Emden at the time of National Socialism
The seaport city of Emden had the time of National Socialism in many ways a special position within East Friesland . While parts of East Friesland were a definite stronghold of the NSDAP within today's Lower Saxony (especially the Geest areas of the Aurich and Wittmund districts ), the SPD and KPD in Emden achieved above-average results in the Reichstag and city council elections in 1933. Nonetheless, the synchronization in Emden went as quickly as in the other East Frisian communities. Until a large wave of arrests in 1937, there was strong communist resistance to National Socialism in Emden , which originated primarily from the dock workers. There was also social democratic and church opposition to a lesser extent .
The Jewish community of Emden , the largest in East Frisia, has ceased to exist since the time of National Socialism. As elsewhere, Jews in Emden were discriminated against, disenfranchised, forced to emigrate or deported to the East , where most of them were murdered.
Due to the geographically exposed location of Emden - no seaport city in Germany is closer to Great Britain - and due to the importance of the port as a transshipment point for iron ore for the Ruhr area and because of the Nordseewerke shipyard , where submarines for the navy were launched, the National Socialists let in build a large number of bunkers in the war-important city . During the Second World War there were more than 80 air raids on Emden from 1940 ; the worst of them led to the destruction of around 80 percent of the inner city on the evening of September 6, 1944.
prehistory
In Emden, due to the socio-economic structure of the city during the Weimar Republic, there was not only a strong social-democratic movement, the Communist Party was also very active and achieved above-average results in elections compared to the Reich. According to a population and occupational census from 1925, 37.1% of Emden's employees worked in the trade and transport sector, and a further 29.5% in industry and craft. In the stronghold that was liberal before the First World War, the Reichstag election results of the two largest liberal parties, DDP and DVP, gradually melted.
On August 11, 1928, the then 18-year-old high school student Johann Menso Folkerts founded the local branch of the NSDAP . Initially it received little attention in elections at the local level, but its share in the elections increased considerably by 1933. It followed the nationwide trend, but in an East Frisian comparison, the NSDAP remained below its election results.
From 1933 to 1945
The town hall in the hands of the NSDAP
In the local elections on March 12, 1933, one week after the Reichstag elections, the National Socialists prevailed as the strongest force in Emden. However, compared to the Reichstag election a week earlier, the NSDAP had to be modest with significantly fewer votes, which is attributed to personal quarrels at local level, some of which were publicly held. Nevertheless, with 13 seats in the council of citizens, she won as many seats as the SPD (seven) and KPD (six) combined. Together with the eight seats, which the DNVP received as the second strongest force, the NSDAP had a comfortable majority with the national conservative party. Liberal forces played - as everywhere in their former stronghold of East Friesland - no role at all at the end of the Weimar Republic . The DDP received only one seat. Compared to the local elections in 1929, it became clear that the right-wing parties had gained primarily at the expense of the Liberals and the CSVD : five years earlier, the DDP, DVP and CSVD had a total of twelve seats, in 1933 it one. The alliance between the DNVP and the NSDAP, which formed a right-wing bloc in 1929, increased the number of its seats by 13. The results for the workers' parties proved to be quite stable: the Communists remained unchanged at six seats, the SPD lost two and received seven in 1933.
Immediately after the election, the National Socialists in Emden set out to unlawfully force city leaders appointed during the Weimar Republic out of their offices. Above all, they made extensive use of the urban financial situation and accused those responsible of corruption - a process that could also be observed in many other cities in the Reich. In particular, the mayor and city treasurer Willi Harding, the city planning officer Reinhold Haasis and the honorary senator of the DDP, Georg Frickenstein , were targeted by the NSDAP. A defamation campaign was directed against them, to whose support the NSDAP explicitly enforced the appointment of an anti-corruption office in the town hall. Harding could no longer hold his position when family connections to the (from the perspective of the National Socialists: also Jewish) Berlin bank Jaffa & Levin were made public and allegations of bribery were raised, for which the Aurich district court convicted him in May 1934. Harding and Frickenstein were temporarily imprisoned in the summer of 1933. When all parties were banned in Germany on July 14, 1933 and the National Socialists were sitting alone in the Mayor Board of Emden, the NSDAP district leader Jann de Boer gave a speech in the Board of Citizens of the City of Emden in which he was an uncompromising and uncompromising in the leadership principle Doubt announced the forcible restructuring of the administration.
An act of violence occurred almost exactly three months later. Emden's mayor Wilhelm Mützelburg , who had been in office since 1913, had no legal responsibility in the so-called “corruption affair”. It was therefore not so easy for the National Socialists to find an excuse to depose Mützelburg, whom they viewed as a representative of the “ system time ”, and thus “to bring the local seizure of power (...) to a conclusion”. A request for dismissal having regard to the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service liked the Aurich District President Gustav Bansi in August 1933. Connect and recommended to send Mützelburg either retired, what you look at but "in the financial position of the city (...) but must think very carefully ”, or to provide him with an energetic second mayor who should take care of the police supervision in particular. The Lord Mayor therefore initially remained in office. Bansi's courageous behavior in those days was answered in September 1933 by the retirement of Bansi by the Minister of the Interior of Prussia Hermann Göring . After that, the National Socialists had free rein in Emden. On October 16, 1933, after an argument with the now incumbent 24-year-old NSDAP district leader Johann Menso Folkerts, a group of around 20 National Socialists dragged the 57-year-old Mützelburg out of his office, forcibly driven them through the city and mistreated him. Mützelburg then “took sick leave” and was given leave of absence. The veteran NSDAP member Paul Hinkler , since the end of March 1933 Police President of Altona, was temporarily entrusted with the official business before Hermann Maas , a lawyer from Bad Bramstedt and NSDAP member, succeeded as Lord Mayor in November 1933 .
The “personal squabbles” that existed within the Emden NSDAP before the “takeover” continued after March 1933. The position of the district leader in particular changed several times. Folkerts held this office in 1932, but was replaced by Jann de Boer in early 1933. However, he gave the office back to Folkerts in September, possibly because rumors had surfaced about de Boer's former membership in the Johannis Freemason Lodge in Emden. With an interruption due to the circumstances surrounding Mützelburg's mistreatment, Folkerts remained district leader until the end of July 1938. He may have had to quit this post because he refused to quit the Church. After that, the office of district leader changed six more times, mainly between the district leaders Bernhard Horstmann and Lenhard Everwien . The animosities at the local level, especially with Folkerts, are also cited as the reason why Mayor Hermann Maas had to leave Emden. In 1937 the mayors of Emden, Delmenhorst and Wilhelmshaven exchanged rings : Maas went to Delmenhorst, the local mayor Wilhelm Müller to Wilhelmshaven and his mayor Carl Heinrich Renken to Emden. Overall, the entire East Frisian party elite of those days is described as “very pale”. In the early years of Nazi rule, Folkerts benefited from the protection of Nazi Gauleiter Carl Röver within this party elite .
As in many other places in Germany, symbolic acts such as street renaming were among the early political measures of the new rulers. Mainly streets that had previously been named by politicians whom the National Socialists did not like were renamed. But also traditional street names were changed by the National Socialists. In March 1933, were Friedrich-Ebert -Straße (1928 dedicated) in Blücherstraße and Horst Wessel -Straße renamed (again today Friedrich-Ebert-Straße ), the Walther Rathenau -Straße (1928 dedicated) in Philosopher's rückbenannt and Judenstraße Renamed in Webergildestrasse (since 1998 Max-Windmüller- Strasse ). After Adolf Hitler was Auricher street named. Further renaming followed in the years that followed, among other things the Große Straße in the city center was called Straße der SA since the day of the November pogroms in 1938 (today again Große Straße ). On his birthday on April 20, 1933, the city granted Adolf Hitler honorary citizenship. It was not until May 10, 2007 that the City Council symbolically withdrew this dignity from Hitler. According to the state parish order, the honorary title expired with the death of its bearer.
Synchronization
At the beginning of 1933, the press landscape in Emden consisted of four daily newspapers: the left-liberal Rhein-Ems-Zeitung (today's name: Emder Zeitung ), the right-wing conservative Emder Zeitung , the East Frisian Volksbote published by Hermann Tempel , the central organ of the SPD in the region, and the Ostfriesische Tageszeitung (OTZ) founded in October 1932 as a party organ of the NSDAP.
" Oops, now I'm coming! “Was the headline of the Rhein-Ems-Zeitung on January 31, 1933, one day after Hitler was appointed Chancellor , referring to the popular hit by Hans Albers at the time . The newspaper, which was close to the DDP , saw itself exposed to the hatred of the local NSDAP not only since this headline - later described as a “stroke of genius”. In the first few months after the “ seizure of power ”, despite pressure from the local NSDAP, she stayed with her line of accepting advertisements from Jewish business people. On April 24, 1933, a group of NSDAP supporters finally appeared in front of the publishing house, shouted slogans and threw stones. The SA, which appeared a quarter of an hour later and which at that time had a total strength of about 400 men in the 36,500-inhabitant town of Emden, asked the publisher Franz Gerhard to meet several demands of the NSDAP, otherwise they could not be for protection of the publishing staff. The publisher then gave in to the demands. The new editor-in-chief was the founder of the Emden NSDAP, Folkerts, who had previously completed an editorial traineeship at the right-wing conservative Emder Zeitung . Since the Social Democratic People's Messenger was banned immediately after the Reichstag fire on February 28, 1933, there was no longer any daily newspaper in the city that could be assigned to the left or liberal spectrum. The OTZ as Nazi party organ represented since 30 January 1933, the government line and did not have the same switched be.
In the following years, the press organs in Emden took part in the persecution of dissenters through inflammatory articles. For example, the former KPD Senator Gustav Wendt was repeatedly referred to in articles as “sub-human” and “low-breed street dog”. The 1935 order of the Reichsleiter for the press to merge smaller publishers was used by the National Socialists in Emden as an opportunity to close both the Rhein-Ems-Zeitung and the Emder Zeitung . Editing and technology were transferred to the newly founded newspaper der Ostfriesen in 1936 , which subsequently continued to exist as the second daily newspaper alongside the party organ, but had to cease publication in 1941 as a result of the war. The only newspaper in Emden that appeared continuously from 1933 until the end of the war in 1945 - albeit at last irregularly and often only as an emergency edition - was thus the party organ. From 1938 to 1945 Folkerts was its editor-in-chief.
