 183 ff.
20. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 57.
21. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 13 f.
22. ↑ Leonid Luks : Two faces of totalitarianism. Bolshevism and National Socialism in comparison. Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar As 2007, p. 33; Anke Hilbrenner: Brafman, Jakov. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 97; Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, ISBN 978-3-8376-1341-4 , p. 204.
23. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret , Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 213.
24. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, pp. 42-46.
25. ↑ Quoted from Daniel Pipes, Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret , Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 215.
26. ↑ Eva Horn : The Ghost of Arcana. Conspiracy fiction and text structure of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In: the same and Michael Hagemeister (ed.): The fiction of the Jewish world conspiracy. On the text and context of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". Wallstein, Göttingen 2012, pp. 1–25, here p. 11 f.
27. ↑ Jacob Katz: From prejudice to destruction. Der Antisemitismus 1700-1933 , CH Beck, Munich 1989, p. 314; Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 54-57.
28. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, p. 180 f.
29. ↑ Daniel Pipes : Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret . Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, pp. 64 and 72.
30. ↑ Jasmin Waibl-Stockner: "The Jews are our misfortune." Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories and their anchoring in politics and society. LIT-Verlag, Berlin 2009, p. 73.
31. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 7; Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Volume 6: Writings and Periodicals. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2013, p. 554 ISBN 978-3-11-025872-1 .
32. ↑ ^{a b c d} James Webb : The Age of the Irrational. Politics, Culture & Occultism in the 20th Century. Marix, Wiesbaden 2008. p. 261.
33. ^ Henri Rollin, L'apocalypse de notre temps. Les dessous de la propagande allemande d'après des documents inédits , Gallimard, Paris 1939.
34. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, pp. 80-110.
35. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 14.
36. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 137.
37. ↑ Saul Friedländer : The Third Reich and the Jews, Vol. 1: The years of persecution 1933–1939 , CH Beck, Munich 1998, p. 109.
38. ↑ Helmut Reinalter , The World Conspirators. What you should never know , Ecowin, Salzburg 2010, p. 121.
39. ↑ Éric Conan: L'origine des Protocoles des sages de Sion. Les secrets d'une manipulation antisémite . In: L'Express of November 16, 1999 ( online , accessed December 30, 2011).
40. ↑ Wolfgang Wippermann , Agents of Evil. Conspiracy theories from Luther to the present day , be.bra. Verlag, Berlin 2007, p. 67 f.
41. ↑ James Webb, The Occult Establishment. The Dawn of the New Age and The Occult Establishment. La Salle, Ill. 1976, Chapter IV.
42. ↑ Princess Radziwill Quizzed at Lecture. In: New York Times, dated ( online , accessed Nov. 1, 2011).
43. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Between History and Fiction , New German Critique 103 (2008), pp. 90 f. ( Online (PDF; 4.1 MB), accessed on November 1, 2011).
44. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The myth of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In: Ute Caumanns and Mathias Niendorf (eds.): Conspiracy theories. Anthropological constants - historical variants , Fiber, Osnabrück 2001, pp. 89-101.
45. ^ Cesare G. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript. A Study of the Protocols of the Sages of Zion. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, 2004, based on Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Volume 6: Writings and Periodicals. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2013, p. 553.
46. ↑ Thomas Grüter: Freemasons, Illuminati and other conspirators. How conspiracy theories work. Fischer Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt 2011, 3rd edition, p. 188 f.
47. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. In: Stiftung Kloster Dalheim (ed.): Conspiracy theories - then and now . Book accompanying the special exhibition of the Dalheim Monastery Foundation. LWL State Museum for Monastery Culture from May 18, 2019 to March 22, 2020. Special edition of the Federal Agency for Civic Education, Bonn 2020, pp. 56–63, here p. 59.
48. ↑ The latest German edition is: Maurice Joly, Ein Streit in der Hölle. Conversations between Machiavelli and Montesquieu on power and law , ed. v. Hans Magnus Enzensberger , The Other Library , Vol. 73, Eichborn Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1991.
49. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 38.
50. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 12 f.
