Beguining and Begaring

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Depiction of a Beguine, engraving , unknown, In: Des dodes dantz , Lübeck 1489

The Beguines lived a devout life. This was the well-known form of semi- religious belief that emerged in the late Middle Ages , an intermediate form of clergy and lay people . It seemed particularly attractive for women to choose a way of life similar to monasticism . They spread over large parts of Europe and formed ecclesiastically recognized communities . The begarde - the male counterpart - was numerically in their shadow and was exposed to more severe official church persecution. Both ideally oriented their lives around poverty - and penance in following Jesus Christ .

etymology

Word origin and development

The origin of the Beguines or Begarden has not yet been clearly clarified. The first word appeared in Cologne as early as 1209/1211 . At that time, however, the two terms represented foreign names that were rejected by the brothers and sisters (so the self-name). It was not until the 15th century that the members of the communities themselves adopted these names.

Stories related to the name of St. Begga , who was declared the patron saint of the beguinages in a later epoch, seem to be based on legendary traditions. One interpretation variant sees the origin of the name in the derivation of the name of a Liège priest: Lambert le Bégue ('Lambert the Stammler') donated a number of individual houses in Liège in 1180 in a large garden belonging to him near the city, which he and unmarried women Widows without distinction of class or wealth gave housing on the condition that they lived together celibate and decent, industrious and agreeable.

Another interpretation sees the term beguines as a corruption of albigenses . The term Albigensian was later used in an imprecise way for various lay movements that were regarded as heretical , but later found its most common use as a synonym for the Cathar community .

Word variants and other terms

other spellings alternative names
begin Bagynen, Beghinen, Beguinen, Begutten, Latin : Beguinae, Beguini Retired women, polternesses, sea women, sea sisters
Begarden Beckarden, Begharden, Picarden, Latin: Beghardi Cellites, Lollards or Lollarden, Matemans ('comrades'), cell brothers

Way of life and activities

The sisters appeared primarily in the cities , but they also appeared in the countryside. The concrete way of life showed a wide range, ranging from 1) wandering beginnings, nourished itself comparable to the wandering monk by begging and preaching , through 2) living in the parents' house, but not delimiting itself from the outside, 3) following the ideal privately, but the previous work nachgehend, 4) Begin house, small community , which together lived in a house, 5) Beginen klause , smaller, to market-partitioning Community, 6) Beginen konvent , larger community that several houses used, up to 7) Beginenhof completed, a kind Neighborhood with own administration. Not every region of Europe produced every manifestation. The beguinages only existed in the northwest of the Holy Roman Empire ( Belgium - Netherlands area ).

From a certain size of a beguinage community a beguinage applied. They showed a wide range. However, all of them severely restricted individual freedoms and opportunities, and prescribed a way of life based on the rules of the order . In essence, this meant poverty (moderate, simple life without abundance), obedience to the master or the procurator and chastity (the three evangelical counsels ), exemplified piety , observance of the commandment of neighborly love and general virtue of character . In return, the community promised social recognition and economic security based on solidarity. However, occasional rule violations led to rule tightening or specification. In Aachen , the new version of 1333 forbade sleeping, partying and bathing together with men. The Beguine's regulations allowed an exit. According to the documents , this seldom happened. Voluntary reasons could be marriage, moving to another beguinage or a monastery . In most cases this led to the loss of a (large) part of the property brought in or to the payment of damages .

The Third Order - Constitutions "were so broad that beguines could accept without restrictions this." The application proceeded informally or formally (arranged or by incorporation into a religious ). Here the somewhat more openly designed third order of the Franciscan Sisters won the most followers. That of the Augustinians also met with approval. The fact that the Dominican Sisters were rarely chosen was initially due to some stricter points of their Terziarischen constitution. The involvement of the Order of Preachers in the Inquisition may also have had an impact . Even contemporaries failed to make the distinction between belonging to a third order and not belonging. The extensive correspondence of the way of life of the Terziarin and the Beguine emphasized the semi-religious character.