At the Chamber of Commerce and Industry for East Friesland and Papenburg based in Emden, the committees disbanded in April 1933, in order to bring about conformity by means of new elections in May. However, these elections showed great continuity in most of the departments. Only in the area of trade were there public debates, which were kicked off by the Kampfbund for the commercial middle class and its chairman Riekena. He spoke out against the re-election of the businessman Hendrik Fisser to the IHK advisory board and accused him of having got into his IHK office through Jewish votes - apparently an early attempt to push back the “Jewish influence” in the Emden trade. In addition, according to the accusation recorded in a newspaper report, Fisser had provided the SPD with a steamer for a pleasure trip. The allegations, however, went nowhere, the IHK members again expressed their confidence in Fisser, who was distant towards National Socialism. The National Socialists had more success with the businessman Peter Haut, who had previously been treasurer of the Chamber of Commerce. As a Freemason , skin was a thorn in their side. Public pressure, also exerted in this case via the press, meant that just under a quarter of the IHK members eligible to vote were in favor of Hauts remaining at his post. At the top of the Emden Chamber of Commerce and Industry, however, nothing changed: The president, who had been in office since 1920, the shipowner Heinrich Schulte , remained in office, as did other leading men from the Emden business world. The syndic ( managing director ) of the IHK, Lübbert Lübbers, had already joined the local NSDAP in 1929. In 1933 he became a senator for the NSDAP. However, since he disapproved of the Nazis' persecution of Jews, he withdrew from local politics. In 1936, Lübberts helped the Jew Arnold Levie Fisser and others to leave Emden for England. Overall, the IHK was able to maintain a certain degree of independence, although a leading National Socialist in the region like Carl Röver wrote to the district president Heinrich Refardt in Aurich in 1934 in favor of replacing Schulte, as this was not acceptable for him and the movement. Refardt refused this in a letter on the grounds: "I know (...) currently. no personality, especially from the movement, who would be suitable to take care of the economically difficult conditions of the city of Emden in the same way as Schulte does. ”The shipowner remained IHK President until his death in 1937. Claudi and Claudi judged the behavior of the leading Emden business circles in those years: “They behaved partly opportunistically, partly they remained neutral or even distanced to the new state. (...) Resistance attitudes had no socio-political background here. "Von Reeken judged:" Although there were occasional expressions of displeasure about individual measures (...), there was no doubt about the extensive loyalty of the Emden bourgeoisie. What remains remarkable, however, is that large parts of the pre-Nazi leadership in Emden's economy and society, despite or precisely because of the adjustment to National Socialism, managed to maintain their old communication contexts and largely cut themselves off from the newly ascended elite. "
Even with other interest groups, most of which operated as registered associations, the chairmen who were in office before 1933 - from the Emden Vegetable Farmers' Association (into which the vegetable-growing cooperative was integrated at the beginning of May 1933) to the inns' association and the bakers' guild remained in office. The Commercial Deputation , whose board of directors announced in the press at the beginning of May: "The Commercial Deputation has fully and unanimously backed the Hitler government and is of the opinion that conformity has already been carried out." There were only changes to the extent that the 17 members were joined by three others who belonged to the NSDAP: In addition to the National Socialist merchants Buhr and Müller, also the chief editor of the Emder newspaper Frerichs. In the large Emden companies - including those that were state-owned such as the Emden Hafenumschlagsgesellschaft - the managing directors who acted before 1933 kept their posts.
The personnel upheavals in cooperatives, which were wholly or predominantly borne by the workforce, were much stronger. The self-help savings and housing cooperative received a new board, as did the Emden-based consumer and savings cooperative for East Frisia . The NSBO functionary Georg Hinrichsen took over the leadership on a provisional basis. However, there were also limits to the totality claim of the state and the NSDAP: The respected social democrat Peter Voermann remained a member of the board until his death on March 17, 1936. Whether this should primarily serve the National Socialists to ensure the loyalty of the Emden workers, especially since it was a politically "harmless" function, remains open.
The club system in the city, which was characterized not least by a large number of workers ' sports clubs such as the Free Turnerschaft 03 in the Friesland workers' settlement , faced major changes. The workers gymnastics and sports club Glück-Auf Borssum in 1920 was forcibly dissolved and re-established as Blau-Weiss Borssum . Something similar happened to the outdoor Turnerschaft Larrelt , the 1933 FC Green White Larrelt newly took, and only four years earlier of 60 unemployed Transvaalern founded FC Frisia . Like the other clubs, they joined the National Socialist Reichsbund for physical exercises after the re-establishment . In some cases, the members of workers' sports clubs joined other clubs in large numbers, which in the case of the Emden Canoe Club meant that it was also dissolved in August 1933. In September 1933, the chairman of the Fisheries Association for East Friesland was prompted to make the published remark that "it will be ensured with the utmost sharpness that no communist and Marxist cells are formed from anglers' sports clubs and fishing clubs". The largest and most traditional of the Emden sports clubs, the Emden gymnastics club from 1861 , received a new chairman in April 1933 in the form of NSDAP member Wilhelm Göing.
In two cases it is known that the synchronization came about under great pressure from the National Socialists. In the first case, it is about the club for a good end , as evidenced by its statutes at the time “a society belonging to the higher circles of the population, which aims to socially unite and entertain its members”. The NSDAP saw the club as a "disruptive factor in the national community". However, it wasn't until a year later that the local SA announced that it would also use the clubhouse in the future and that an SA member would be appointed to the club's board of directors. However, it is no longer known whether this plan was implemented. In the case of the Society for Fine Arts and Patriotic Antiquities of Emden from 1820, the chairman, the doctor Arend Hoppe, refused to give in to pressure from the local Kampfbund für deutsche Kultur and to resign from his post, whereupon the NSDAP appointed him an acting chairman. He later named himself the new chairman, which, however, met with resistance from many art members. The dispute, which was fought out with many letters to the editor in the Emden newspapers, ended with the fact that neither Hoppe was restored to his position, nor did the commissioner remain chairman. A former board member was appointed and it was also ensured that the chairman of Emder Kunst , which as the publisher of the Emder yearbook had an important function for the historiography of the region, would in future be appointed by the district president in Aurich . According to the National Socialists, the leader principle was thus also implemented in this traditional association .
Persecution and resistance: SPD, KPD, trade unions and churches
The Emden social democracy and related organizations such as the Socialist Workers' Youth or the Reichsbanner tried to maintain contacts through loose networks in the first months after the " seizure of power ". It was typical that the individual groups were independent of one another. "The aim of their activities was to maintain their party connections, the survival of the organization and the education about the true character of National Socialism." This included distributing the New Forward , which was often smuggled in via the nearby Netherlands. The leading East Frisian Social Democrat Hermann Tempel had fled there in June 1933. He took the Volksbote's editor , Alfred Mozer , with him from Emden . Among the leading figures of the SPD in the Emden area who were briefly arrested after 1933 was the district administrator of the district of Emden , who was in office until 1932, and Walter Bubert , member of the Prussian state parliament . Like many other functionaries, he was later employed (in Osnabrück ) as a sales representative and used his travel activities to maintain contacts with former party comrades. In Emden, this also included the Larrelter functionary Berend Zaayenga. Bubert was taken into “ protective custody ” from 1939 to 1940 and was imprisoned again in 1944 as part of the 1944 Grid Action . The Social Democrat Hermann Neemann also spent several months in “protective custody”. He was head of the Emden AOK and hated by the National Socialists as a “health insurance bonze”. After his release, Neemann was constantly monitored by the National Socialists and after the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944, he was taken to the Neuengamme concentration camp for several months . The chairman of the Emden ADGB , Hans Susemihl , was also arrested . The "real underground achievement" of the Emden social democracy is seen as the fact that the functionaries were able to keep in touch and preserve their ideas, which after the collapse of 1945 allowed the party to reorganize immediately.
In the operations in the port - from the shipyards of Nordseewerke , Cassens and Schulte & Bruns to the port handling companies for coal, ore and other goods to the herring fishing fleet and the ships of other Emden shipowners - and in other industrial companies, the KPD had been around since the Weimar years Republic had great support and formed the backbone of the Emden resistance in the initial phase of Nazi rule. As early as April 1933, leading communists in the city met to discuss how to maintain existing contacts. They agreed to meet in groups of five in the future, but larger district groups were soon formed. The strongholds included the districts of Borssum , Port Arthur / Transvaal , Klein-Faldern and the Friesland colony as well as the suburb of Larrelt (which was only incorporated in autumn 1945) .
As early as the spring of 1933, the port of Emden was used by communist resistance fighters to smuggle senior party officials out of Germany. The background was increased surveillance of the port of Bremen , where the party's district leadership for north-west Germany was located. Emden was not the least, been chosen as the alternative site because the exiles about the Watt of Dollard or by boat on the Ems in the quickly Netherlands could be brought. In addition to communists, an unknown number of social democrats and trade unionists from all over the Reich came to the neighboring country. They were supported by Dutch communists . In those years there was particularly close cooperation between the communists in Emden and the International Transport Workers' Federation , headed by Edo Fimmen from the Netherlands . The ITF published a magazine called “Faschismus” until 1941, which was introduced, among other things, via the Emden port and distributed in other areas of Germany. Since the ITF had shop stewards on more than 200 ships, there were contacts not only in the Netherlands, but also in the Scandinavian countries - Swedish iron ore was imported to Emden from the ports of Narvik and Luleå - and in other countries, including the Soviet Union . A dense network of Reichsbahners helped to transport the literature within Germany .
One of the meeting places of the communists was the Kap Horn (sic!) Restaurant on Neue Straße, which had existed since the Weimar Republic and was owned by the innkeeper Friedrich Scheiwe. He had been a member of the KPD since 1920 and a member of the Red Aid from 1927/28 . The communists also used supposedly “unsuspicious” meeting places such as sports clubs and other clubs. At least one club, namely the Fortuna swimming club , is believed to have been founded in 1933 to serve as a cover organization. Nothing (any longer) is known about the exact size of the Communists active in the underground. However, it must have been considerable in view of the numerous organizational leaders, main cashiers, political leaders, liaison officers and couriers, which also includes the news that Emder SA tried “to cordon off an entire district in a nationwide competition in 1935 to prevent leaflets from escaping could".
After the seizure of power, the National Socialists imprisoned several communists. Probably the most prominent victim in the seaport city was the former KPD Senator Gustav Wendt. He was arrested several times and taken to Sonnenburg concentration camp in 1933 . Communists were also persecuted in the (then) Emden suburbs (and today's districts) Larrelt , Petkum and Widdelswehr , from which many employees commuted to Emden harbor.
It was not until 1937/38 that the National Socialists managed to strike the decisive blow against the communist underground: 72 Communists from Emden and others from the surrounding towns and communities, including the innkeeper Scheiwe, were arrested in a major arrest operation. Most of them were indicted before the Hamm Higher Regional Court responsible for East Friesland . Scheiwe was sentenced to four years in prison, which he served in Vechta , and immediately arrested again by the Wilhelmshaven Gestapo after his release. He was sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp and only returned to Emden after the end of the war. The fate of other Emden communists has not yet been adequately dealt with historically.
In contrast to the neighboring town of Aurich, which was at the center of the East Frisian church struggle, the clashes between the German Christians and the Reformed and Lutheran communities and their pastors in Emden played only a subordinate role. The German Christians gained influence for a short time in 1934, so that one of their relatives, Pastor Diedrich Cremer, was entrusted by Provost Heinrich Meyer (DC) in Aurich with the second parish of the Lutherans in Emden. After Cremer's constellation sermon on March 8, 1934, numerous parishioners complained about Cremer's weak sermon and clear partisanship of the German Christians. Nevertheless, he was appointed superintendent of the church district of Emden by the provost in October 1934 . At the beginning of June 1934, the first confessional services were held in Emden as a reaction to the attempt by German Christians to bring the church into line at the local level. The German Christians lost influence in East Friesland from 1935, in Emden it was much less than in other cities. In Emden, for example, there was no special church tax account for the German Christians, as was set up elsewhere to provide the German Christians with a financial foundation.
The reformed pastor Hermann Immer from the working-class district of Port Arthur / Transvaal was one of those persecuted from the church. Shortly after the first arrests of communists in 1933, he had maintained contact with some inmates and thus gained great respect among the Emden workers. The reformed church elder Bretzler was briefly arrested in 1940 after he had sent denominational literature to soldiers on the front in an illegal manner.
Persecution and extermination of the Emden Jews
The Jewish community of Emden was by far the largest and most important in East Frisia in 1933 with 581 members. In addition, as the seat of the state rabbinate, the city was the spiritual center of the Jews of East Frisia and the Landdrostei Osnabrück . Even before the Nazi era, they saw themselves exposed to growing anti-Semitism in the city. This led to a wave of emigration: In 1905 the community had 809 people, in 1925 there were 700 and in 1933 only 581.