51. ↑ Umberto Eco: Fictional Protocols. In: Umberto Eco: In the forest of fictions. Six forays into literature. Harvard lectures (Norton lectures 1992–1993). Hanser, 1994, p. 177 f.
52. ↑ Reprinted from Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment. 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, pp. 121–127; Summary and interpretation ibid., P. 8 ff.
53. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 8.
54. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag, Munich 1998, p. 120 f.
55. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 30-36.
56. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: "Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion." In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of Conspiracy Theories. Salier, Leipzig 2018, p. 210.
57. ↑ ^{a b} Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 256 ff.
58. ^ Cesare G. De Michelis , The Non-Existent Manuscript. A Study of the Protocols of the Sages of Zion , University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, 2004, p. 9.
59. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 256 f.
60. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Elders of Zion as agents of the Antichrist. In: Bodo Zelinsky (ed.): Evil in Russian culture. Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, p. 78 ff.
61. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 15 f.
62. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 17 f.
63. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: “The Antichrist as an Imminent Political Possibility”. Sergei Nilus and the Apocalyptical Reading of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Richard Landes and Steven T. Katz (Eds.): The Paranoid Apocalypse. A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . New York University Press, New York / London 2012, ISBN 978-0-8147-4945-6 , pp. 79–91, here pp. 82 ff.
64. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 257 ff.
65. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: "Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion." In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of Conspiracy Theories. Salier, Leipzig 2018, p. 210.
66. ↑ ^{a b} Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag, Munich 1998, p. 137.
67. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of conspiracy theories. Salier Verlag, Leipzig 2018, p. 211.
68. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism . Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 259.
69. ↑ Wolfgang Wippermann: Agents of Evil. Conspiracy theories from Luther to the present day. be.bra. Verlag, Berlin 2007, p. 75 f.
70. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 58, note 22.
71. ↑ Gottfried zur Beek (ed.): The secrets of the wise men of Zion. At outpost, Charlottenburg 1919 (actually 1920).
72. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 262 ff.
73. ↑ Jacob Katz: From prejudice to destruction. Anti-Semitism 1700–1933. CH Beck, Munich 1989, p. 317.
74. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy , CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 70, 78 f. And 105 f.
75. ^ Alfred Rosenberg: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and the Jewish world politics. Boepple (=  Deutscher Volksverlag ), Munich 1923.
76. ↑ John David Seidler: The Conspiracy of the Mass Media. A cultural history from the bookseller plot to the lying press . transcript, Bielefeld 2016, ISBN 978-3-8376-3406-8 , p. 226 f.
77. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 266.
78. ↑ The Zionist Protocols. The program of the international secret government. Translated from English from the original in the British Museum. With a foreword and an afterword by Theodor Fritsch. 14th edition. Hammer-Verlag, Leipzig 1933.
79. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy , CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 72.
80. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 19.
81. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 19 f.
82. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. In: Stiftung Kloster Dalheim (ed.): Conspiracy theories - then and now . Book accompanying the special exhibition of the Dalheim Monastery Foundation. LWL State Museum for Monastery Culture from May 18, 2019 to March 22, 2020. Special edition of the Federal Agency for Civic Education, Bonn 2020, pp. 56–63, here p. 58.
83. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 21.
84. ↑ "The Protocols of Zion - An Exposure". Transcript of Philip Graves's articles published in the London Times, August 16 to 18, 1921 at emperors-clothes.com, accessed October 8, 2011.
85. ↑ Binjamin Segel, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. An errand , Philo Verlag, Berlin 1924.
86. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 76 f.
87. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: Bern process around the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 4: Events, Decrees, Controversies. De Gruyter, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-598-24076-8 , p. 49 ff.
88. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: Bern process around the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 4: Events, Decrees, Controversies. De Gruyter, Berlin 2011, p. 49 ff.
89. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism. Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 268 f.
90. ↑ Justification and reading of the judgment, May 14, 1935 online (PDF; 6 MB), accessed on October 14, 2011.
91. ↑ Norman Cohn: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion." The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Elster Verlag, Baden-Baden 1998, p. 236.
92. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 13.
