Biomechanics

Biomechanical model of the skeleton and muscles

Force plates embedded in the floor and test person with reflection markers for 3D motion recording

The Biomechanics (from ancient Greek βίος 'life' and μηχανική τέχνη, mechanics') is an interdisciplinary science that the musculoskeletal system of biological systems and produced with him moves using the concepts, methods and laws of mechanics , anatomy and physiology describes investigated and judged. In this sense, biomechanics is a sub-area of movement science and sports science .

Biomechanics is based on knowledge of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, anatomy , physiology and neurophysiology . A wide range of movements is examined, starting with basic research (for example the creation of a muscle contraction) on the human gait , from simple movements of a worker to complex movements in competitive sports. A variety of methods are used, for example different types of force measurement, cinematographic processes such as motion capture , the measurement of muscular activity ( electromyography ) and computer simulation. Areas of application are, in addition to competitive, popular, health sports and health promotion, rehabilitation with its sub-areas of orthopedics and neurophysiology or the testing of sports equipment.

history

Biomechanical study by Borelli (1680)

The Horse in Motion (1878)

Movement study salto backwards (1887)

Chronophotography of a pelican flight, around 1882

Already in ancient times some scholars were concerned with biomechanics. At the Olympic Games, Aristotle observed the athletes doing the long jump and found that they continued to jump with dumbbells in their hands. From then on he also dealt with the connection between physics and living objects. In his work De motu animalium, for example, he examined the locomotion of animals.

During the Renaissance , among others, Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius investigated functional aspects of the musculoskeletal system. Da Vinci's study of body proportions , the Vitruvian Man, dates from 1490 . Da Vinci also wanted to get to know “the inside of man” exactly, for which purpose he is said to have dissected more than 30 corpses. He also tried to build a flying machine for people and therefore thought about how the muscle strength of people can be optimally used. He found out that the effective force can be increased using a lever mechanism . The physicist and mathematician Giovanni Alfonso Borelli developed mechanical models for the static equilibrium and movements of humans and animals, taking into account the active and passive properties of the muscles . In his book De motu animalium , published posthumously in Rome in 1680 , he explains the physiological processes in the living organism according to the laws of statics and hydraulics by comparing the human body with a simple machine . He tried to find out the center of gravity of the human body as precisely as possible. Borelli showed great interest in the connection between muscle shortening and effort, as well as the optimal angle of attack of the force.

Building on the findings of the physicists Isaac Newton and Galileo Galilei as well as the mathematicians Joseph-Louis Lagrange , Bernoulli , Leonhard Euler and Young , the mechanical models and methods as the basis of today's biomechanics were refined in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1836 the brothers Wilhelm and Eduard Weber published a detailed study of human walking under the title Mechanics of Human Walking Tools .

The study of the human center of gravity was continued by Braune and Fischer around 1890 , both of whom did pioneering work in the field of biomechanics. They investigated where the center of gravity of a German infantryman with equipment was. The scientific importance of her work lay in the inclusion of physics and mathematics in the physiology of the human musculoskeletal system, particularly in the analysis of the human gait. They also played a major role in the development of modern biophysics .

The English photographer Eadweard Muybridge made a significant step in the history of kinematics with his qualitative investigations. In 1872 he was hired by Leland Stanford to determine the exact leg position of a galloping horse. With this he founded the series photography with complex structures, consisting of 12, 24 and finally 36 consecutive cameras . For the first time, visible evidence was provided that all four legs of a galloping horse are temporarily in the air. In his series of shots of trotters and gallops, the horses touched individual pulling wires stretched across the racecourse , which briefly opened the electrically operated high-speed shutters on the cameras placed next to each other . In 1879, Muybridge invented the zoopraxiscope for the presentation of his serial recordings, which synthesized the movement broken down into individual images similar to a movie . In 1881, Muybridge published his famous series of photos under the title The attitudes of animals in motion in the form of albumen paper prints . Using the same technique, he was the first to examine human movements such as running , hurdling , standing long jump or climbing stairs.

In 1876, Étienne-Jules Marey used the capillary electrometer developed four years earlier by Gabriel Lippmann to record the electrical activity of the heart . This was an important milestone in the history of electrocardiography . Around 1880 he developed chronophotography for the reconstruction of motion sequences, three-dimensional reconstructions were also possible. He used rotating photographic plates in a gun-like camera (1882), light-sensitive strips of paper or celluloid (1888) and finally projection devices (1893) and a 35 mm camera (1899). His questions related to the movement of animals (including insects , bird flight , horses and cats) and human body movements. Marey saw chronophotography as the perfect application of the graphic method .