Jewish traders were exposed to boycotts early on , even before the one scheduled for April 1, 1933 and organized by the National Socialists. The local SA forced the businessmen to close their shops. At the same time, an SA troop removed the butcher's knives from Jewish butchers (who were also often cattle dealers in East Frisia) in the Emden slaughterhouse . The SA then destroyed them by throwing the knives into the fire in the city center. Incitement articles in the press, for example in the OTZ ("German people's struggle against Israel's world conspiracy. Judas hour has struck.") Accompanied the action. On the night of April 28th to 29th, 26 shop windows of Jewish shops were broken. The National Socialists then tried to blame the Communists for these acts.
Although some non-Jewish people from Emder circumvented the boycott by inconspicuously using back entrances or shopping in Jewish shops after the store had closed, the Jewish business people quickly felt the boycott economically. Benjamin Wolff, son of the baker and at the same time head of the Jewish community Louis Wolff, reported: “We had less and less to do. Journeyman and apprentices were fired one by one, and the business got smaller and smaller. It became more and more difficult to provide for the family. ”Although the boycott was officially ended after a few days, the discrimination continued through propaganda, ordinances and laws. This caused many of the local Jews to flee. Among the Jews who had fled in 1933 was Max Windmüller , who later joined the resistance of the Westerweel group in the Netherlands under his code name Cor and saved many Jewish children and young people.
The land rabbi Dr. Samuel Blum tried to react to the increasing agitation. He had all communities in the district of Emden proclaim that the Jews were dutiful citizens of the state . In addition, they protested against the horror tales made in the foreign press and exaggerations about the persecution of German Jews . The new rulers were not impressed. Undeterred, they continued to be marginalized. In May 1933, for example, the Kampfbund for small and medium- sized businesses raised the mood against the alleged Jewish influence in the elections for the IHK members and tried to deny the numerous Jewish members the right to vote. At the beginning of 1934, strangers threw in the window panes of Emder citizens who were known to have bought from Jews. The municipal bathing establishment at the Kesselschleuse refused entry to Jews from 1935 because the population allegedly felt harassed.
The law to restore the civil service had little effect on the Jews in Emden. Only a few pursued academic professions. On the other hand, they were strongly represented in the cattle trade, in which they had a leading position within East Frisia. Despite great efforts, the National Socialists only managed to break it slowly. In 1935 there were 46 cattle shops and twelve slaughterhouses in Emden that were operated by Jews. There were hardly any non-Jewish cattle dealers who could have taken on the role of their Jewish competitors. Business acumen and the traditional behavior of the rural population did the rest, so that the cattle traders were largely able to maintain their business contacts until 1937, although they had not been allowed to visit cattle markets since 1935.
Over time, however, the propaganda took effect. As a result, the business owners' economic situation deteriorated more and more. It is known, for example, that in 1937 the butcher Daniel de Beer had "almost only Jewish customers" after a court ruled. One company after another closed and was “ Aryanized ” in this way . From 1933 to 1937, a total of 47 sales of Jewish businesses, houses and land for Emden have been safely passed down. The selling price for residential houses was a total of 38.43 percent and for agricultural land 17.58 percent below market value . On March 2, 1940, it was finally reported that there were no more Jewish businesses in Emden.
It is unclear how many Jews left their homeland during this period. The sources are contradicting itself. According to a newspaper report, 130 people emigrated between 1933 and 1938 and 50 moved to other cities in Germany. According to other information, 430 Jews were still living in the port city on September 1, 1938. Contemporary witnesses reported that five families with a total of 24 people were affected by the deportations as part of the Poland action in October 1938.
On the night of November 9th to 10th, 1938 , the rioting against the Jews, ordered by the Reich leadership of the National Socialists, took place in Emden, which were later referred to as the Reichspogromnacht or “Reichskristallnacht”. Men from the party, SA and SS destroyed the synagogue on the instructions of the 26-year-old district leader Bernhard Horstmann. They had previously received orders (according to witnesses in the post-war period) not to wear uniforms, in order to conceal the regularity of the action and the identity of the perpetrators. On the orders of Horstmann, his deputy, District Office Manager Neeland, and SS-Sturmführer Schreiber set fire to the building. Despite a major explosion, the fire did not spread to the extent desired. Only after Schreiber had another 20 liters of gasoline put into the synagogue did the fire completely destroy the building. The fire brigade concentrated on instructions to prevent the flames from spreading to neighboring buildings.
At about the same time, at midnight, the three Emden SA storms gathered in front of the party house on the market. There they received orders to arrest and round up all the Jews in Emden. The troops then swarmed out, forcibly entered apartments and dragged out around 300 Jewish residents of all ages. Shots rang out all over the city, one of which hit the butcher Daniel de Beer in the back. He died a little later from his injuries. Shop windows, shop fittings and furniture of Jewish facilities and apartments were smashed. SA men escorted the Jews to the courtyard of the Neutor School under abuse and abuse. There they had to drill to exhaustion. The next day, the guards released the women, children, and old men. The men who were able to work first had to do forced labor in the village. On the way to their place of work, the boat harbor on the Wall, where they had to do dredging, they passed the destroyed synagogue. There the SA men forced a Jew named Mindus to declare that he had started the fire. In the early morning hours of November 11, the SA confounded the Jews under guard of SS and Secret State Police (Gestapo) to the train station, from where they in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp were deported, where two other Emden Jews died. The other so-called action Jews remained imprisoned in the camps until December 1938 or early 1939.
The community then disbanded. The country rabbi Blum emigrated to Palestine and the last remaining Jewish doctor also left his hometown. Individual Jews managed to flee across the “green border” to the Netherlands, with some non-Jewish people from Emder helping them. On November 8, 1939, 320 Jews were still living in Emden.
The air raid shelters were also closed to them. The newspaper Der Stürmer sneered that they would have to set up their own air raid shelter on the site of the destroyed synagogue. It is unclear whether this building was ever realized.
In November / December 1939 Lord Mayor Renken and his colleague Erich Drescher from Leer urged the district president in Aurich , Lothar Eickhoff , to take further steps against the Jews. On their initiative, he complained in December to his superordinate authorities about the "high number of Jews still living in East Frisia". These appear because of their “intrusiveness in an undesirable way”. Renken also turned to the SS and Police Leader North-West, Hans-Adolf Prützmann . With reference to the border location of East Friesland, he wrote at the time: “I therefore consider deporting all Jews to a fairly isolated place in Poland to be the only correct solution.” However, Prützmann refused this on January 8, 1940, but promised to answer the question continue to watch.
The competent Gestapo headquarters in Wilhelmshaven wanted to force the East Frisian Jews to move to other cities within the Reich. But when around 1000 Jews from Gau Pomerania , mainly from Stettin , were deported to Lublin in February 1940 , the authorities considered proceeding in a similar way with the East Frisian Jews. After the Reich Association of Jews in Germany became aware of this, Max Plaut , responsible for the Northwest Germany District Office of the Reich Association, and the community leaders (bypassing the Reich Security Main Office ) entered into negotiations with the Gestapo. They offered to "relieve her of the work" and move the Jews within three weeks.
Instead of the deportation to Poland demanded by the mayors, the Gestapo control center in Wilhelmshaven ordered the Jews to leave East Frisia by April 1, 1940 for military reasons and to look for other apartments within the German Reich (with the exception of Hamburg and the areas on the left bank of the Rhine) should. According to the final report from the Gestapo in Wilhelmshaven, this affected 843 Jews who were relocated between January and March 1940. Only people over the age of 70 were exempt from this. The Gestapo brought her together with the older Jews of the other East Frisian communities (around 140 people in total) in the Jewish nursing home in Emden. In the fall of 1941 Emden was one of the first twelve towns in the kingdom, from which rich German Jews to the East deported were. On October 18, 1941, the last Jewish citizens from Norden and Aurich were brought to the Jewish old people's home in Emden. Four days later, 164 residents classified as unable to travel were transferred to the Jewish old people's home in Varel, whose previous residents had already been deported. On October 23, 122 Emden Jews were deported via the Berlin intermediate station to the Litzmannstadt ghetto , where they arrived on October 25. Of the 122 Jews from Emden deported to Litzmannstadt, the last died on September 6, 1942. Those who remained in Varel were taken to the Theresienstadt ghetto on July 23, 1942 via Bremen and Hanover .
The state police control center in Wilhelmshaven (responsible for the Oldenburger Land and East Friesland ) declared East Friesland to be " free of Jews " after the deportations . Eight families in which one of the spouses was a non-Jew (see: Mixed marriages in the Third Reich ) lived in Emden during the war. The exact number of Emden Jews who perished during the National Socialist era is unclear. The names of 465 murdered people are known who either lived in the city in 1933 or in previous years or were forced to resettle in the city by the National Socialists after 1933.
Economic development until the start of the war
Handling in the port of Emden increased significantly after 1933. While the total seaward throughput in the port of Emden in the crisis year 1931 was 2.6 million tons, five years later it had already risen to almost eight million tons and broke through this mark in the following year. This is mainly due to the significant increase in imports via the port: In 1932 it was only 764,000 tons and was thus still below that of the war years of 1917 and 1918. By 1938, imports rose to four million tons, which is more than five times more the value of 1932. This was primarily due to increased ore imports as part of the armament of the Wehrmacht . The economic upturn was hardly noticeable in the shipyards: the number of newbuildings per year between 1933 and 1939 was well below that of the years 1919 to 1933. Only the carrying capacity of the ships increased slightly, but this was generally observed.
In urban construction - in stark contrast to the years of the Weimar Republic - there were only a few impulses between 1933 and 1939. The only public building that was newly built was the still existing headquarters of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the administrative district , completed in 1940. In residential construction, the manageable development concentrated on the completion of new houses in the Barenburg district . The securing and renovation of the town hall began in 1938 under the direction of Georg Rüth . After securing the foundation, work began on the facade in 1939, which should take around one and a half to two years. However, due to the war, the work did not come to an end.
Unemployment decreased in Emden (as everywhere in the Reich) in the years after the "seizure of power", but the improved situation on the labor market did not result in an improvement in the income situation - on the contrary: The Emden State Shipyard can be named as an example where the employees are In 1935 they had to accept a wage cut of around 30 percent, from an annual salary of around 2,200 Reichsmarks to around 1,600 Reichsmarks. However, the cuts also met resistance. As early as 1934, the employees of the Emden herring fishery, who were also strongly communist, refused to accept the cut in their piecework wages from 42 to 38 Reichspfennige per barrel. They did show up for work, but let it rest until the herrings threatened to spoil - with success: the wage cut was withdrawn. The wage, work and housing conditions for the workers in Emden were "still considered unsatisfactory". The employees of several Emden port companies expressed their displeasure about this in the 1934 elections to the council of trust, as the supervisors of the National Socialist company cell organization achieved poor results in the elections, provided that valid ballot papers were cast at all.
The farmers in the outer areas of the city and surrounding towns were in Reich into line . The passing of the Reichserbhofgesetz met with protests from many farmers, as they felt that their economic freedom of choice was limited. The ban on selling hereditary farms hit the farms with the lower size limit of a hereditary farm of 7.5 hectares particularly. Although there were many judicial judgments in favor of the plaintiff smallholders, the proportion of hereditary farms in the region remained above the national average. Members of the Emden Hitler Youth and the Association of German Girls were often used as harvest workers.
Emden and the Navy
When the Second World War broke out in September 1939, production at the North Sea Works was switched to war production. In the course of the war, foreign workers were also deployed, mostly forced laborers, some of whom were contracted on a voluntary basis. A total of 30 submarines were launched at the shipyard between 1941 and 1944 : 26 of the type VII C ( U 331 to 350 and U 1101 to 1106 ) and four of the type VII C / 41 ( U 1107 to 1110 ). Among the boats was the U 1105 , which was provided with a new type of rubber coating to absorb enemy sonar waves . The boats were either lost through enemy action, were sunk by the Navy itself towards the end of the war or handed over to the British Royal Navy after May 1945 .