Had Beginen sheep , they controlled the production of the wool to the weaving ; Georges Laugée : shepherdess feeding one of her sheep , 1880

A (beguin) hermitage sometimes only handed down that word, u. a. in Habenscheid . Due to the gaps and contradictions in the sources , it often remained unclear to what extent this was actually the case. In Ravensburg one created in 1395 expressly klausuriertes nurses' home in St. Michael consecrated chapel . In 1406 the Bishop of Constance ordered an obligation to the Third Constitution after Francis of Assisi . However, it deliberately allowed a social, i.e. outward- looking activity. Germany produced only six Beginenklausen with Benedict rule . In none of these did the clergy take a religious vow. The Oberraderinnen looked after their cattle on the commons and ran a small guest room , which spoke against a complete loss of the world. A separate Beguinage received z. B. 1279 the Beginenklause Sankt Walpurgis in Mainz . Paragraph 5: “Everyone should live in a room that is locked by two locks . One of the keys is kept by the abbess , the other by the eldest of the Inclusives . ”For comparison, with the Carthusian nuns (a second order ) the mitigation of the hermitage consisted of individual rooms instead of separate dwellings and shared meals.

The Beguines made a living in various ways. Despite the poverty principle, donations , gifts , bequests and income from own or foundation assets (such as raises , interest on loans ) played an important role. The funders mostly left the final power of disposal over the assets in the hands of their own family, the church or the city ​​council . An artisanal activities were mentioned: brewing beer , lichens of wreaths of flowers and myrtle , baking of wafers , production of candles and wax torches and boiling of soap . One focus was on the textile industry , with no competition to the guilds and guilds . Services included: housekeeping, wedding planning , church services, running girls' schools and laundry . Quasi the core business was the nursing service, the preparation of the corpses and the remembrance of the dead (part of the concern for the salvation of the soul ). Additional fields of work could be added for personal use.

"Absolute poverty and anti- clerical opposition were the foundations found in all heretical begaring communities about which we have sources ." Some refused to take oaths or denied the dogma of purgatory .

Geographical distribution of the beguines

Europe 1360

From today's perspective, beguines can be found in the following countries:

History of the Beguines

Jakob von Vitry promoted the Beguines and handed down information about their beginnings; Cecil Jay : The Beguines of Goes during church service , 1900

The beginnings of semi-religiosity reached back to the 11th century. In the following centennium, the Second Lateran Council of 1139 demanded : “We also determine that the pernicious and scandalous maladministration should be abolished, according to which some women, without living according to the Rule of Blessed Benedict or that of Basil or Augustine , before all the world as Nuns want to apply. ”The statements on the way of life were already very similar to those of the Beguines. The first concrete contemporary traces, now expressed without suspicion, came from the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Century. The Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders were already considered the region of origin . The historians followed in most cases this view. Other territories in the Holy Roman Empire also received early evidence . Martina Wehrli-Johns saw an emergence in the Italian cities and from there a jump to the textile centers.

The beginnings of canon law were rooted in the poverty and penance movement . Innocent III recognized this lay movement . , Pope (1198–1216) in 1201 basically. Jakob Johannes von Lier, Jakob von Vitry and others stood up for the Beguines at the Roman Curia . The ban on new orders passed in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council did not affect them. In the following year Honorius III. , Pope of the Roman Catholic Church (1216–1227) oral permission for their way of life. This was followed by written renewals and specifications of the privileges for individual regions. From the outset, the choice was pastoral in the Regular clergy granted. The decision was made by the founders or the beguines. The synodal statutes of the archbishopric and diocese emphasized the right of supervision and supervision of the secular clergy . For one thing, it contradicted the papal decrees. On the other hand, the city ​​councils reserved a right of co-determination.

The early appearance of the women's movement associated with the foundation of Cistercian - monasteries . Jakob von Vitry established the connection to the order. The strong spread, however, was related to the mendicant orders . When the Dominicans and especially the Franciscans appeared in a city for the first time , Beguines could often be found in close proximity. The chroniclers confirmed that the mendicants exemplified the penance , the women took up the ideal and developed it independently.

Reconstruction of the Beginen Convention Michael Berg in Neuss (about 1360), in the foreground Klarissengasse and Michael Street

Regular and secular clergy fought over the pastoral care of the faithful and the income linked to it. They carried out the argument on the back of the Beguines. In the so-called funeral dispute, the mendicant orders indulged in praise. On the other hand, the tone intensified from one diocese synod to the next, and accusations of disobedience and heresy were increasingly raised. However, the effectiveness of synodal resolutions should not be overestimated. Due to the oral approval of the papal approbation , it was probably forgotten, which developed into a problem. The confirmation of the Third Order - constitutions in the 1280s eased the situation is limited. The council of Vienne in 1311/1312 marked the inglorious low point . The decrees written there by Clement V , Pope (1305-1314) were not distributed until after his death. Their contradictions caused confusion and used some lower clerics to take action against Beguines and even Terziarinnen. Successor to John XXII. , Pope (1316–1334) was able to eliminate the misunderstandings relatively successfully with the protective bull of January 13, 1321. In general, the inquisition grew stronger after the clementines . Beguines were rarely affected by this, their communities flourishing as ever.