The German surgeon Julius Wolff reported on the interrelationships between form and function of the individual tissues of the organism. Based on observations made during his many years of activity as a surgeon , he postulated Wolff's law (original title 1892: Law of the Transformation of Bones ), which describes the relationship between bone geometry and mechanical influences on the bone . To this end, he was in close contact with leading scientists of his time. Karl Culmann , Wilhelm Roux , Christian Otto Mohr and Albert Hoffa supported him in interpreting and evaluating his research . With his work he introduced mechanics and thus physical factors into evolutionary biology . He saw his work as an extension of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution . His findings that bones adapt to changed mechanical conditions are used in musculoskeletal research, orthopedics , trauma surgery , rehabilitation , mechano- and cell biology and tissue engineering .

In 1922 Archibald Vivian Hill was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work on the development of heat in muscle contractions . He carried out Borelli's approach and demonstrated that the rate of muscle shortening depends on mechanical stress . The current scientific status is the cross-bridge cycle with the sliding filament theory by Hugh Esmor Huxley and Andrew Fielding Huxley .

The term biomechanics as an independent subject did not develop until the 1960s. In August 1967, the first international scientific conference for biomechanics with 150 representatives from 24 countries took place in Zurich . From then on, the biomechanics met every two years for their international conferences. In 1973 the International Society of Biomechanics (ISB) was founded at the conference at Penn State University (USA). At that time, sports biomechanics was the focus of interest. However, that has changed since then. Today, biomechanics are mainly concerned with issues relating to the restoration of people's movements after injuries or movement disorders caused by illness (for example after a stroke) - rehabilitation . But biomechanics also play an important role in the legal field, for example when the circumstances of an accident need to be clarified. Overall, the subject area has expanded a lot. So questions of movement control by the nervous system also play an important role today. The European Society for Biomechanics (ESB) was founded in 1979. Its conferences (since 1980) take place every 2 years, in each case in the years in which the ISB does not meet. Her main subjects are areas from orthopedics. The German Society for Biomechanics (DGfB) was founded in 1997 as a non-profit organization in Ulm. Its first chairman was Lutz Claes. Its congresses have been held every two years since 1999.

Basics

Examination of a test person's footprint with the help of a force plate

Contour map of a human footprint recorded with the help of a force plate

Biomechanics as a sub-discipline of movement science , biophysics, technical mechanics and ergonomics describes, examines and evaluates human movements and the musculoskeletal system of biological systems using the terms, methods and laws of mechanics. In the biomechanics of sport as a sub-discipline of sport science , the human body, its range of motion and movement are the subject of scientific investigation. In special cases, non-living movement carriers are included in the analysis, such as sports equipment , orthopedic aids or work equipment . With the help of biomechanical measuring methods , the movement is broken down into location , time , speed , angle and force characteristics. Here are measuring methods such as force measurements, motion capture or electromyography used.

For a long time the focus was on the external aspect of movement. The main goal was to develop a theory for the formulation of cross-sport biomechanical principles such as the principle of the optimal acceleration path or the principle of initial force. Another goal was to model people who do sports with regard to motor behavior , body structure and the identification of performance-determining parameters. In the meantime, the inner aspect of movement is increasingly being investigated, such as bioelectrical muscle and reflex activities or the material properties of the human body. Biomechanics thus interacts with other disciplines such as neurophysiology, physiology or anatomy.

For some time now, biomechanics has also been understood as part of technical mechanics, as the loads on living structures and machine parts, for example, show certain similarities. The optimization strategies of trees and bones of vertebrates serve as a model for the design of high- strength components . It is no longer a matter of dispute whether bones are stressed by bending or pure pressure : the analysis of the resulting forces of long tubular bones shows that the bone shafts are exposed to considerable bending moments . You have to transfer both pressure and tensile forces . The effects of this type of stress, which is generally unfavorable, are reduced in the musculoskeletal system by passive and active tension belts (e.g. iliotibial tract ).