In the shadow of Wilhelmshaven , Emden remained of minor importance for the navy during the war. The navy did not station larger ship units in Emden. Instead, the city became the location of a coastal defense department equipped with artillery and flak . 21 systems such as the Kalahari anti-aircraft battery were installed in and around Emden. It was intensified in the course of the war in view of the growing air threat. In August 1940, numerous smaller, partly requisitioned boats with powerful engines were pulled together in Emden , which were to serve for the Seelöwe company , the invasion of England. Since the planned invasion never took place, they were not used, many of them were returned to their owners. Emden suffered economic losses early on in one of its oldest trades: all of the Emden herring fishery loggers were drafted into the navy. The employees of the herring fisheries were then often employed in arms production.
Foreign and forced laborers
During the war, more than 6,400 foreign and forced laborers from other countries were used in Emden . There was also an unknown number of German forced laborers. Due to the geographical proximity, the majority of foreign workers came from the Netherlands (3565), followed by French (1131), Italians (750), Soviet citizens (653), Belgians (145), Yugoslavs (114) and Poles (41). There was also a single-digit number of people from other countries. The foreign and forced laborers were both voluntarily recruited, as well as people from Germany's alliance partner Italy in the first months of the war, especially from the nearby Netherlands. The majority of the French were prisoners of war, although there were also recruits among them. The Soviet citizens deported to Emden were exclusively prisoners of war.
After the German invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940, the occupation authorities quickly began to recruit Dutch workers to replace those drafted into the Wehrmacht in German factories. To a lesser extent, the Dutch had already worked in Germany before the outbreak of war - mostly as cross-border commuters, as the global economic crisis hit the neighboring country much harder and the aftermath lasted longer. After the invasion and demobilization of the Dutch armed forces, the German labor market had great potential. Dutch people were also recruited in large numbers from Emden via advertisements. Shipyard workers and other skilled workers for shipbuilding at the North Sea Works found employment . The Dutch were put on an equal footing with the Germans in terms of wages and tax rates. However, since the other working conditions were not as promised in the advertisements, the Dutch foreign workers became increasingly dissatisfied. In addition, many of the Dutch had to do jobs for which they were overqualified. However, wages were measured according to the type of work, so that frustration with the type of work was also frustrated by the pay. Accordingly, it was in September 1940 "an increase of illegal border crossings, working breach of contract and unauthorized leaving of jobs" as the NS - Gauleiter Weser-Ems Carl Röver complained. Despite measures such as confiscation of passports and holiday bans, the number of foreign workers returning to the Netherlands also increased in the following years. Because of the greater distance, the French foreign workers and prisoners of war did not have this option, instead they tried - as best they could under the circumstances - to settle down in the city, as did the Italian foreign workers.
The Polish forced laborers were under police law after the Poland decrees of March 8, 1940 and were marked with a so-called Poland badge, a patch with a purple P in a yellow, 5 × 5 cm square on the tip.
After the attack on the Soviet Union , the beginning of the German-Soviet war on June 22, 1941, Soviet prisoners of war, mostly Russians and Ukrainians, were also deported to the seaport city. Of the more than 6000 foreign and forced laborers in Emden during the war, they made up more than ten percent. These " Eastern workers ", who had to wear a blue and white patch with the inscription "Ost", were used both in the bunker construction and on other construction sites. In addition, they had to clean up after air raids and often do the dangerous job of recovering duds .
Construction of the air raid shelter
Due to the exposed location of the city and because of its importance as a port and shipyard location, Emden was already one of the first order air raids in 1935. In the later phase of the Second World War, Emden was the only German city in which there was a sufficient number of air-raid shelters available for the entire population . The driving force was Lord Mayor Carl Renken, who took advantage of his good contacts to the Oldenburg Gauleiter Carl Röver and his advocacy in Berlin.
Beginning on November 1, 1940, a total of 35 multi-storey air raid shelters and a further 141 shatterproof small bunkers were built in three waves . In addition, there were privately built shelters, but little is known about them. A multi-storey construction was necessary because of the high groundwater level in the march : only three of the 35 bunkers consisted of just one basement. Due to the soft marshland and the high load from the weight of the reinforced concrete structures, it was also necessary to carry out complex pile foundations with wooden piles. On June 14, 1941, the first 450-person bunker on Lienbahnstrasse in the Klein-Faldern district was released. By December 1941, eleven larger bunkers had been completed. The construction work was hindered more often by bottlenecks in material and machinery. During the construction of the health insurance bunker between February 19 and 28, 1941, the city planners found 376 idle hours alone.
By August 1942, the contracted construction companies - some from Emden and Leer , some from outside East Frisia - had completed 23 air raid shelters with over 12,700 beds and seats. In the summer of 1942, Lord Mayor Renken had already noted in a memo that the 12,700 places corresponded to about a third of the population, compared to about ten percent in other cities of the air raid protection guide program . However, since the air raid shelters usually took in more people than the specified capacity, air raids were available for almost the entire population.
One of the air raid shelters of this second wave, the one on Emsmauerstraße in the city center, was designed for 1186 people and was the largest of the Emden bunkers. Up until the end of the war, it was also the command post for Lord Mayor Renken, who in this function was also the local air raid protection officer. By the end of 1942, all 35 air raid shelters had been completed. Only the construction of the bunker on the coastal railway road dragged on until spring 1943.
As far as is known, there were no direct bomb attacks in the Emden bunkers. An exception was a bunker still under construction in the Port Arthur / Transvaal district, which received a direct hit on June 23, 1942, which caused the ceiling to collapse. Five people died and 145 survived. However, there were several near hits at bunkers, which led to cracks in the outer skin.
Air warfare, everyday life and September 6, 1944
As in the rest of the empire, the war in Emden also resulted in restrictions on the supply of daily necessities. For the most part, food was only available on cards, as in all of East Friesland, Emden complained about the drastic reduction in the supply of the beloved tea . In an agriculturally productive environment like East Friesland, there were still opportunities to improve the supply of food, especially since a lot of agriculture was still practiced in the outskirts of the city. Many families also kept their own farm animals, as a contemporary witness recalled.
“My husband raised rabbits and we also fattened a pig. When that was slaughtered, we were allowed to keep part of it, and part of it we had to give up to the “people's provision”. “Black battles” was forbidden as a penalty. The butcher from Jarßum , who slaughtered the pig, assessed it a little lower so that we could keep more. Of course, he also got a piece of pork. "
The first air raids against Emden, the most exposed of all German seaports towards Great Britain , occurred as early as 1940. By the end of the war, the number of attacks totaled 80; the air raid shelter issued 1230 air raid alarms and 938 small alarms . In July 1940 five people were killed and 16 injured after a heavy air raid. The evacuation began in 1941. Emden schools were closed and the pupils were taught outside. The regional leadership of the NSDAP in Oldenburg even intended to evacuate all women, children and old people from the city, but this did not happen at first. However, 3500 women and children left the city by January 1942 as part of the extended children's area . The Lutheran Church in the city center (on June 7, 1942) and the Great Church (December 11, 1943) were destroyed in further air raids . Not only the city center and the port were the target of Allied bombing raids. Since there were several flak positions in the villages around Emden , these were also the target of air attacks. However, the Allied bombers often missed their target due to weather conditions, darkness or fire from the Air Force. For example, on June 7, 1942, there was an air raid, which, among other things, aimed at the anti-aircraft gun position in the suburb of Larrelt . In addition to downtown Emden, the suburb of Twixlum was also hit , where eight people were killed after an aerial mine was dropped . Kalahari anti-aircraft battery
Already after the first heavy air raids on the city in 1942, the "men and women not tied to a profession, especially the elderly, the sick and children" were evacuated from the city. They were housed in so-called alternative camps, which were set up in the East Frisian villages of Upgant-Schott and Neermoor and in Sögel in the Emsland . These were barracks settlements that were built by the Todt Organization and were relatively comfortable. They also had vegetable gardens for self-sufficiency. While the cohesion among the evacuees was considered good, they were partly openly rejected by the population of the localities concerned.
The bombing of Emden had an impact on daily life that went beyond simply securing a livelihood. Students and teachers found their schools bombed after attacks. “We soon no longer had regular school lessons,” says a contemporary witness who gradually had to attend the Kaiser Friedrich School on Bollwerkstrasse, the Neutor School and finally the school in Wolthusen - the schools were bombed one after the other. In Wolthusen, too, lessons were only possible alternately in the community hall of the local church and in the inn of the landlord Freesemann.
The destruction of the historic (inner) city in the air war occurred on September 6, 1944: 181 British bombers - 105 of the Halifax type and 76 of the Lancaster type - approached their target with the code name "Herring" ( herring ) in the evening . Arthur Harris ' deputy , Commander in Chief of RAF Bomber Command , was Air Vice-Marshal Robert Saundby . The enthusiastic fisherman provided all of the German cities that were selected with a "Fish code". When the enemy aircraft were still about 50 kilometers from Emden over the Dutch island of Terschelling , an air alarm was called at 6:09 p.m., whereupon the vast majority of the residents went to the 35 air raid shelters with their luggage. The first bombs fell on the city at 6:26 p.m. The Allied bomber pilots dropped around 11,000 incendiary bombs, 300 phosphor bombs, 1,500 high explosive bombs and 500 liquid bombs from a height of around 3,000 meters. The flames found rich nourishment in the numerous buildings, some of which were several hundred years old, within the wall ring .
Fire brigades from Emden and all over the East Frisian area tried in vain to contain the flames. The following day, Mayor Renken drew a preliminary balance sheet: 46 people died, including six foreign (forced) workers. Around 3,400 apartments were completely destroyed, more than 700 seriously and around 400 slightly damaged. This information was only provisional, however, the figures had to be corrected at the meeting of the city council on October 18, 1944. Accordingly, of the approximately 10,200 apartments that Emden had at the start of the war, approximately 8,000 were destroyed. In the remaining apartments and in the air raid shelters, the population of around 20,000 that remained at that time was crowded. The town hall , the hospital, all the churches in the city center with the exception of the Baptist Church, if they had not already been bombed, and most of the schools were also destroyed. The commercial operations in the port, however, were hardly hit.
The mayor and party leadership then asked all non-working residents to leave the city. Alternative camps were set up in the rural communities in Emden's surroundings, but also in several cities in East Frisia; Sometimes Emder also found shelter with other families. The Wehrmacht report of September 7, 1944 summarized the destruction of the city in two sentences: “Enemy bombers carried out a terror attack against Emden under cloud cover. There was damage to buildings and losses among the population. ”The National Socialist Ostfriesische Tageszeitung published a comment on September 8 with the headline“ Continue with gritted teeth! ”And praised in the September 11 issue, in Leer, Norden, or Aurich Wittmund had “everybody downright rivaled in their endeavors to help and alleviate hardship. Many tens of thousands of sandwiches were made in the districts day and night (...) to help the comrades of the heavily tested city. ”The Reich Food Ministry had the city's residents an additional meat ration of 50 grams per person per week for the long term approved by four weeks.