93. ↑ Ulrich Fleischhauer, The Real Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Expert opinion, prepared on behalf of the judges' office V in Bern , U. Bodung-Verlag, Erfurt 1935.
94. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism. Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 266.
95. ↑ Quoted from Uwe Lohalm : Völkischer Radikalismus: Die Geschichte des Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutz-Bund. 1919-1923 . Leibniz-Verlag, Hamburg 1970, ISBN 3-87473-000-X , p. 394, note 8.
96. ↑ Jasmin Waibl-Stockner: "The Jews are our misfortune." Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories and their anchoring in politics and society. LIT-Verlag, Berlin 2009, p. 78.
97. ^ Ernst Piper: Alfred Rosenberg. Hitler's chief ideologist. Publisher Pantheon, 2007, p. 72.
98. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 108.
99. ↑ Christian Hartmann , Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 802.
100. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 801.
101. ↑ Othmar Plöckinger: History of a book. Adolf Hitler's “Mein Kampf” 1922–1945 . Oldenbourg, Munich 2011, p. 18.
102. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 799; Jeffrey L. Sammons (Ed.): Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 24.
103. ↑ Hermann Esser: The Jewish World Plague. The twilight of the Jews on the globe . Franz Eher Verlag, Munich 1943, the quote on p. 132.
104. ↑ Armin Pfahl-Traughber : Freemasons and Jews, capitalists and communists as enemy images of right-wing extremist conspiracy ideologies from the German Empire to the present . In: Uwe Backes (Ed.): Right-wing extremist ideologies in the past and present . Böhlau, Köln / Weimar / Wien 2003, pp. 193–234, here p. 214.
105. ↑ Eugen Freiherr Engelhardt: Jewish world power plans. On the origin of the so-called Zionist Protocols. Hammer Verlag Leipzig 1936.
106. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 75 f.
107. ↑ Randall L. Bytwerk: Believing in “Inner Truth”: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Nazi Propaganda, 1933-1945 . In: Holocaust and Genocide Studies 29, Heft 2, (2015), pp. 212–229, here pp. 214 ff.
108. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Elders of Zion as agents of the Antichrist. In: Bodo Zelinsky (ed.): Evil in Russian culture. Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, p. 78.
109. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of conspiracy theories. Salier Verlag, Leipzig 2018, p. 212.
110. ↑ Randall L. Bytwerk: Believing in “Inner Truth”: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Nazi Propaganda, 1933-1945 . In: Holocaust and Genocide Studies 29, Heft 2, (2015), pp. 212–229, here pp. 217 ff.
111. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 802.
112. ↑ Dietrich Eckart: The Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin. Dialogue between Adolf Hitler and me . Munich 1924; Ernst Nolte : An Early Source on Hitler's Anti-Semitism . In: Historische Zeitschrift 192 (1961), p. 606. The authenticity of the writing is doubted by Saul Esh: A new literary source for Hitler? A methodological consideration . In: History in Science and Education 15 (1964), pp. 487–492.
113. ↑ Quoted from Randall L. Bytwerk: Believing in “Inner Truth”: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Nazi Propaganda, 1933-1945 . In: Holocaust and Genocide Studies 29, Heft 2, (2015), pp. 212–229, here pp. 212 f.
114. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism. Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 267.
115. ↑ Joseph Goebbels: Diaries. Vol. 5: 1943-1945. Edited by Ralf Georg Reuth , Piper, Munich 1992, p. 1933.
116. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 167.
117. ↑ Peter Longerich: Joseph Goebbels. Biography. Siedler, Siedler, Munich 2010, p. 574 f.
118. ^ Norman Cohn: Warrant for Genocide. The Myth of the Jewish World-conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1967, p. 192.
119. ↑ Walter Laqueur: Black Hundreds. The Rise of the Extreme Right in Russia. HarperCollins, New York 1993, p. 103.
120. ↑ Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein, "Jüdischer Bolschewismus". Myth and Reality. Edition Antaios , Dresden 2002, p. 18 f.