Motion
science

Energy
processing

Information
processing

Sociology of movement

genetic specifications

Information
processing

Control mechanisms

Neurological
structures

Muscles

Work in
water / heat

Sports

Structure and function of
the motor neuron

Dentistry

Structure of the
nervous system from a
motor point of view

Forensic
Biomechanics

Control task of
the individual
brain sections

Movement science with its sub-disciplines

Research areas

The task of biomechanics is to work on questions about movement and the posture and musculoskeletal system within the framework of interdisciplinary research approaches. In sports biomechanics, questions in competitive, popular and health sports as well as in orthopedics are answered and basic research is carried out. In research, a general distinction is made between performance biomechanics, anthropometric biomechanics and preventive biomechanics. Biomechanics deals with a broad and in part very complex research area, which is mainly carried out by specialized scientists.

For competitive athletes, it is a matter of correcting any misalignments of the joints or similar technical deficiencies with the most precise possible examination of the movement and thus optimizing the acceleration path, for example. Another area of application for dynamics and kinematics is rehabilitation. There are, for example, gait recordings for therapy used for optimal or functional damage of running shoe analysis for misalignment of the ankle joints .

Areas of application include:

Performance Biomechanics
- Technology analysis, technology control
- Technology optimization
- Condition analysis , condition control
- Optimization of motion sequences
- objective and quantitative description and explanation of athletic movement techniques
Anthropometric Biomechanics
- Aptitude diagnostics , performance prognosis
Preventive Biomechanics
- Stress analysis , stress design
- health effects of physical activity
Gait and running analyzes of humans and animals
Computer simulation of movements
Development of implants , orthoses and prostheses
rehabilitation
Posturography
ergonomics
Allometry
Gymnastics equipment test

Ways of looking at things

There are different biomechanical approaches that capture physical quantities directly or indirectly . A distinction is made between electronic , mechanical and optical methods, as well as theoretical modeling, in the measurement methods . Methods from mechanics, anthropometry, medicine and computer simulations are used.

mechanics

Structuring the mechanics from the
point of view of the forces involved

mechanics

Kinematics Laws of
motion
without forces

Dynamics
effect of
forces

Statics
Forces in equilibrium of
resting bodies

Kinetic
forces change the state of
motion

The mechanics can be divided into kinematics and dynamics. The dynamics go into the cause of movements and thus investigate the forces on which the movement is based. In contrast to this, the kinematics deals with the appearance of movements, i.e. changes in the location of bodies or body points over time, whereby body dimensions and acting forces are not taken into account.

kinematics

Trajectories of a ball at different throwing angles and a throwing speed of 10 m / s (36 km / h) without taking air resistance into account

Kinematics is the study of the movement of points and bodies in space , described in terms of position , speed and acceleration, without considering the causes of the movement (forces). The values of position, speed and acceleration in a straight line movement (translation) correspond to the values of rotation angle , angular speed and angular acceleration in the case of a rotary movement ( rotation ) . The position of a point is determined by three coordinates in three-dimensional space.

In multi-body systems , the investigation of spatial mechanisms is the subject of kinematics. These mechanisms are often made up of joints and connections. Using kinematic methods (see direct kinematics ), the number of degrees of freedom is determined and the position, speed and acceleration of all bodies are calculated.

In order to be able to describe a movement, a reference to the environment must always be established. There is an absolute and a relative coordinate system . What is measured is the path that the body covers when it changes location (movement) and the time it takes to cover this path. Further characteristics such as speed and acceleration, and angular velocity and angular acceleration in the case of rotations, can be derived from these two quantities. Traditionally, the time component is determined with a direct time measurement . Aids such as stopwatches , light barriers and contact mats are used for this . The spatial component is recorded with the help of mechanical and electronic tape measures. It is used to determine positions or the distances covered. These quantities can be determined indirectly by differentiating and integrating the force-time curve.

In kinematics today mainly imaging motion analyzes are used. These differ in complete and incomplete representation of the movements. The movement can be fully reproduced by recording it with a video camera . Among the incomplete measurement methods include LED -Lichtspurmarker, infrared - reflective markers , ultrasound and magnetic field .

dynamics

Dynamics examines the relationship between movements and the forces that cause them. The external biomechanics are limited to the forces that exist between humans and the environment. These are the reaction forces occurring on the periphery of the body , i.e. the force exerted by the individual muscles.

The dynamics are further subdivided into the statics, which deals with the balance of forces in unaccelerated bodies, and the kinetics, which record the relationship between movements and forces.