End of war
Emden was declared a fortress on March 1, 1945 . The fortress commander became the sea captain Axel von Bleßingh. At the beginning of April, a large part of the remaining Emden population moved away from the seaport city: with carts, bicycles, by train to the north or on foot. In many companies, work came to a complete or almost complete standstill. The residents of Emden feared the "fight to the last drop of blood" proclaimed by the Nazi propaganda. During their advance through the Netherlands, Allied aircraft dropped around 500,000 leaflets over Emden on the night of April 13th to 14th:
“To the workers and administrative employees in Emden! The Allies are now threatening your city. The German armies in the west are in the process of dissolution. The greatest danger to the future of your city threatens you in these last weeks of the war from fanatics who will try at the last moment to make your port unusable. The power of the men behind these fanatics is waning. When the Allied armies arrive, it will be completely broken. It depends on your behavior during these days whether your port can be put back into operation immediately. "
The appeal did not fail to have its effect. Despite slogans to hold out and threats of violence, citizens gathered in front of the mayor's office immediately at the end of the war in order to persuade the mayor and those responsible for the military to surrender without a fight ( open city ).
The 80th and last air raid on Emden took place on April 25, 1945 at around 9:20 a.m., killing two civilians and a marine. After Canadian troops, supported by Polish national units, crossed the German-Dutch border at Bunde on April 18 and conquered Leer on April 29, they advanced further on Emden. The demolition of bridges east of Emden was only able to stop the advance of the Allied troops for a short time. On May 4, Hans-Georg von Friedeburg near Lüneburg signed the partial surrender for the troops in Northern Germany , Denmark , Holland and Norway on behalf of the last Reich President Karl Dönitz , who had left for Flensburg - Mürwik with the last Reich government . On May 5, 1945, Lieutenant Hans Schulte handed over the city of Emden to the Canadians on a bridge over the Reichsstrasse in the suburb of Petkum , on the orders of the commandant von Bleßingh , with a white flag in hand and accompanied by a sergeant and a non-commissioned officer.
Post war history
Legal processing
In the course of denazification , a comparatively high proportion of 60 percent of civil servants and civil servants were removed from office in the region by January 1946. At a conference between the military government and the regional council in Aurich, it was announced in May 1945 that all civil servants, workers and employees who had become NSDAP members before April 1933 would have to retire from the public service. By July 1945, 96 Emden officials and employees had been suspended. In January 1946 the British military government received a report that 80 people in Emden had been dismissed from service because of active NSDAP membership. However, there was no general dismissal of all NSDAP party members, especially those who were less active or not at all.
The Lord Mayor Carl Renken, who was still in office at the end of the war, initially refused to vacate his place and pointed out that he had played a key role in the peaceful handover of the city. However, on May 16, he was removed from office by the military government. The denazification process ended in 1949 when he was allowed to work in the administration again. He then sued for reinstatement in the Emden city administration, which they refused. A long process before the regional administrative court in Oldenburg ended in 1953 when Renken was right. However, he died a year later. His widow, however, sued - also successfully - for her inherited pension entitlement. The court pointed out that Renken's pension entitlements had not expired in 1945. According to the historian Dietmar von Reeken, a “relatively mild” verdict before the denazification committee also reached the Emden NSDAP founder, temporary district leader and SA leader as well as daily newspaper journalist Johann Menso Folkerts: He was classified in category IV (fellow travelers). After the procedure he reoriented himself professionally and worked at a building society in Leer.
From 1946 onwards, the public prosecutor's office began investigations into the events of the pogrom night. Most of the proceedings were discontinued after a short time. From 1949 onwards, 40 allegedly involved in the riots had to answer before the Aurich Regional Court . 17 the judges acquitted. The NSDAP district leader Bernhard Horstmann received the highest sentence of three years and four months. The court credited him for the internment time he had already served. The verdict of the butcher Daniel de Beer, who was shot on the night of November 10, 1938, was also mild: the public prosecutor's office was unable to prove the crime against the accused SA man. The judges then sentenced him to five years in prison for “deprivation of liberty resulting in death”.
From 1947 onwards, in the course of the further denazification procedures, there was a change: Since the British were more interested in a functioning administration than in the “right attitude”, a personnel restoration took place. Many civil servants and employees of the higher and higher service were reinstated or were given jobs in another public administration. When the denazification process was concluded in 1951, the regional council in Aurich presented statistics according to which 19 civil servants across East Frisia had been removed from office because of their previous political activities, but five of them were later granted reinstatement. Three civil servants were classified in category III (less burdened persons), four in category IV (followers). The majority, however, received the categorization V (exonerated). None of them, however, belonged to the party elite of the NSDAP in East Frisia.
Those responsible in the economy were also largely relieved. The director of “a well-known Emden company” summed up his position as follows: “I did my duty in the German Empire, in the Republic and in the Third Reich and will do this in the same way under a new or under the military government.” Historian Dietmar von Reeken judged that in 1945, as in 1933, "in many (...) organizations of the Emden economy (personal continuity) dominated (...)". One of the better-known exceptions was the chairman of the Lüppo Bakker vegetable growing association, who Years was also district farmer leader. He was forced to resign. Most of the Emden representatives in the regional Chamber of Industry and Commerce were also changed. The members elected Hendrik Fisser, who had previously been fought by the National Socialists but kept his office, as president. While most of the judgments in the denazification processes were passed unanimously, the situation was different for Harald Plambeck, the managing director of the Chamber of Industry and Commerce, who has been in office since 1940: He was initially classified in category IV, but in the appeal process in category V, but only with a majority of 8: 7 Be right. In this context, aversions of entrepreneurs towards Plambeck may have played a role, especially since he took up his post in 1940 at the age of 27 and was sometimes seen as too inexperienced.
In other interest organizations, on the other hand, the chairmen in office during the Nazi era remained in their posts - but also some people who were already active in their interest groups in prominent positions before 1933. At least seven chief masters of the craftsmen's guilds, the chairman of the district craftsmen, representatives of the hotel and restaurant trade as well as the regional transport association and the house and landowners association remained in office. The heads of the leading Emden port companies also kept their positions. Although several of the business representatives had to answer to the denazification committee that prison sentences had been imposed, it is not known. Probably the most prominent (and at the same time the first) business representative from Emden who had to appear before a committee was the former director of the Nordseewerke, Bruno Moeller, who was at the same time the military economics leader and SA senior troop leader. It was classified in category IV in the denazification process. This assessment took into account the “apparently relatively good treatment of prisoners of war and foreign civilian workers” at the North Sea Works. In addition, his activity as director of the Nordseewerke was "non-political". Moeller was sentenced to a fine of 500 DM.
The so-called Persilscheine played a major role during the denazification processes . Not only Lutheran and Reformed pastors were ready to make exonerating statements about people. In the business sector in particular, entrepreneurs, managing directors and functionaries had their professional colleagues issue these “political declarations of no objection”: “(...) In Emden, the heads of the most important companies relieved each other; In one case, a collective declaration of all major Emden companies was issued. ”But the new city council appointed by the Allies also repeatedly campaigned for entrepreneurs who were important for the economic life of the city before and after the war.
Political new beginning
The Allies had chosen the former DDP politician Frickenstein as the future mayor. They contacted him early on, presumably through his close friend and political companion Jann Berghaus . On May 18, Frickenstein moved into the Emsschule, which served as a provisional town hall, as appointed mayor. Frickenstein quickly understood how to make it clear to the occupiers that he could not and would not make the far-reaching decisions to rebuild the city on his own. The commander Newroth then allowed him to suggest suitable citizens, Frickenstein falling back on anti-fascist politicians from the Weimar Republic. As senator, he proposed the social democrat Hinderk Brayer and the communist Gustav Wendt, who had survived his imprisonment. Thus, politicians from the three Weimar parties DDP, SPD and KPD were at the head of the appointed city council.
The members of the first city council appointed by the Allies met for the first time on December 7, 1945 in the Herrentorschule. Many of them had been personally approached by Frickenstein whether they could imagine taking responsibility for the fortunes of the city in the council - although this first appointed city council was only granted advisory functions. Others were suggested by citizens to the Allied city commanders. The Allies' condition that no National Socialists were allowed to be among them and, ideally, that the members were even proven opponents of the NSDAP, fulfilled all those involved. One of the first personnel decisions approved by the Allies was to fill the office of City Director, newly introduced by the British . The council members chose the son of Senator Hermann Neemann, Karl Neemann. Neemann junior, who had just returned from Soviet captivity, was also a staunch anti-fascist and was released from administrative service during the Nazi era. Despite his young age of 36 at the time, he found the support of the city council and held the office for more than two decades.
After the re-admission of the parties, groups of the SPD and KPD emerged again in Emden, as well as the newly founded FDP as a reservoir for the liberals . The CDU only became more prominent in northern East Frisia later. The first trade unions were re-established as early as 1946. The Emden district office of the General Union was approved just in time for May 1, 1946, and on Labor Day the first free trade union move through Emden in 14 years. The number of members was in June 1946 as early as 2013, in autumn 1947 there were more than 6,000. The first Emden trade union leader after the Nazi era was Emden ADGB chairman Hans Susemihl , who later became mayor, until 1933 .
The reorganization of the East Frisian press was also part of the political new beginning, as the Allies had already come to the conclusion well before the end of the war that the media had played a decisive role in the implementation of the National Socialist ideology. For East Friesland, where at that time the daily newspaper was the only medium for local reporting, this meant that all local newspapers were initially banned and had to cease publication. Of course, this also affected the NSDAP newspaper Ostfriesische Tageszeitung . The Ostfriesen newspaper, which was discontinued in 1941 for reasons of supply, and its two predecessor newspapers , Rhein-Ems-Zeitung and Emder Zeitung , were also banned. The only medium was initially the Allied bulletins, later Official News , in which political parties, business associations and churches were gradually given editorial space. The first daily newspaper licensed by the Allies, which also appeared in East Frisia, was the Leeraner Ostfriesen-Zeitung , which had no historical predecessor. The long-established daily newspapers remained banned until the Federal Republic of Germany was founded, although the Allies made no distinction about the political orientation of the respective newspaper before January / March 1933. The Rhein-Ems-Zeitung only appeared again in September 1949 after the Basic Law was passed and the Federal Republic was founded. Today it operates under the name Emder Zeitung .
Commemoration
For a long time, the city of Emden struggled with the National Socialist legacy. The focus was initially on the memory of the aerial warfare. The symbol for this was the Great Church (today: Johannes a Lasco Library ) destroyed on December 11, 1943 , the ruins of which remained as a memorial. The preoccupation with the crimes committed between 1933 and 1945 began - as in the whole of Germany - in the 1980s. In 1986 the first memorial stone was erected on the site of the destroyed synagogue. In 1990 it was replaced by a new one.
It was primarily private initiatives that pushed the further discussion. The Jewish working group in Emden, founded in 1987 (today: Max-Windmüller-Gesellschaft ), played a decisive role in this . In autumn 1989 the city council decided, at the suggestion of the working group, to set up a memorial in the Jewish cemetery, which the state rabbi Henry Brandt from Hanover inaugurated in the presence of around 50 former Jewish residents of Emden. The memorial, consisting of three panels arranged one behind the other, lists the names of 465 murdered Jews from Emden. Another, smaller memorial stone is located on the site of the old Jewish cemetery in the Tholenswehr district . A stele was erected on Bollwerkstrasse in the city center, where the synagogue used to be . The Jewish cemetery is also located on Bollwerkstrasse . A model of the synagogue has been in the East Frisian State Museum since 1994 . On November 8, 1998, the city of Emden renamed Webergildestrasse, which was called Judenstrasse from 1852 to 1933, to Max-Windmüller-Strasse in honor of the Jewish resistance fighter.
The city of Emden has been participating in the Stolpersteine project since 2012 . On October 14, 2012, the initiator, the artist Gunter Demnig , laid the first 25 stumbling blocks in front of houses in the city center. They commemorate deported Jews and communist resistance fighters.
The Emden Bunker Museum deals with the history of bunker construction in the city, with everyday life during the war, with persecution, terror, deportation and forced labor. The museum opened on May 6, 1995, the 50th anniversary of the handover of the city to the Allied troops, in the presence of pilots from the squadrons that bombed the city in 1944. A memorial plaque in the entrance area commemorates the at least 415 bomb dead from Emden.