From 1354 papal and called imperial Liche bulls the Beguines and Beghards mostly together as heretical sects . Whether this happened out of ignorance or as a condemnation was beyond certain knowledge. Urban V , Pope (1362-1370), had been pushing the Inquisition considerably in Germany since 1368 . At first, according to Heinrich Friedjung , Charles IV did not feel obliged to follow this policy. During the 2nd train to Rome , the emperor made a stop in Lucca . From there he announced on June 9, 1369 an unusually sharp, u. a. Heretic decree directed against Beguines and Begarden. The reasons and intentions behind it were lack of font sources in the dark ( Ferdinand Seibt : sudden mistrust; M. Tönsing: protective role of the secular ruler , German king choice of Wenzel , Frank-Michael Reichstein [each with?] Vicarious agent of the Pope, insinuation by Walter Kerlinger ). The Luxembourger used piety and loyalty to the church as instruments of his dynastic politics, to which he subordinated everything.

The ups and downs of the papal attitude to the beguines showed compressed at Gregory XI. ; Engraving , unknown, 19th century

The formal introduction of the Inquisition in Germany had little practical effect in general, and even less for the Beguines. Persecution occurred in less than 1 percent of the settlements listed in The Beguinage in Germany . Urban V. appointed the Dominican Walter Kerlinger as inquisitor in 1364 . He was particularly tough in the Order of Saxony, elected provincial in 1369 . The chronicler and Franciscan Detmar reported on the Erfurt events in 1368. Of 400 begarians and beguines, 200 gave up their way of life, 200 fled (outside the wave of escape could not be caught) and 2 begarians were burned . After Kerlinger's funeral in 1373, the city council of Erfurt confiscated his considerable inheritance. Apparently he was not very popular in his homeland. How harmless the "persecution" could be was shown in Lüneburg . There, the city council tricked the inquisitor Johannes von Odelevessen by selling the beguinage. Gregory XI. , Pope (1370-1378) ordered on July 23, 1372 for the archbishoprics of Mainz , Cologne , Trier , Salzburg , Magdeburg and Bremen the employment of five (but there are six archbishoprics ) inquisitors. They should be appointed by the Dominican Provincials. No construction work was carried out, activities were hardly recognizable. Resistance to the sisters left Gregory XI. swing around. In Bullen of April 7, 1374 and December 7, 1377 he restored papal protection, but avoided the word beguines.

From the 15th century, the number of new communities established decreased significantly. The dispute between the two clerical pillars over early pastoral care and income continued. Not least triggered by the lack of a central line. The accusations repeated by the secular clergy at councils and synods had a damaging effect on their reputation. Various apostolic protective privileges only had an impact for a short time, mostly applied to individual archbishoprics, and gave a vague distinction between religious groups of women. The plan of Martin V , Pope (1417–1431), to finally integrate the Beguines into the Third Order, largely fizzled out. The Synod of the Diocese of Constance in 1423 aimed for a clear separation of clothes . Worldly living beguines should take off the scapular , only religious women should use the robes as a symbol of their standing . Eugene IV , Pope (1431–1447) again changed the course of the universal church , in a bull of 1431 called on the bishops to protect the sisters, and in an order of 1440 forbade the Dominicans from further inquisitorial proceedings. However, the internal states of the communities should be more closely monitored.

The change from a Beginen- Community to a Terziarinnen - monastery lasted sometimes for decades, went even opposed. 1480 was considered a key year for the Franciscan Monastery Landshut ; East view.