Statics

Characteristic force-strain diagram of a human knee ligament

With statics, the forces causing it are in equilibrium so that there is no movement. In order for a body at rest or moving without acceleration to remain at rest (or move without acceleration), the sums of all forces and torques that act on this body must be zero. That is the equilibrium condition of statics. With knowledge of the forces and moments acting on it, the reaction forces and the internal forces and moments in the body can be determined.

The static is concerned among other things with the center of force and the center of gravity, the friction , the concept of work , the average size determination , the deformation calculation and stability . Serve graphical and computational methods to solve the problems. In addition to the classic analytical methods, the numerical finite element method is increasingly being used .

kinetics

Kinetics deals with the forces that lead to changes in location or rotations. It describes the change in the quantities of movement (distance, time, speed and acceleration) under the influence of forces in space. In kinetics, a distinction is made between translational movement and rotational movement. The approach to understanding the dynamic characteristics in biomechanics arises from the classical Newtonian laws (principle of inertia, principle of action, principle of reaction).

Using the kinetics theorems, the equation of motion of a system can be set up as a function of a freely selectable coordinate. Important theorems of kinetics are the law of the center of gravity or the law of conservation of momentum , the law of power , the law of conservation of energy and the law of work . Knowledge of the external forces is the prerequisite for determining the internal forces. Various technical aids are used to quantitatively record the forces that occur. What all measurement methods have in common, however, is that the force is registered as a function of time (force-time diagram). The result are dynamograms.

Anthropometry

The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci - one of the first and most famous anthropometric drawings

Example of an anthropometric view

Anthropometry is the study of determining and applying the dimensions of the human body . While measuring the body is relatively easy, determining the partial centers of gravity of the limbs is more difficult. These data were previously obtained by examining corpses . Today the density of the tissue can be determined with the help of computed tomography .

Modeling

The human body and its movements are extremely complex . Modeling is often used in order to reduce this and thus to make connections clearer and more understandable.

The creation of a model abstracts from reality , because in almost all cases it is too complex to be depicted precisely. It is also not intended to depict reality completely or completely, but only to present a clear simplification or individual partial aspects that one would like to examine and understand better.

The validity of models should always be checked against reality (the real measured values from the corresponding observed processes).

Models of various shapes are used in biomechanics.

Physical (physical) models

Simple forms of modeling in biomechanics are miniaturized material replicas of the human body or those of devices on which the effect of forces acting on them can be demonstrated. An example of this is the wooden model of a horizontal gymnast , which consists of arms , torso and legs . With this model, rubber and cables allow limbs to move so that B. Have the rim and tilting movements performed. Aero - or hydrodynamic investigations are another application . For example, wind tunnel tests can be carried out with scaled-down models of sports equipment and athletes (e.g. bobsleigh , ski jumpers , racing cyclists ) in order to optimize the flow resistance .

Abstract models

Abstract models: Abstract models represent systems by using graphical representations such as flow charts (for example, to describe a complex sequence of movements) as well as symbols and equations. With their help, parallel and / or sequential processes can be represented particularly well. Here are insights to be used in mechanics, anatomy and physiology, equations to create the image of a matter. An example of such a model is the oblique throw, which can be used to calculate the parabola of the shot put , long jump or high jump . A statement can also be made about the influence of various initial conditions and optimization options (e.g. calculation of the optimal take-off angle).

Scientific models

Scientific models are theoretical (abstract) schematizing and simplifying representations of an object or an object area, in which individual elements and their functions are made clear. The main influencing factors are to be identified that are significant for the process that is currently being investigated. Mathematical equations are often used for this .

Mathematical models

In mathematical models, the quantities that are to be observed and / or determined are expressed by mathematical symbols . In addition to their clarity, the advantage of these models is the ability to use variables as symbols. These can describe not only states (static), but also developments (dynamic) of processes . This allows results, for example final states or the influences of extreme situations, to be observed and determined. It should be noted that there are two different approaches to calculating the dynamic properties of the human body in biomechanics. One is based on the so-called mass point model . The body is viewed as concentrated in its center of mass. The mass distribution of the body does not matter. With the other, the entire body with its sub-segments, that means also with their inertia properties, is included in the calculation. This leads to a much higher computational effort.

In biomechanics, it is often about the calculation of forces. So-called direct-dynamic or inverse-dynamic models are used.