The memorial for the resistance fighters against fascism and war , erected in 1985 on behalf of the city, is in the small Brückstrasse in the immediate vicinity of the town hall (today: East Frisian State Museum Emden ). In addition to a text by Bertolt Brecht, it contains excerpts from the speech given by Richard von Weizsäcker to the Bundestag on May 8, 1985 on the 40th anniversary of the end of the war in Europe and the National Socialist tyranny on three panels . The triangular shape of the stele is intended to remind of the identification of the prisoners in the concentration camps .
Since July 20, 2005, there has been a memorial at Vocational Schools I dedicated to the memory of the forced laborers who were deported to Emden during the Second World War. During the National Socialist era, the so-called Früchteburg camps were located in the immediate vicinity of the monument .
In the Tholenswehr cemetery, a memorial stone erected in November 2011 commemorates five Ukrainian slave laborers who were hanged in Ziegeleistraße on January 26, 1944 after they were accused of stealing food. The erection of the monument goes back to a private initiative. The city took over the costs for the installation and maintenance. There is another memorial in the immediate vicinity that commemorates seven children of forced laborers who died in late 1944 and early 1945. Nutritional disorders were given as the cause of death at the time. The city council decided unanimously on June 26, 2008, following a joint motion by all parliamentary groups.
In addition to the aforementioned Max-Windmüller-Straße, other streets in Emden were named after people who fought against National Socialism in various forms or who suffered from it. In the Borssum district there are not only streets named after Wilhelm Leuschner and Hans Böckler , but also an Edo-Fimmen-Straße in honor of the transport unionist who helped establish contacts with communists in the port of Emden. In the district of Port Arthur / Transvaal a road to the Reformed Pastor Hermann remembers Always, who campaigned for imprisoned communists. The square in front of the main building of the city administration is named after the Weimar DDP politician and first post-war mayor Georg Frickenstein.
September 6th (1944) plays a central role in the urban culture of remembrance . This became visible through the deliberate choice of this date for the inauguration of the town hall, which was rebuilt between 1959 and 1962: It took place on September 6, 1962, exactly 18 years after the building was destroyed. The reopening (after renovation) of the East Frisian State Museum housed in the town hall also came to an end on September 6th (2005). The Emden businessman and Nazi contemporary witness Bernhard Brahms, who witnessed the hanging of Ukrainian forced laborers and the bombing of his hometown and helped to process it for posterity, donated a carillon to the Emden town hall , on which Beethoven's Ode to Joy was first presented on September 6, 2000 rang out. In contrast to the majority of bells worldwide, the Emden town hall bells sound in major instead of minor - in Brahms' own words out of the desire to "hear bright tones".
historiography
The time of National Socialism was not dealt with in detail in East Frisian historiography until several decades after the end of the war, which also applies to the history of the city of Emden. The three-volume history of the city of Emden , published between 1980 and 1994 in the twelve-volume series Ostfriesland in the protection of the dyke from the Krummhörn dike , only briefly dealt with the era of National Socialism. The section on the history of the city between 1890 and 1945 comes from the pen of the former head of the Aurich State Archives , Walter Deeters . The time of National Socialism was published in 1980 on 10 of 54 pages (60 including appendices) in the total 502-page work dealt with. It should be noted that the Aurich State Archives were only revised in accordance with the then current scientific standards at that time. Deeters "(made) - by no means common in East Friesland at that time - also the Nazi actors (...), renouncing any proseecutorial attitude", so the appreciation of Deeters' by the historian Martin Tielke.
The time of National Socialism received increasing attention in the historiography of East Frisia since the late 1970s. As one of the first works in this regard, East Frisia. Biographies from the Resistance. ( Onno Poppinga / Hans Martin Barth / Hiltraut Roth, Frankfurt am Main 1977), which draws on the method of oral history and particularly addresses the communist resistance in East Frisia. In the late 1970s, courses at East Frisian adult education centers, including in particular the Emder region, gave rise to the study of the history of the Jews in East Frisia . One of the first results in East Frisia that emerged from this activity was the work Goldene und other Zeiten (Marianne and Reinhard Claudi, Emden 1982), which dealt in detail with the time of National Socialism in Emden.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the Ostfriesische Landschaft in Aurich published several books in its series of treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia that dealt with the time of National Socialism and the history of the Jews in East Frisia. These include The Jews in Esens ( Gerd Rokahr , 1987), Frisia Judaica (ed. By Herbert Reyer and Martin Tielke, 1988), Kirchenkampf in Ostfriesland 1933–1945 (Hillard Delbanco, 1988), Aurich in National Socialism (ed. By Herbert Reyer , 1990), The Jews in Emden 1530–1806 (Jan Lokers, 1990), Heimat Movement , Cultural Policy and National Socialism. The history of the East Frisian landscape 1918–1949 (Dietmar von Reeken, 1996), East Frisia between republic and dictatorship (edited by Herbert Reyer, 1998) and the democratization process in East Frisia after the Second World War (Inge Lüpke-Müller, 1998, plus diss. , Ruhr University Bochum ). With the exception of Rokahr's work on the history of the Jews in Esens , all works also present historical facts from Emden. In addition, Dietmar von Reeken published the dissertation Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn ( Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg ) and 1999 an anthology of East Frisia in the Third Reich with the results of a colloquium of the East Frisian landscape on the beginnings of Nazi rule in East Frisia.
Research in the field has continued since the 2000s. The series of publications published by the Emden City Archives dealt, among other things, with the history of the Jews during the Nazi era. In 2012, a work appeared in the series for the first time that dealt with the history of the forced laborers at that time. On the private initiative of Dietrich Janßen, a book was published for the first time, which summarized the destruction of Emden in one volume, and the bunker construction, which was very much advanced in Germany-wide comparison, was presented in a separate book, which, however, only in the Self-published. The authors were the former civil engineer for the city of Emden, Dietrich Janßen, and the Berlin bunker expert Michael Foedrowitz.
In the general context, well-researched aspects of National Socialism such as the area of NS sub-organizations (SA, HJ, BDM, NSBO and others), however, have not yet been thoroughly researched for Emden, nor have the effects of NS atrocities such as Action T4 or compulsory sterilization at the local level. The topic of denazification was also only dealt with in general in the dissertation by Inge Lüpke-Müller (1998) and in the somewhat older one by Dietmar von Reeken (1989), but only little with special consideration of the people involved. The opening of further files in the Lower Saxony State Archives at the Aurich location , however, now allows deeper insights than at the time the works mentioned were written. At the same time, the partial aspects mentioned as examples are still desiderata of local historiography.
literature
- Marianne Claudi, Reinhard Claudi: Golden and other times. Emden, city in East Frisia . Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1982, ISBN 3-88656-003-1 .
- Reinhard Claudi (Ed.): Stadtgeschichten - Ein Emder Reading Book 1495/1595/1995. Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1995, ISBN 3-9804156-1-9 , therein:
- Onno Santjer, Edzard Wagenaar: Everyday Life in Emden 1933–1945. Pp. 221-234.
- Ina Wagner: The destruction of a city. Pp. 251-264.
- Hillard Delbanco: Church fight in East Friesland 1933–1945. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 68), Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1988, ISBN 3-925365-36-2 .
- Michael Foedrowitz, Dietrich Janßen: Air raid shelter in Emden. Self-published, Berlin / Emden 2008, OCLC 254736187 .
- Beatrix Herlemann : The East Frisian Agriculture in National Socialism. In: Emder Yearbook for Historical Regional Studies Ostfriesland , Vol. 81 (2001), pp. 205–216.
- Gesine Janssen: ... a shining example of philanthropy. The Israelite community in Emden from the beginning to the Holocaust . (Series of publications of the City Archives Emden, Volume 2), Verlag Stadtarchiv Emden. Emden 2010, ISBN 978-3-00-030293-0 .
- Dietrich Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. Wartberg Verlag, Gudensberg-Gleichen 2004, ISBN 3-8313-1411-X .
- Eberhard Kliem: The City of Emden and the Navy - From the Great Elector to the Federal Navy. Verlag ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg / Berlin / Bonn 2008, ISBN 978-3-8132-0892-4 .
- Herbert Kolbe : When everything started from scratch. 1945/1946. Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1985, ISBN 3-88656-006-6 .
- Eckart Krömer : Small economic history of East Frisia and Papenburg . Verlag SKN, Norden 1991, ISBN 3-922365-93-0 .
- Inge Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval. The democratization process in East Frisia after the Second World War. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 77). Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1998, ISBN 3-932206-11-8 .
- Bernhard Parisius : Many looked for their own home. Refugees and displaced people in western Lower Saxony. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 79). Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 2004, ISBN 3-932206-42-8 .
- Onno Poppinga, Hans Martin Barth, Hiltraut Roth: Ostfriesland. Biographies from the Resistance. Syndicate authors and publishing company, Frankfurt am Main 1977, ISBN 3-8108-0024-4 .
- Dietmar von Reeken : East Frisia between Weimar and Bonn. A case study on the problem of historical continuity using the example of the cities of Emden and Aurich. (Sources and studies on the history of Lower Saxony after 1945, Volume 7). Verlag August Lax, Hildesheim 1991, ISBN 3-7848-3057-9 .
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Herbert Reyer (Ed.): East Frisia in the Third Reich. The beginnings of the National Socialist tyranny in the Aurich administrative region 1933–1938. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1992, ISBN 3-932206-14-2 , therein:
- Enno Eimers : The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia by the National Socialists: The mayors between party and local interests, pp. 10–23.
- Dietmar von Reeken: elite revolution, elite amalgamation or elite alliance? The administrative elite in East Frisia 1932–1937 , pp. 24–48.
- Beatrix Herlemann: persecution, resistance and opposition of the organized labor movement in East Frisia. Pp. 49-62.
- Jan Lokers: Boycott and displacement of the Jewish population from the economic life of East Frisia (1933–1938). Pp. 63-82.
- Herbert Reyer (Ed.): East Frisia between republic and dictatorship. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 76). Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1998, ISBN 3-932206-10-X , therein:
- Albert Janssen: The district of Leer 1930 to 1934 and the role of district administrator Dr. Conring in the transition from democracy to Nazi dictatorship. Pp. 299-378.
- Inge Lüpke-Müller: The Wittmund district between republic and dictatorship. Political structures and election results from 1918 to 1933. pp. 11–84.
- Dietmar von Reeken: National or Nationalist? A case study on the relationship between the Stahlhelm and the NSDAP in Emden from 1932 to 1935. pp. 201–238.
- Herbert Reyer: Revolution and democratic new beginning in the city and district of Aurich. Pp. 85-122.
- Heinrich Schmidt : Political history of East Frisia. (East Frisia in the protection of the dike, vol. 5). Verlag Rautenberg, Leer 1975, DNB 200446355 .
- Ernst Siebert, Walter Deeters , Bernard Schröer: History of the city of Emden from 1750 to the present. (East Frisia in the protection of the dike, vol. 7). Verlag Rautenberg, Leer 1980, DNB 203159012 , therein:
- Walter Deeters: History of the City of Emden from 1890 to 1945. P. 198–256.
- Bernard Schröer: History of the city of Emden from 1945 to the present. Pp. 257-488.
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Stadtarchiv Emden (ed.): They were among us. Foreign and forced laborers in Emden 1933–1945. (Series of publications by the Emden City Archives, Volume 8). Emden 2012, ISBN 978-3-9815109-0-4 , therein:
- Rolf Uphoff: You were among us. The system of forced labor in Emden 1933–1945. Pp. 7-14.