Nikolaus V , Pope (1447–1455) took up the idea of ​​the previous predecessor. On his behalf, Nikolaus von Kues led the Archdiocese Synod of Cologne in 1452. The cardinal and legate declared the commitment to or acceptance of an approved third-order constitution to be mandatory for future beguine communities. The same was true for existing ones. Unless they were demonstrably admitted to the Apostolic See or were under the supervision of an Order. The printing did not produce any resounding success, but a significant increase in conversions in the decades that followed. In the course of the centennium, the Terciars assimilated more and more into the regular clergy. So put Sixtus IV. , Pope (1471-1484) with his Bull of 1 December 1480, the third after the constitution of Francis of Assisi stored vows those of other religious alike. A clear assignment to the clergy brought the associated privileges - exemption from (secular) taxes and services , hardly subject to city law. Such Beguines grew up in economic competition with their urban sponsors and funders . This noticeably reduced acceptance in the relevant classes , and from the middle of the 15th century onwards triggered increased defensive reactions from guilds , city councils and guilds .

The Reformation and the religious reorientation associated with it cut wide aisles into the Beguinage. Frank-Michael Reichstein determined, however, that 40 percent of the communities survived the upheavals. Local survival depended less on the denomination and more on the goodwill of the city councils. Some held their own until the 19th, sometimes even into the 20th century. In 2004 there were still five active Beguines in Flanders . In 2008, the penultimate died in Ghent at the age of 99. The last Beguine - Marcella Pattyn - passed away on April 14, 2013 at the age of 92 in a nursing home in Kortrijk . As part of the women's movement , some modern " beguinages " were founded. These were linked to the social model, but not to the life of faith. The aspect of self-determined coexistence in women's communities was particularly emphasized .

Regional events

  • The Basel Beguine Dispute from 1405 to 1411 destroyed the good reputation of the sisters and undermined their economic foundations.

Organization of the Beguines

Each beguines community was independent and had a champion. She was elected from among their number, usually for a year.

Relations between the Beguines and the Orders

In the first decades of the 13th century went from Beguine communities in a few cases monasteries of the Cistercian and Dominican forth. Since the second half of the Zentenniums almost exclusively to itself the adopted poverty movement sprung mendicant orders , especially the Dominicans and Franciscans , the pastoral care. That did not mean that there was no contact with other orders . At the end of the 13th century, a fixed form of canonical law developed for the Third Order . They turned to lay people who “ wanted to combine life in the world with a life of penance .” The Franciscans and Augustinians played a leading role . Beguinage community and tertiary monastery flowed gently into one another. There was no general obligation to accept a third order constitution .

Beguine's mysticism

Some well-known mystics were beguines, for example Mechthild von Magdeburg , others like Margareta Porete were suspected of heresy .

Well-known beguines

Well-known tracks

In the spring of 1999, which took UNESCO 13 of the 26 existing flandrisch en beguinages in the list of World Heritage in.

Beginian track Locality country
Beguinage Antwerp Antwerp Flanders
Beginenklosterle Bad Cannstatt Bad Cannstatt Baden-Württemberg
Beginenklösterle beeches Beeches (Odenwald) Baden-Württemberg
Beguinage Deilinghofen Deilinghofen North Rhine-Westphalia
Beguinage communities in Geldern Funds North Rhine-Westphalia
Small beguinage ter Hoye Ghent Flanders
Beguinage Hanover Hanover Lower Saxony
Begin Tower Hanover Hanover Lower Saxony
Beguinage near St. Wolfgang Heilbronn Baden-Württemberg
Hohenfeld mountain church Kitzingen - Hohenfeld Bavaria
Kalkar Beguinage Kalkar North Rhine-Westphalia
Beguinage Kempten Kempten (Allgäu) Bavaria
Kranenburg Beguinage Kranenburg (Lower Rhine) North Rhine-Westphalia
Rostock Beguinage Rostock Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Beguinenhaus Stade Stade Lower Saxony
Volkacher Kirchberg Volkach Bavaria
Mariengarten sister house Wesel North Rhine-Westphalia
Beginning convent St. Verena Zurich Switzerland
  • Hof Kenneken (former seat of a Begardengemeinde): House No. 1 of the. Monastery Bronnbach associated Bronnbacher court in Würzburg (Bronnbachergasse)

For example, the following Terziarinnen - monasteries emerged from the Beguine communities :

literature

For the sometimes extensive literature on individual Beguines, see the corresponding Wikipedia articles.