With direct-dynamic models can be measured due to forces acting on the body, and kinematic data of the body (to be represented by the interconnected sub-segments) calculate motion and simulated.

In the case of inverse dynamic models, a complete kinematic description of a model body and its sub-bodies is assumed. It can then be used to determine quantities that cannot be measured, such as forces and torques. In this way, it is often possible, for example, to carry out stress analyzes on joints or muscles that do not allow direct force measurement because they are located within the body, or only with a great deal of effort (as, for example, at the Julius Wolff Institute of the Charité in Berlin) is possible.

Computer models

Today most theoretical models are designed on the computer. these models can then be easily displayed graphically, such as devices, machines (static) or stick figures that move (dynamic). The representation of computer models is based on the equations of the mathematical models.

These models then often lead to simulations of the processes shown

Anthropometric models

Calculated center of gravity when turning the wheel

In anthropometry , models of the musculoskeletal system are of central importance. In addition to the size of the limbs, the geometric shape of the joint surfaces and the course of the muscles, models for mass distribution, for example for determining the center of gravity (CSP), are also important.

To describe the mass geometry of humans, simple geometric shapes can be used depending on the application (for example models according to Hanavan or Saziorski) or 3D models that are generated with the help of body scanners. The latter are used in industry, among other things, to study the ergonomics of new products. Even virtual crash tests are increasingly finding application.

Measurement methods

Force measurement

Force measurement with Hooke's law , here in the form

{\ displaystyle Fp = D \ cdot x}

The prerequisite for force measurements is deformation of measuring instruments caused by forces. These can often be traced back to Hooke's law , which describes the elastic behavior of solids whose elastic deformation is approximately proportional to the applied load (linear-elastic behavior). From this, the underlying force can be calculated from an existing deformation.

The measurement of forces is possible mechanically, but today it is generally done electronically. One of the first devices for measuring force was the spring balance , but it turned out to be unsuitable. One disadvantage was the long deformation paths, which greatly distorted the movement from a dynamic and kinematic point of view. They also have a very low natural frequency , which has an adverse effect on the response signal. Good force sensors are characterized by their high rigidity (small deformation paths) and a high natural frequency. Because of these required properties, force measurement with strain gauges and piezo elements have prevailed in biomechanics .

Strain gauges

Foil strain gauges

This is where so-called stretch marks are used, which are deformed when stretched by an external force. The resulting change in cross-section of the electrically conductive wire has a proportional effect on its resistance within certain limits . The resistance is increased for the current flowing during the measurement . A big advantage is that the measuring strips are small and can be inserted into the patella or Achilles tendon , for example. The problems with this type of measurement mainly consist in the mechanical construction of the measurement setup with multi-dimensional forces, as well as in the precise determination of the main axis.

Piezoelectric sensor

Mechanical force on a piezo element creates an electrical voltage

The piezo element makes use of the piezo effect, in which small crystals of quartz are pressed together. The molecular lattice structure is shifted to the external pressure so that the crystals react with changes in electrical charge on the surface. This change in charge changes proportionally (approx. 99.5%) to the incoming force. The measuring platforms, which use this piezoelectric effect, consist of a base frame and an exchangeable cover plate. Four 3-component force transducers are installed between these two parts under high preload.

Force plates

Stairway with force plates

Force plates are the basis for determining floor reaction forces and torques while standing, walking / running and other athletic movements. This means that global external forces can be measured for various purposes. Mobile force plates can be positioned variably in the floor and enable a wide range of uses. Force plates are often used in connection with squat jumps , counter movement jumps or drop jumps .

Electromyography

Electromyography is an experimental technique that is devoted to the creation, recording and analysis of the electrical activation state of the muscle and the innervation behavior. Myoelectric signals are generated by physiological changes in the state of the muscle fiber membrane. The focus of surface electromyography (OEMG or SEMG, in contrast to needle electromyography) is on the acquisition and analysis of voluntary muscle activation in functional movements, postural activities or therapy and training exercises.

Motion capture

3D gait analysis with the help of motion capture

Complex dynamic movements can be recorded with the help of motion capture processes and analyzed in 3D on the computer. Small, reflective markings are placed on people or objects and detected by several infrared cameras with a frequency of up to 240 Hz and a resolution of less than 1 mm. With this information, it is finally possible, for example, to determine joint angle profiles while running or jumping (kinematics). External forces can be determined synchronously using force plates (kinetics). These can be converted to the joints using anthropometric body models (inverse dynamics) in order to determine joint loads, for example. It is also possible to measure muscle activity (electromyography) and thus make statements about the muscular joint control. The integration of the three methods kinematics, kinetics and electromyography enables insights into joint and movement control during highly dynamic movements.