121. ↑ Lutz Hachmeister : The enemy researcher. The career of SS leader Franz Alfred Six . CH Beck, Munich 1998, p. 177; Richard S. Levy : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and Unmasking: A Unsuccessful Endeavor? In: Eva Horn and Michael Hagemeister (eds.): The fiction of the Jewish world conspiracy. On the text and context of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" . Wallstein, Göttingen 2012, pp. 208–230, here 228.
122. ↑ Randall L. Bytwerk: Believing in “Inner Truth”: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Nazi Propaganda, 1933-1945 . In: Holocaust and Genocide Studies 29, Heft 2, (2015), pp. 212–229, here p. 224.
123. ^ " An International circle of world revolutionaries working in the lines of the Illuminati". Quoted in Michael Barkun : A Culture of Conspiracy. Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. 2nd Edition. University of California Press, Berkeley 2013, pp. 147 f .; Claus Oberhauser: Nesta Helen Webster (1876-1960) . In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of conspiracy theories . Salier, Leipzig 2018, pp. 319–326, here p. 322.
124. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 205 f.
125. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The 'Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion' and the Basel Zionist Congress of 1897. In: Heiko Haumann (Ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism , Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, p. 269 f.
126. ↑ David Icke, And the Truth Will Make You Free, Part 1 , Mosquito, Immenstadt 2007; The Illuminati and 'The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion' ( Memento from January 21, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ), text from October 28, 2009 on Ickes website, accessed on November 27, 2011; Michael Barkun: A Culture of Conspiracy. Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. 2nd Edition. University of California Press, Berkeley 2013, pp. 104-110.
127. ↑ Hartmut Wagner: Jew-baiting at Koblenz Peace Party: "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" recommended as reading. rhein-zeitung.de , October 26, 2015 (accessed on March 2, 2016).
128. ^ Result of a list request to the Federal Inspectorate for Media Harmful to Young Persons from February 5, 2012.
129. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 26.
130. ↑ Binjamin Segel : The Protocols of the Elders of Zion critically examined. Eine Erledigung (1924), edited and commented on by Franziska Krah. Ça ira Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 2017, ISBN 978-3-86259-123-7 , p. 17.
131. ↑ Johannes Rothkranz: The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" - fulfilled! Volume 1 (2 volumes). Verlag Anton Schmid, Durach 2004, ISBN 3-938235-01-2 .
132. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 95.
133. ↑ Armin Pfahl-Traughber: Wolfgang Gedeon and the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". hpd.de, May 31, 2016
134. ↑ Kurt Pelda: The Pnos incites against Jews www.tagesanzeiger.ch, January 28, 2021
135. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag, Munich 1998, p. 23.
136. ^ Anthony Bianco: Wal-World: Inside the Empire of the World's Largest Company ( Memento of March 31, 2009 in the Internet Archive ). In: Willamette Week , March 8, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2011.
137. ↑ Thomas Grüter: Freemasons, Illuminati and other conspirators. How conspiracy theories work. Frankfurt, Fischer Taschenbuch-Verlag, September 2011 (3rd edition), p. 196 ff.
138. ^ Howard Sachar: A History of the Jews in the Modern World . Knopf, New York 2005, p. 722.
139. ^ Paul Johnson , A History of the Jews . Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1987, pp. 575-576.
140. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 26.
141. ^ William Korey, Russian Antisemitism, Pamyat, and the Demonology of Zionism . Routledge, New York 1995, p. 13 f.
142. ^ Protocols of the elders of Zion . In: Holocaust Encyclopedia , online at: www.ushmm.org/
143. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Elders of Zion as agents of the Antichrist. In: Bodo Zelinsky (ed.): Evil in Russian culture. Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, p. 83 ff.
144. ^ "The great experiment" on the website tanais.info, accessed on November 7, 2011.
145. ^ ^{A b} Carmen Matussek: Fertile Ground for a Poisonous Weed: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Arab World . In: Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 7 (2013), Issue 3, pp. 71–78, here p. 72.
146. ↑ Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 206 ff.
147. ↑ ^{a b} Stefan Wild: Imported Anti-Semitism? The religion of Islam and the reception of the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion' in the Arab world. In: Dirk Ansorge (Ed.): Anti-Semitism in Europe and in the Arab world. Bonifatius / Lembeck, Paderborn, Frankfurt am Main 2006, p. 205.