alphabetically ascending
  • Regina Doblies: The Renaissance of the Beguines . In: Westfalenspiegel . 4/2009, p. 28 f.
  • Kaspar Elm : Beg (h) arden . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages (LexMA). Volume 1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8 , Sp. 1798.
  • Kaspar Elm, Raoul Manselli , Rolf Sprandel : Beg (h) inen . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages (LexMA). Volume 1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8 , Sp. 1799-1803.
  • Amalie Fößel , Anette Hettinger: nuns, beguines, heretics. Religious ways of life of women in the Middle Ages (= historical seminar . New series, volume 12). 1st edition, Schulz-Kirchner Verlag, Idstein 2000, ISBN 3-8248-0032-2 .
  • Herbert Grundmann : Religious Movements in the Middle Ages. Studies on the historical connections between heresy, the mendicant orders and the religious women's movement in the 12th and 13th centuries and on the historical foundations of German mysticism . Habilitation thesis Universität Leipzig 1933 (= historical studies. Volume 267). Ebering, Berlin 1935 (reprint: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1977).
  • Gertrud Hofmann, Werner Krebber: The Beguines. Past and present . 2nd updated edition, Butzon & Bercker, Kevelaer 2008, ISBN 978-3-8367-0530-1 .
  • Hannah Keß: Klausnerin - Nun - Beguine? A difficult categorization. To the beguinage in Franconia . In: Yearbook for Franconian State Research. Volume 6. 2007, ISSN  0446-3943 , pp. 19-48.
  • Richard Kieckhefer : Repression of Heresy in Medieval Germany. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia (PA) 1979, ISBN 0-8122-7758-9 , chap. 3.
  • Edeltraud Klueting : Beguines, Mantellates and Carmelites in the 15th century . In: Edeltraud Klueting (Ed.): Pious women - uncomfortable women? Female religiosity in the Middle Ages (= Hildesheim research . Volume 3). Olms, Hildesheim u. a. 2006, ISBN 3-487-13073-4 , pp. 205-224.
  • Gordon Leff: Heresy in the Later Middle Ages. The Relation of Heterodoxy to Dissent c. 1250 - c. 1450 . 2 volumes, Manchester University Press a. a., New York (NY) 1967.
  • Robert E. Lerner: The Heresy of the Free Spirit in the Later Middle Ages. University of California Press, Berkeley (CA) a. a. 1972, ISBN 0-520-01908-3 .
  • Bernard McGinn : The presence of God. A History of Western Christian Mysticism. Volume 3: The Flowering of Mysticism. Men and Women in the New Mysticism (1200-1350) . Crossroad, New York (NY) 1998, ISBN 0-8245-1742-3 , chap. 1.4 and 5, (German translation: Die Mystik im Abendland. Volume 3: Blossom. Men and women of the new mysticism (1200-1350) . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau et al. 1999, ISBN 3-451-23383-5 ).
  • Saskia Murk-Jansen: Brides in the Desert. The Spirituality of the Beguines . Darton, Longman + Todd, London 1998, ISBN 1-57075-201-X .
  • Olaf Mußmann : Beguines - “Communards” of the Middle Ages? The "via media" in Hanover . In: Angela Dinghaus (Ed.): Frauenwelten. Biographical-historical sketches from Lower Saxony . Olms, Hildesheim u. a. 1993, ISBN 3-487-09727-3 , pp. 19-32.
  • Otto Nübel: Medieval Beguines and social settlements in the Netherlands. A contribution to the prehistory of the Fuggerei . Dissertation University Erlangen-Nürnberg 1968 (= Swabian Research Association at the Commission for Bavarian State History . Series 4, Volume 14; Studies on Fugger History . Volume 23). Mohr (Siebeck), Tübingen 1970.
  • Vera von der Osten-Sacken: Jakob von Vitrys Vita Mariae Oigniacensis. On the origin and characteristics of the first Beguines (= publications of the Institute for European History . Volume 223). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-525-10102-5 .
  • Alexander Patschovsky : Strasbourg beguin persecutions in the 14th century . In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages . Volume 30, 1974, pp. 56-198 ( digitized version ).
  • Dayton Phillips: Beguines in medieval Strasburg. A Study of the Social Aspect of Beguine Life . Dissertation Columbia University New York . Stanford University, Stanford (CA) 1941.
  • Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguining in Germany. Studies and Catalog . Dissertation at the Technical University of Berlin 2001 (= scientific series history . Volume 9). 2nd, expanded edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 .
  • Marco Schäfer: Diakonie in medieval beguinage communities . In: Johannes Eurich (Ed.): Diaconal action in the horizon of current challenges (= DWI-Info. Volume 38). Diaconal Science Institute, Heidelberg 2006, pp. 115–139.
  • Walter Simons: Cities of Ladies. Beguine Communities in the Medieval Low Countries, 1200-1565 . University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia (PA) 2001, ISBN 0-8122-3604-1 .
  • Jacqueline Tarrant: The Clementine Decrees on the Beguines. Conciliar and Papal Versions . In: Archivum Historiae Pontificiae . Volume 12, 1974, ISSN  0066-6785 , pp. 300-308.
  • Helga Unger: The Beguines. A story of the awakening and oppression of women . Herder publishing house, Freiburg im Breisgau u. a. 2005, ISBN 3-451-05643-7 .
  • Jörg Voigt: Beguines in the late Middle Ages. Women's piety in Thuringia and in the Reich . Dissertation University of Jena 2009 (= publications of the historical commission for Thuringia . Small series, volume 32). Böhlau Verlag, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2012, ISBN 978-3-412-20668-0 .