Using a suitable calibration , the recordings are further processed with software such as Simi Motion or Vicon . This allows the chronological progression of reflex marker coordinates and joint angles as well as their speeds and accelerations to be shown. In addition, the kinematics of the body's center of gravity can be calculated by using a standardized mass distribution model (for example Hanavan model) or by entering individual data on the mass distribution.

Computer controlled treadmill

With computer-controlled treadmills , the speed of the belt can be regulated via external trigger signals . Due to this technical device and the special acceleration performance of the treadmill, it is possible, for example, to apply accelerating or stopping disruptive stimuli while standing, walking or running. For example, tripping situations can be simulated and analyzed.

Ankle platform

With the help of an ankle twisting platform, it is possible to simulate twisting movements of the ankle and thus to investigate the mechanisms of supination trauma of the ankle. This measurement setup is also used, for example, in the functional evaluation of ankle orthoses. With this experimental apparatus, sudden sideways movements of normalized strength can be triggered via a spring mechanism . The platform consists of a movable flap, the axis of which allows both inversion and plantar flexion movements . This construction enables the isolated observation of the individual movement components (inversion, plantar flexion, rotation , translation) which occur in typical supination trauma of the ankle. The tilting movement to a previously set angle of inclination can be triggered via an electromagnet . This movement is analyzed by an electrogoniometer and an acceleration sensor on the apparatus. By attaching a two-axis gonimeter to the subject's ankle, plantar flexion and inversion are measured directly on the ankle during the simulation of a supination trauma. In addition, the muscle activity during movement can be determined using electromyography.

Other measurement methods

Other measurement methods are also used in biomechanics, such as:

Load cell
Force transducers
Ohmmeter
Hall sensor
Capacitive measuring methods
Pressure distribution measurement
Goniometer (angle measurement)
Accelerometer
Data glove

Biomechanics in road safety

3D computer simulation of the behavior of a crash test dummy

In active safety , biomechanics focuses on dynamometric and ergometric aspects and their influencing factors. The mechanical resilience of the living body or body parts is dealt with by the biomechanics of passive safety and is used in the design of vehicles and their safety-relevant devices to avoid excessive physical stress and the associated injuries to the human body.

In the context of traffic accidents, biomechanical reports are playing an increasingly important role. The Federal Supreme Court held in Switzerland:

“[...] biomechanical reports represent classic evidence according to the case law of the social law department of the Federal Supreme Court, which is able to provide weighty indications - with a view to the adequacy test - relevant severity of the accident event. [...] The fact that such expertises are relevant from the perspective of social security law in the context of the legal assessment of adequacy in the case of established natural causality does not mean that corresponding reports may only be granted probative value to provide the actual basis with regard to the legal question of adequacy. This would amount to the introduction of a restriction on evidence not stipulated under federal law and could not be justified in terms of evidence. "

The Federal Supreme Court itself ruled in a liability case, which, as here, was based on a dispute about the cause of the symptoms indicating a cervical trauma after a rear-end collision and in which the diagnosis of whiplash and its consequences was not backed up by reliable medical information Taking into account the results of a biomechanical report to determine the natural causality is implicitly admissible.

Education

Since biomechanics has scientific as well as engineering content, the bachelor's degree is possible as a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) or as a Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.). Following the bachelor's degree or the diploma , a master's degree with various specialization options can be carried out. In Germany and other German-speaking countries ( A , CH ) studying biomechanics is possible at universities of applied sciences (FH), universities (UNI) and technical universities (TU) . On the one hand there is the possibility to get into biomechanics through an engineering degree in medical technology or biomedical technology . Furthermore, the field of biomechanics is also possible through the branch of orthopedics or sports science. A degree in mechanical engineering also offers the opportunity to deepen in the field of biomechanics.