- Christian Röben: Life in Forced Labor. German forced laborers. Pp. 15-44.
- Dietrich Janßen: Who built the Emden bunker? Concentration camp prisoners, prisoners of war, forced and foreign workers in Emden. Pp. 45-52.
- Aiko Schmidt: "The socialist army of labor is marching" - The Reich Labor Service (RAD). Pp. 53-86.
Web links
(in alphabetic order)
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Bunker Museum
- The bunker museum offers extensive documentation on its website on the construction of bunkers in the city, on the air raids on Emden, on the fatalities and on the foreign and forced laborers who were deployed in the city during the war.
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A trip to Lodz
- A project by the students of the vocational high school of BBS II Emden in cooperation with the Max Windmüller Society Emden to document traces of the last Emden Jews who were deported to Poland in autumn 1941.
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Max Windmüller Society
- The MWG has its origins in the "Jews in Emden" working group founded in 1993 and is dedicated to further research into Jewish life in East Friesland, the memory of the Emden Jews and the mediation of history. It is named after the Jewish resistance fighter Max Windmüller from Emden .
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City archive of Emden about stumbling blocks
- The website of the Emden City Archives lists, among other things, the short biographies of those people who are thought of with a stumbling block in Emden.
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Ubbo Emmius Society
- The UEG is dedicated to "historical-political research in the Ems-Dollart region" and in particular to the topics of resistance and persecution during the National Socialist dictatorship, whereby it represents its own standpoints by commenting. The company is named after the Greetsiel scholar Ubbo Emmius , founding rector of the University of Groningen .
Remarks
- ^ Herbert Reyer : Aurich's way into the Third Reich. In the S. (Ed.): Aurich in National Socialism. (Treatises and lectures on the history of Ostfriesland, Volume 69), Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1993, ISBN 3-925365-49-4 , pp. 19–90, here p. 66.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken : Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. A case study on the problem of historical continuity using the example of the cities of Emden and Aurich. (Sources and studies on the history of Lower Saxony after 1945, Volume 7). Verlag August Lax, Hildesheim 1991, ISBN 3-7848-3057-9 , p. 18. In the following by Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken: Johann Menso Folkerts. (PDF; 78 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume II. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1997, pp. 122–124, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; Retrieved March 3, 2013.
- ↑ Marianne Claudi, Reinhard Claudi: Golden and other times. Emden, city in East Frisia . Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1982, ISBN 3-88656-003-1 , passim . In the following Claudi, Claudi: Golden and other times.
- ^ Enno Eimers : The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia by the National Socialists: The mayors between party and local interests. In: Herbert Reyer (Ed.): Ostfriesland in the Third Reich. The beginnings of the National Socialist tyranny in the Aurich administrative region 1933–1938. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1992, ISBN 3-932206-14-2 , pp. 10-23, here pp. 16 f. In the following Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Friesland.
- ↑ Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia. P. 19 ff.
- ↑ Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia. P. 21.
- ^ Deeters: History of the City of Emden from 1890 to 1945. P. 244.
- ↑ a b c d Claudi, Claudi: Golden and other times. P. 261.
- ↑ "The Nazi parliamentary group has the majority in the Citizens' Board. the sole power. This power will be exercised by the NS parliamentary group in strict compliance with the Führer principle, i.e. H. so that the local political leader in the parliamentary group and thus in the city administration will give the direction and make the final decisions. In the context of a reconstruction, it is first necessary to carry out an internal clean-up of the urban civil servants' apparatus. (...) In the administration of the city of Emden, and in particular during the reconstruction work, we naturally want to observe the statutory provisions and follow them as far as possible. But there are two kinds of laws for us. One is that of the existing paragraph provisions and the other is that of morality and the law of nat.soz. Revolution. In all of our actions we will primarily comply with the law of nat.soz. Consider and obey revolution and morality. (...) The officials will also be able to clearly see what is meant by cooperation with the NSDAP. I don't mean anything else than that the officials only and exclusively have to do what is in the interests of nat.soz. Revolution lies and what is decided by the faction of the NSDAP with regard to self-administration. I warn against (...) thwarting the work of our movement. In such cases, with the help of the SA, we would ruthlessly remove the guilty officials from their offices using our method. (…) Heil! ”Jann de Boer: Speech in the college meeting on July 14, 1933. The speech is reproduced in Claudi, Claudi: Goldene und other Zeiten. Annex volume I, S 44 f., Taken from the Emden City Archives, Reg. V, 135.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 120.
- ^ Letter from Gustav Bansi to the Prussian Ministry of the Interior of August 23, 1933, printed in Claudi, Claudi: Goldene und other Zeiten. Annex volume I, p. 48 ff.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 121.
- ↑ Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia. P. 22.
- ↑ Michael Rademacher: The district leaders of the NSDAP in the Gau Weser-Ems. Tectum, Marburg 2005, ISBN 3-8288-8848-8 , p. 232.
- ^ Michael Rademacher: Handbook of the NSDAP district 1928–1945. The officials of the NSDAP and their organizations at Gau and district level in Germany and Austria as well as in the Reichsgau Gdansk-West Prussia, Sudetenland and Wartheland. Self-published, Vechta 2000, ISBN 3-8311-0216-3 , p. 304 f.
- ↑ Rolf Uphoff: Carl Heinrich Renken (PDF; 84 kB) in: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland , accessed on May 4, 2013.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken: Elite revolution, elite amalgamation or elite alliance? The administrative elite in East Frisia 1932–1937. In: Herbert Reyer (Ed.): Ostfriesland in the Third Reich. The beginnings of the National Socialist tyranny in the Aurich administrative region 1933–1938. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1992, ISBN 3-932206-14-2 , pp. 24–48, here p. 39.
- ↑ Emder street names through the ages . ( Memento of the original from January 25, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 123 kB) bunkermuseum.de; accessed on March 1, 2013.
- ↑ RP Online of May 11, 2007: Emden revokes Hitler's honorary citizenship , viewed on March 12, 2013.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. passim .
- ↑ This is not related to today's Emder newspaper . This was renamed in 1975 from Rhein-Ems-Zeitung to Emder Zeitung . See: 100 years Rhein-Ems-Zeitung / Emder Zeitung 1900–2000. Anniversary supplement of the Emder Zeitung, November 18, 2000, p. 9.
- ^ So Deeters: History from 1890 to 1945. P. 243.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken: National or nationalistic? A case study on the relationship between the Stahlhelm and the NSDAP in Emden from 1932 to 1935. In Herbert Reyer (Hrsg.): Ostfriesland between republic and dictatorship. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 76). Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1998, ISBN 3-932206-10-X , pp. 201–238, here p. 228.
- ↑ 100 years Rhein-Ems-Zeitung / Emder Zeitung 1900–2000. Anniversary supplement of the Emder Zeitung, November 18, 2000, p. 14 f.
- ↑ Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia. P. 15. Eimers speaks of "the end of February". Since the fire occurred on the night of February 27th to 28th, it must have been the 28th of the month.
- ↑ a b Michael Hermann: Gustav Wendt . (PDF; 58 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume IV. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 2007, p. 442 f., Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; accessed on March 1, 2013.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken: Johann Menso Folkerts. (PDF; 78 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume II. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1997, pp. 122–124, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; Retrieved March 3, 2013.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 128.
- ^ Eckart Krömer: Hendrik Fisser. (PDF; 89 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume IV. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 2007, pp. 143–146, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; Retrieved May 6, 2013.
- ↑ Eimers: The conquest of power in the town halls of East Frisia. P. 13.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 130.
- ^ Wolfgang Henninger: Heinrich Schulte. (PDF; 134 kB) In: Biographical Lexicon for East Frisia. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; accessed on March 1, 2013.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 185.
- ↑ a b von Reeken: East Frisia between Weimar and Bonn. P. 131.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 134.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 133 f.
- ^ Chronicle on the association's homepage. ( Memento from September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) fc-frisia.de, 2004; accessed on March 1, 2013.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 143.
- ↑ a b von Reeken: East Frisia between Weimar and Bonn. P. 146.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 147 f.
- ^ Herlemann: Persecution, Resistance and Opposition. P. 53.
- ↑ On Mozer see Dietmar von Reeken: Alfred Mozer , in: Biographischen Lexikons für Ostfriesland , Vol. I, Aurich 1993, pp. 261–262 ( online (PDF; 82 kB), accessed on August 4, 2013).
- ↑ Walter Bubert's biography . In: Wilhelm H. Schröder : Social Democratic Parliamentarians in the German Reich and Landtag 1876–1933 (BIOSOP)
- ↑ Herbert Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1985, ISBN 3-88656-006-6 , p. 50, in the following Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 99.
- ^ Herlemann: Persecution, Resistance and Opposition. P. 55.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 167.
- ^ Herlemann: Persecution, Resistance and Opposition. P.56.
- ↑ Hans-Gerd Wendt: Stadtarchiv / Biographie Richard Gödeken on emden.de (PDF; 101 kB), accessed on December 16, 2018.
- ^ Herlemann: Persecution, Resistance and Opposition. P. 58 f.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 168, note 500.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 169, note 505.
- ↑ Johanna Adickes, Bernd Ritter: Stadtarchiv / Biographie Friedrich Scheiwe ( Memento of the original from October 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 85 kB), from http://www.emden.de , accessed on January 27, 2013.
- ↑ The unnamed unnamed sailor J. S. reported ten other Emden communists who lost in the Nazi era their lives: Karl Staup hanged himself according to his statement in 1937 because of the persecution, George Kittner died in prison in Hameln to his ill-treatment, Rudolf Just in 1938 in the Buchenwald concentration camp shot by the SS, in addition Hinrich Goedeken also Jonni Janssen and Harm Giessen died aboard the Cap Arkona , Heinrich Harms, Albert Histemann, Peter Rodewich and Johann Wilkens and Emil angle came during her membership in the SS special unit Dirlewanger died Life. See the interview with J. S. in Onno Poppinga, Hans Martin Barth, Hiltraut Roth: Ostfriesland. Biographies from the Resistance. Syndicate authors and publishing company, Frankfurt am Main 1977, ISBN 3-8108-0024-4 , p. 113. However, the information has not yet been scientifically proven.
- ^ Hillard Delbanco: Church fight in East Friesland 1933-1945. (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Frisia, Volume 68), Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1988, ISBN 3-925365-36-2 , passim. In the following Delbanco: Church fight .
- ^ Delbanco: Church fight . P. 65.
- ^ Delbanco: Church fight . P. 110.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 172.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 172, note 525.
- ↑ Jan Lokers: Emden. In: Herbert Obenaus (Ed. In collaboration with David Bankier and Daniel Fraenkel): Historical manual of the Jewish communities in Lower Saxony and Bremen . Wallstein, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-89244-753-5 , p. 556. In the following, Lokers: Emden.
- ↑ Jan Lokers: Boycott and displacement of the Jewish population from the economic life of East Frisia (1933-1938) , in Herbert Reyer (ed.): East Frisia in the Third Reich. The beginnings of the National Socialist tyranny in the Aurich administrative region 1933–1938 . Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1992, ISBN 3-932206-14-2 , pp. 63-82, here: p. 66, in the following Lokers: Boycott and displacement.
- ↑ Herbert Reyer (edit.): The end of the Jews in East Friesland. Catalog for the exhibition of the East Frisian landscape on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Kristallnacht . Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1988, ISBN 3-925365-41-9 , p. 47. In the following Reyer: The end of the Jews in Ostfriesland.
- ↑ a b c Lokers: Emden. P. 557.
- ↑ Lokers: Boycott and displacement. P. 67.
- ^ Lokers: Emden. P. 558.
- ↑ a b Lokers: Emden. P. 560.