148. ↑ ^{a b c} Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 217.
149. ↑ Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (Ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 213.
150. ↑ Esther Webman: The adoption of the Protocols in the Arab Discourse on the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Zionism and the Jews . In: Same (ed.): The Global Impact of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. A Century-Old Myth . Routledge, New York 2011, p. 176.
151. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 96 ff.
152. ↑ Malte Gebert: [medaon.de/pdf/A_Gebert-9-2011.pdf The reception of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Egypt - a plea for the consideration of space-specific features in anti-Semitism research ]. In: Medaon. Magazine for Jewish Life in Research and Education 9 (2011), p. 5
153. ↑ Carmen Matussek: Fertile Ground for a Poisonous Weed: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Arab World . In: Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 7 (2013), Issue 3, pp. 71–78, here p. 73
154. ↑ Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 218.
155. ↑ Carmen Matussek: Fertile Ground for a Poisonous Weed: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Arab World . In: Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 7 (2013), Issue 3, pp. 71–78, here pp. 73 ff.
156. ↑ Yehoshafat Harkabi: Arab attitudes to Israel . Israel Universities Press, Jerusalem 1974, pp. 231-236.
157. ↑ Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (Ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 220.
158. ↑ Stephan Grigat : "From delegitimization to eliminatory anti-Zionism." In: Samuel Salzborn (Ed.): Antisemitism since 9/11. Events, debates, controversies. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2019, p. 330 f.
159. ↑ Quoted from Bassam Tibi : In: Die Zeit , February 6, 2003, No. 7. More detailed on al-Antabawi's writing dsb .: in English ( Memento from April 22, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 1.4 MB) Public Policy and the Combination of Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Islamic Ideology . The font is undated.
160. ^ Samuel Salzborn : Global anti-Semitism. A search for traces in the abyss of modernity. Beltz Juventa, Weinheim 2018, p. 126.
161. ↑ Michel Bernhardt and Julia Jaki: The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. The genesis of the idea of ​​a Jewish / Zionist world conspiracy in Europe and the Arab world. In: Schirin Fathi (ed.): Plots, Heretics and Conspiracies. On the logic of conspiracy thinking. Examples from the Middle East . transcript, Bielefeld 2010, p. 222 f.
162. ^ Hegemonistic media politics draw on Zionist protocols. www.tehran-times.com, October 18, 2011
163. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 97 f.
164. ^ The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement, Aug. 18, 1988 , located on The Avalon Project at Yale Law School , accessed Nov. 20, 2011.
165. ^ Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Timeline . In: Holocaust Encyclopedia on the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website , accessed July 5, 2016.
166. ↑ Tarikh al-'Alam al-Hadith wal-Mu'asir (History of the Present Modern World, textbook for 10th grade); in: Noa Meridor (CS S): Israel still does not appear on maps in Palestinian textbooks ( Memento of May 24, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 800 kB), April 16, 2006, pp. 13, 30, 31.
167. ^ Analysis and Evaluation of the New Palestinian Curriculum; Reviewing Palestinian Textbooks and Tolerance Education Program Grades 5 & 10 ( Memento of February 18, 2001 in the Internet Archive ) by Israel / Palestine Center for Research and Information (IPCRI) Submitted to: The Public Affairs Office US Consulate General Jerusalem, July 2006, p 17.
168. ↑ The standard of November 3, 2005, accessed January 31, 2012
169. ↑ M. Küntzel in Wall Street Journal October 28, 2005
170. ↑ Article at www.hagalil.com, in which the books in question are photographed
171. ^ Black list for anti-Semitic books , Spiegel Online , April 4, 2006
172. ↑ Stefan Wild: Imported Anti-Semitism? The religion of Islam and the reception of the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion' in the Arab world. In: Dirk Ansorge: Anti-Semitism in Europe and in the Arab world. Bonifatius / Lembeck, Paderborn, Frankfurt / Main 2006, p. 208 f.
173. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, pp. 140, 193–198 and 239.
174. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 89 f.