literature

David A. Winter: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement . 4th edition. J Wiley, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-39818-0 .
D. Wick (Ed.): Biomechanics in Sport . 2nd Edition. Spitta, Balingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-938509-59-3 .
Benno Kummer: Biomechanics . German Doctors-Verlag, Cologne 2004, ISBN 3-7691-1192-3 .
Steven Vogel: Comparative Biomechanics . New Age International, New Delhi 2006.
Sigrid Thaller, Leopold Mathelitsch: What can an athlete do? Strength, performance and energy in the muscle . In: Physics in our time , 37 (2), 2006, pp. 86-89, ISSN 0031-9252
Veronika R. Meyer, Marcel Halbeisen: Why are there no wheels in nature ? In: Biology in our time , 36 (2), 2006, pp. 120-123, ISSN 0045-205X
Claus Mattheck : Design in nature . Rombach, Freiburg im Breisgau 1997, ISBN 3-7930-9150-3 .
Klaus Roth, Klaus Willimczik : Movement Science . Rowohlt Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1999, ISBN 978-3-499-18679-0 .

Georg Kassat : Biomechanics for non-biomechanics . Fitness-Contur-Verlag, Bünde 1993, ISBN 3-928148-06-0 .

Klaus Wunderlich, Wolfgang Gloede: Nature as a constructor . Edition Leipzig 1977.

Web links

Portal: Sports Science - Overview of Wikipedia content on Sports Science

Commons : Biomechanics - collection of images, videos and audio files

Wiktionary: Biomechanics - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Wikisource: Mechanics - Sources and full texts

Wikibooks: Mechanics of Real Bodies - Learning and Teaching Materials

Wikibooks: Mechanics of Rigid Bodies - Learning and Teaching Materials

Individual evidence

^ Karl Ernst Georges: Comprehensive Latin-German concise dictionary . Hannover 1913, Volume 1, Col. 832. (Reprinted in Darmstadt 1998).
^ ^A ^b Rainer Ballreich and Wolfgang Baumann. With the collaboration of Rüdiger Preiss: Fundamentals of the biomechanics of sport: problems, methods, models . Enke, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-432-96681-4 .
^ ^A ^b Robert Prohl, Peter Röthig: Bewegungslehre: Kursbuch Sport . 8th edition. Limpert, Wiebelsheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-7853-1733-4 , pp. 17 .
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d David A. Winter: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement . Wiley, J, New York, NY 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-39818-0 , pp. 1 .
↑ On the Motion of Animals / Aristotle (English translation) . Retrieved September 22, 2012.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jürgen Perl (Ed.): Modeling in sport science . Hofmann, Schorndorf 2002, ISBN 3-7780-1821-3 .
^ De motu animalium . Retrieved September 22, 2012.
↑ Mechanics of the human walking tools . Retrieved September 22, 2012.
^ History of electrocardiography ( Memento from June 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Supplementary material for the lecture by private lecturer JM Davis, University of Munich
^ Etienne-Jules Marey: La station physiologique de Paris (1). In: La nature: revue des sciences et de leurs applications aux arts et à l'industrie , vol. XXXI 1894, p. 804, based on: Bibliothèque numérique Medic
^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922 . Nobelprize.org. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
↑ Alfred Petermann: Sportlexikon . Book and Time, Cologne 1969, p. 84 .
↑ ^a ^b ^c script lecture biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system by Ludwig Schweizer from SS 08 of the University of Freiburg, Institute for Sport and Sport Science.
^ Rainer Wollny: Movement Science: A textbook in 12 lessons. 2nd Edition. Meyer & Meyer, Aachen 2010, ISBN 978-3-89899-183-4 , pp. 30-32.
↑ Volker Scheid, Robert Prohl (Ed.): Movement theory . Limpert, Wiebelsheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-7853-1733-4 .
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Klaus Roth, Klaus Willimczik: Exercise Science . Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-499-18679-9 .
^ David A. Dainty, Robert W. Norman: Standardizing biomechanical testing in sport . Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL 1987, ISBN 0-87322-074-9 .
↑ Eberhard Loosch: General movement theory . Limpert, Wiebelsheim 1999, ISBN 3-8252-2100-8 .
^ E. Churchill: Sampling and Data Gathering Strategies for Future USAF Anthropometry Webb Associates . In: A / F Aerospace Medical Res , 2-76, AMRL-TR-74-102
^ David A. Winter: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement . 4th edition. J Wiley, New York 2009, p. 76.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Biomechanical Methods - Institute for Sport and Sport Science Uni Freiburg ( Memento from March 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ). Retrieved September 22, 2012.
^ Simi Motion . Retrieved September 24, 2012.
^ Motion Capture Systems from Vicon . Retrieved September 24, 2012.
↑ so also Max Berger: Accident analysis and biomechanics - significance in terms of evidence . In: SJZ , 102/2006 p. 25 ff., P. 31
↑ Bühler: Standard of evidence and evaluation of evidence in court opinions - taking into account the most recent doctrine and jurisprudence . In: Jusletter , June 21, 2010, p. 17
↑ f judgment of the Federal Court 4A_494 / 2009 of 17 November 2009 E. 2.2. and E. 2.9
↑ judgment of the Federal Court 4A_540 / 2010 of 8 February 2011