- ↑ a b Lokers: Emden. P. 564.
- ↑ a b Lokers: Emden. P. 562.
- ^ Reyer: The end of the Jews in East Friesland. P. 49.
- ^ Reyer: The end of the Jews in East Friesland. P. 50.
- ↑ a b Lokers: Emden. P. 563.
- ↑ Onno Santjer, Edzard Wagenaar: everyday in Emden 1933-1945. In: Reinhard Claudi (Hrsg.): Stadtgeschichten - Ein Emder reading book 1495/1595/1995. Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1995, ISBN 3-9804156-1-9 , pp. 221–234, here p. 225. In the following Santjer, Wagenaar: Everyday life in Emden 1933–1945.
- ↑ Dietrich Janßen: Establishment of an air raid shelter for Jewish citizens in Emden ( memento of the original from September 23, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 171 kB), accessed on March 18, 2013.
- ↑ Gesine Janssen: … a shining example of human love. The Israeli community in Emden from the beginning to the Holocaust . Verlag Stadtarchiv Emden, Emden 2010, p. 153.
- ^ A b Herbert Reyer: Aurich. In: Herbert Obenaus et al. (Ed.): Historical manual of the Jewish communities in Lower Saxony and Bremen . Wallstein, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-89244-753-5 , p. 147.
- ^ Robert Kuwałek : The short life 'in the east'. In: Birthe Kundrus, Beate Meyer (ed.): The deportation of the Jews from Germany. Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-89244-792-6 , pp. 112-134; s. a. Document of expulsion notice ( memento of November 10, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) / for more precise figures see Alfred Gottwaldt, Diana Schulle: The "deportations of Jews" from the German Reich, 1941–1945: an annotated chronology . Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-86539-059-5 , p. 34 with note 3.
- ↑ Beate Meyer: Tödliche Gratwanderung - The Reich Association of Jews in Germany between Hope, Coercion, Assertion and Entanglement (1939–1945) . Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8353-0933-3 , p. 92.
- ↑ a b c Lokers: Emden. P. 565.
- ↑ The information that Hamburg and the areas on the left bank of the Rhine were excluded are based on the memories of the Aurich Jew Wolf Wolff, whom the Gestapo commissioned with the implementation of the resettlement. Wolff wrote a report about it, which he handed over to the Yad Vashem memorial on November 11, 1966. Copy of the report in: Herbert Reyer (Ed.): Aurich im Nationalozialismus (Treatises and lectures on the history of East Friesland, Volume 69), Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft, Aurich 1993, ISBN 3-925365-49-4 , p. 285 f.
- ↑ Gesine Janssen: … a shining example of human love. The Israeli community in Emden from the beginnings to the Holocaust , Verlag Stadtarchiv Emden, Emden 2010, p. 153.
- ↑ a b Beate Meyer: Deadly tightrope walk - The Reich Association of Jews in Germany between hope, coercion, self-assertion and entanglement (1939–1945) . Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8353-0933-3 , p. 93.
- ^ Slightly different data on this in Alfred Gottwaldt, Diana Schulle: The "Deportations of Jews" from the German Reich 1941–1945: an annotated chronology. Marix, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-86539-059-5 , pp. 71, 75, 301, 358, 361. In it the authors confirmed the number of 122 Emden Jews who were deported to Łódź, but wrote that these down two transports (October 18 and 24, 1941) were distributed.
- ↑ Rolf Uphoff: A trip to Lodz . emden-lodz.de; accessed on March 31, 2013.
- ↑ Wolf Oschlies: The German "Ghetto Litzmannstadt" in the Polish Lódz shoa.de; accessed on March 31, 2013.
- ↑ Ingo Loose (on http://www.stolpersteine-berlin.de): / Berlin Jews in the Litzmannstadt Ghetto 1941–1944. A memorial book ( Memento of the original from September 4, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 508 kB), p. 18, accessed on March 12, 2013.
- ^ Eckart Krömer: Small economic history of East Friesland and Papenburg. Verlag SKN, Norden 1991, ISBN 3-922365-93-0 , p. 87.
- ^ Deeters: History from 1890 to 1945. P. 233 ff.
- ^ Deeters: History from 1890 to 1945. P. 247.
- ↑ Ina Wagner: The destruction of a city. In: Reinhard Claudi (Hrsg.): Stadtgeschichten - Ein Emder reading book 1495/1595/1995 . Gerhard Verlag, Emden 1995, ISBN 3-9804156-1-9 , pp. 251-264, here p. 252. In the following: Wagner: The destruction of a city.
- ^ Herlemann: Persecution, Resistance and Opposition. P. 61.
- ↑ Beatrix Herlemann: The East Frisian Agriculture in National Socialism. In: Emder Yearbook for Historical Regional Studies Ostfriesland , Volume 81 (2001), pp. 205–216, here: pp. 209 f.
- ↑ Santjer, Wagenaar: Everyday Life in Emden 1933–1945. P. 222.
- ↑ a b von Reeken: East Frisia between Weimar and Bonn. P. 190.
- ↑ Flak positions around the city of Emden. Retrieved November 10, 2019 .
- ↑ Eberhard Kliem: The City of Emden and the Navy - From the Great Elector to the Federal Navy . Verlag ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg / Berlin / Bonn 2008, ISBN 978-3-8132-0892-4 , p. 82.
- ↑ Christian Röben: Life in Forced Labor. German forced laborers. In: Stadtarchiv Emden (ed.): They were among us. Foreign and forced laborers in Emden 1933–1945. (Series of publications by the Emden City Archives, Volume 8). Emden 2012, ISBN 978-3-9815109-0-4 , pp. 15–44, here: p. 26, in the following Röben: forced labor . The figures reflect the state of research in 2012; an upward correction is possible.
- ↑ It should be noted with the number 41 that the information only included the Emden urban area within the boundaries of the time, i.e. not the present-day districts of Larrelt , Harsweg , Uphusen , Petkum , Jarßum , Widdelswehr , Twixlum , Wybelsum and Logumer , which were incorporated in 1945/46 and 1972 Vorwerk . According to Röben: slave labor. P. 35, 250 Polish agricultural workers, 157 Polish peat workers and 55 Polish brickworkers were recorded in the area of the Emden Employment Office in May 1940. Since the urban districts that were later incorporated were predominantly structured in a rural way, the number of Poles - in relation to today's urban area - will have been higher.
- ↑ a b Röben: Forced Labor. P. 31.
- ^ Röben: Forced Labor. P. 40.
- ^ Michael Foedrowitz, Dietrich Janßen: Air raid shelter in Emden. Selbstverlag, Berlin / Emden 2008, OCLC 254736187 , p. 68. In the following Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter .
- ^ Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter , p. 3.
- ^ Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter , p. 12.
- ↑ It was the bunker Lienbahnstraße, Boltentorstraße, An der Neue Kirche, An der Große Kirche, Nordseewerke, hospital (Burggraben), health insurance company (AOK), Conrebbersweg, Töchterschule, An der Bonesse and Gartenstraße (Rudolf-Breitscheid-Straße).
- ^ Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter , p. 23.
- ^ Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter , p. 38.
- ↑ Foedrowitz, Janßen: Luftschutzbunker , p. 44.
- ^ Foedrowitz, Janßen: air raid shelter , p. 14.
- ↑ In: Santjer, Wagenaar: everyday life in Emden 1933–1945 , p. 227 f.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 191.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 192.
- ↑ http://www.bunkermuseum.de:/ Attack on Emden on June 7, 1942. ( Memento of the original from February 10, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 163 kB) accessed on March 2, 2013.
- ↑ Parisius: Many looked for their own homeland. P. 43.
- ↑ Santjer, Wagenaar: Everyday Life in Emden 1933–1945. P. 230.
- ↑ Fish code names , (British original, PDF; 292 kB), German translation (PDF; 214 kB), on: bunkermuseum.de ( Bunkermuseum Emden ), accessed on October 2, 2017
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 7.
- ^ Wagner: The destruction of a city. P. 262.
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 24 and 38.
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 26.
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 31.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 14/15.
- ↑ Printed in Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 50.
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 54.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 15.
- ↑ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval , p. 91 ff.
- ^ Rolf Uphoff: Carl Renken (PDF; 84 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume IV. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 2007, pp. 355–357, Internet publication on the Ostfriesische Landschaft website; Retrieved March 17, 2013.
- ^ Dietmar von Reeken: Johann Menso Folkerts. (PDF; 78 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume II. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1997, pp. 122–124, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; Retrieved March 17, 2013.
- ↑ a b Lokers: Emden. P. 567.
- ^ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval , p. 96.
- ^ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval , p. 97.
- ↑ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval , p. 97 f.
- ↑ von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn , p. 269.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 229 ff.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 276, note 493.
- ↑ von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn , p. 270.
- ^ Von Reeken: Ostfriesland between Weimar and Bonn. P. 271.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 33 ff.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 73 ff.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 130.
- ↑ Kolbe: When everything started all over again. 1945/1946. P. 99 ff.
- ^ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval. P. 243.
- ^ Lüpke-Müller: A region in political upheaval. P. 239, judged that the local newspapers "had discredited themselves through their role as an important propaganda medium of the National Socialists" and refers, among other things, to some articles in the Ostfriesischer Kurier published in Norden , but above all to the Wittmunder Anzeiger for Harlingerland . The Anzeiger , in particular , had already distinguished itself during the Weimar Republic through NSDAP-friendly reporting, as Lüpke-Müller elsewhere ( The district of Wittmund between monarchy and dictatorship . In: Herbert Reyer (Hrsg.): Ostfriesland between republic and dictatorship . Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 1998, ISBN 3-932206-10-X , passim.). In her judgment, however, she did not take into account the role of the Rhein-Ems-Zeitung as the liberal local newspaper for Emden, which was in clear opposition to the NSDAP until it was forced into conformity - see also the section on conformity in this article.
- ↑ About us. Johannes a Lasco Library Great Church Emden . Johannes a Lasco Library; accessed on March 14, 2013
- ↑ Memorial work in Lower Saxony . Interest group of Lower Saxony memorials and initiatives to commemorate the Nazi crimes; accessed on March 14, 2013.
- ^ Emden (district town, East Friesland / Lower Saxony) with places in the area. Jewish history / synagogue. Alemannia Judaica ; accessed on March 14, 2013.
- ^ Alemannia Judaica : Emden (district town, Lower Saxony). The Jewish cemeteries. , accessed March 14, 2013.
- ↑ http://www.emden.de:/ Stolpersteine. ( Memento of the original from February 9, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 2, 2013.
- ↑ Karin Böke-Aden, Dorles Löning, Onno Santjer (Ed .: City of Emden): Places of Remembrance in East Frisia . Emden, 1996, p. 98.
- ^ Martin Kaule: North Sea Coast 1933–1945: With Hamburg and Bremen. The historical travel guide . Berlin 2011, ISBN 3-86153-633-1 , p. 14.
- ↑ Ute Kabernagel: memorial commemorates the executed Ukrainians . In: Ostfriesen-Zeitung , October 20, 2010; Retrieved March 12, 2013.
- ↑ In memory of the children of forced laborers . . Minutes of the meeting on June 26, 2008 (RAT009), Citizen Information System of the City of Emden; Retrieved March 12, 2013.
- ↑ Janßen: September 6, 1944. Emden goes under. P. 20.
- ^ Martin Tielke: Walter Deeters. (PDF; 93 kB) In: Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Volume IV. Ostfriesische Landschaftliche Verlags- und Vertriebsgesellschaft, Aurich 2007, pp. 93–96, Internet publication on the website of the Ostfriesische Landschaft; accessed on March 1, 2013.
- ↑ ls-bunkerbauten.de homepage , accessed on July 10, 2013.