175. ^ Jewish Telegraphic Agency : "Protocols of the Elders of Zion read aloud in Greek Parliament", October 26, 2012 http://www.jta.org/news/article/2012/10/26/3110381/protocols-of-the -elders-of-zion-read-aloud-in-greek-parliament
176. ↑ Hannah Arendt: Elements and origins of total domination. European Publishing House, Frankfurt am Main 1955, p. 595; similarly already Herman Bernstein, The Truth about the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". A Complete Exposure. New York 1936, pp. 60 ff.
177. ↑ Alexander Stein [ie Alexander Rubinštejn]: Adolf Hitler. Pupil of the "Elders of Zion" , Karlsbad 1936; New edition edited and introduced by Lynn Ciminski and Martin Schmitt. Ça ira, Freiburg 2011.
178. ^ Hannah Arendt: Anti-Semitism and Fascist International . In: Eike Geisel (Ed.): Hannah Arendt. After Auschwitz. Essays & Comments 1 . Edition Tiamat, Berlin 1989, p. 33 f.)
179. ^ Norman Cohn: Warrant for Genocide. The Myth of the Jewish World-conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London, 1967 (German: The Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion. The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne et al. 1969; New edition. With an annotated bibliography by Michael Hagemeister. Elster-Verlag, Baden-Baden et al 1998, ISBN 3-89151-261-9 ).
180. ↑ Umberto Eco: Fictional Protocols. In: Umberto Eco: In the forest of fictions. Six forays into literature. Harvard lectures (Norton lectures 1992–1993). Hanser, 1994, pp. 155-184.
181. ↑ Jeffrey L. Sammons: Introduction . In: Ders. (Ed.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The basis of modern anti-Semitism. Forgery. Text and comment . 6th edition. Wallstein, Göttingen 2011, p. 11.
182. ↑ Daniel Pipes: Conspiracy. Fascination and power of the secret. Gerling Akademie Verlag Munich 1998, p. 138.
183. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 110 f.
184. ↑ Helmut Reinalter: The world conspirators. All of which they should never know. Ecowin, Salzburg 2010, p. 124.
185. ↑ John David Seidler: The Conspiracy of the Mass Media. A cultural history from the bookseller plot to the lying press . transcript, Bielefeld 2016, p. 209.
186. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: Protocols of the Elders of Zion . In: Helmut Reinalter (Ed.): Handbook of conspiracy theories. Salier Verlag, Leipzig 2018, p. 214.
187. ↑ Wolfgang Benz, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 84 f.
188. ↑ Will Eisner: The Plot. The Secret Story of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. WW Norton, New York 2005 (German The plot. The true story of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion , Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Munich 2005).
189. ↑ Michael Hagemeister: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Between History and Fiction In: New German Critique 103 (2008), p. 87 ( online (PDF; 4.1 MB), accessed November 1, 2011).
190. ↑ Review notes on the Perlentaucher website , accessed November 6, 2011.
191. ↑ Didier Pasamonik: The Plot (comic by Will Eisner, 2006) : In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Volume 7: Literature, Film, Theater and Art . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2014, p. 385, ISBN 978-3-11-034088-4 .
192. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The legend of the Jewish world conspiracy. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 87.
193. ^ Umberto Eco: Il Cimitero di Praga. Bompiani, Milan 2010 (German The cemetery in Prague. Roman. Translated by Burkhart Kroeber. Hanser, Munich 2011).
194. ↑ Sabine Vogel: Umberto Eco's new work. Devil too! . In: Berliner Zeitung of October 11, 2011.
195. ↑ Quoted from Christoph Gutknecht: "The cemetery in Prague". World career of a fake . In: Jüdische Allgemeine of October 27, 2011. Accessed on January 7, 2012. Similar Anna Foa in the Osservatore Romano , quoted in: Paul Badde: Umberto Eco in the line of fire . In: Die Welt, November 5, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
196. ↑ Gustav Seibt : "The Cemetery in Prague" by Umberto Eco . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung of October 7, 2011. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
197. ↑ German Bundestag : Drucksache 14/8470, page 3, March 12, 2002

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