[1] Karl Ernst Georges: Comprehensive Latin-German concise dictionary . Hannover 1913, Volume 1, Col. 832. (Reprinted in Darmstadt 1998).

[Ballreich-2] A ^b Rainer Ballreich and Wolfgang Baumann. With the collaboration of Rüdiger Preiss: Fundamentals of the biomechanics of sport: problems, methods, models . Enke, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-432-96681-4 .

[Scheidl-3] A ^b Robert Prohl, Peter Röthig: Bewegungslehre: Kursbuch Sport . 8th edition. Limpert, Wiebelsheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-7853-1733-4 , pp. 17 .

[winter1-4] David A. Winter: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement . Wiley, J, New York, NY 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-39818-0 , pp. 1 .

[5] On the Motion of Animals / Aristotle (English translation) . Retrieved September 22, 2012.

[perl-6] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jürgen Perl (Ed.): Modeling in sport science . Hofmann, Schorndorf 2002, ISBN 3-7780-1821-3 .

[7] De motu animalium . Retrieved September 22, 2012.

[8] Mechanics of the human walking tools . Retrieved September 22, 2012.

[9] History of electrocardiography ( Memento from June 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Supplementary material for the lecture by private lecturer JM Davis, University of Munich

[10] Etienne-Jules Marey: La station physiologique de Paris (1). In: La nature: revue des sciences et de leurs applications aux arts et à l'industrie , vol. XXXI 1894, p. 804, based on: Bibliothèque numérique Medic

[11] The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922 . Nobelprize.org. Retrieved September 24, 2012.

[12] Alfred Petermann: Sportlexikon . Book and Time, Cologne 1969, p. 84 .

[schweizer-13] script lecture biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system by Ludwig Schweizer from SS 08 of the University of Freiburg, Institute for Sport and Sport Science.

[Wollny-14] Rainer Wollny: Movement Science: A textbook in 12 lessons. 2nd Edition. Meyer & Meyer, Aachen 2010, ISBN 978-3-89899-183-4 , pp. 30-32.

[15] Volker Scheid, Robert Prohl (Ed.): Movement theory . Limpert, Wiebelsheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-7853-1733-4 .

[rw-16] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Klaus Roth, Klaus Willimczik: Exercise Science . Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-499-18679-9 .

[17] David A. Dainty, Robert W. Norman: Standardizing biomechanical testing in sport . Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL 1987, ISBN 0-87322-074-9 .

[loosch-18] Eberhard Loosch: General movement theory . Limpert, Wiebelsheim 1999, ISBN 3-8252-2100-8 .

[19] E. Churchill: Sampling and Data Gathering Strategies for Future USAF Anthropometry Webb Associates . In: A / F Aerospace Medical Res , 2-76, AMRL-TR-74-102

[20] David A. Winter: Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement . 4th edition. J Wiley, New York 2009, p. 76.

[ifss-21] Biomechanical Methods - Institute for Sport and Sport Science Uni Freiburg ( Memento from March 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ). Retrieved September 22, 2012.

[22] Simi Motion . Retrieved September 24, 2012.

[23] Motion Capture Systems from Vicon . Retrieved September 24, 2012.

[24] so also Max Berger: Accident analysis and biomechanics - significance in terms of evidence . In: SJZ , 102/2006 p. 25 ff., P. 31

[25] Bühler: Standard of evidence and evaluation of evidence in court opinions - taking into account the most recent doctrine and jurisprudence . In: Jusletter , June 21, 2010, p. 17

[26] udgment of the Federal Court 4A_494 / 2009 of 17 November 2009 E. 2.2. and E. 2.9

[27] udgment of the Federal Court 4A_540 / 2010 of 8 February 2011