Web links

Commons : Beghards and Beguines  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. Ecumenical Lexicon of Saints: Beguines .
  2. a b c Peter Dinzelbacher: Handbook of the history of religion in the German-speaking area. Volume 2. High and Late Middle Ages . In: Peter Dinzelbacher (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte in German-speaking countries . 6 volumes, Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2000, ISBN 3-506-72021-X , phenomenological part. Holiness of man. Holy Communities. Semi-Religiousness, pp. 368-369.
  3. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.2. Spread and dimensions of the Beguine beings after evaluating the collection of registers. 4.2.3. The European Dimension of the Beguinage, pp. 53–56.
  4. ^ A b Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The History of the “Persecution” of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th Century as Reflected in Spiritual and Secular Ordinances, pp. 89–144.
  5. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.3. The penitentiary movement and the increased participation of lay people in religious life, pp. 56–63, here pp. 61–63.
  6. a b Herbert Grundmann: Religious Movements in the Middle Ages . Darmstadt 1970, p. 48 (first edition 1935).
  7. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.2. Spread and dimensions of the Beguine beings after evaluating the collection of registers. 4.2.2. The evaluation of the regesta on the German beguinage, pp. 43–53, Beginenklause: p. 48.
  8. Seelfrauen in: Das große Kunstlexikon by P. W. Hartmann , accessed on October 28, 2015
  9. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog. Cannstatt [Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt / Baden-Württemberg], p. 232.
  10. a b c Amalie Fößel , Anette Hettinger: nuns, beguines, heretics . 1st edition, Schulz-Kirchner Verlag, Idstein 2000, ISBN 3-8248-0032-2 , A nunnery women, beguines, heretics. Religious ways of life of women in the Middle Ages. II The Beguines: Pious Women Between Orthodoxy and Heresy. 2. Lifestyle and organizational forms of the Beguines, pp. 50–51.
  11. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 6. On the spirituality of the Beguines. 6.3. Vagabond and Deceitful Beguines, pp. 189–191.
  12. ^ A b Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog, pp. 212–389, examples for Klausen: Altenheim [Elsaß] p. 214: two female clauses; Birkach p. 221; Dienheim p. 237; Endingen p. 242; Feldkirchen p. 247: (around 1300 mention of a hermitage); Gelnhausen p. 255: 1311 large and small hermitages (with Franciscan Terziarinnen); Hausen ob Rottweil p. 266: Provisions for internal order; Kattenhorn p. 274: 1352 three female students; Metternich p. 319: (Klause testifies); Nordhausen [Nordheim-Nordhausen near Heilbronn / Baden-Württemberg] p. 329: (Beginenklause occupied); Oberkirch-Oberndorf pp. 331-332; Owen p. 336: (hermitage or house); Rottweil p. 346: from 1307 to 1525 four Klausen; Sobernheim p. 352; Thalheim [Baden-Württemberg] p. 365: 1376 at the same time hermitage and Franciscan Terziarinnen; Wachbach p. 374: (1311 Klause); Wattweiler p. 375: (1320 mention of the Begine Agnes of the Beginenklause).
  13. ^ Peter Dinzelbacher: Handbook of the history of religion in the German-speaking area. Volume 2. High and Late Middle Ages . In: Peter Dinzelbacher (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte in German-speaking countries . 6 volumes, Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2000, ISBN 3-506-72021-X , phenomenological part. Holiness of man. Official holiness. Clergy. Einsiedler, pp. 357-358.
  14. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules, 5.1. External signs of Beginism. 5.1.1. Beguinages pp. 145–147, strict character: p. 145.
  15. ^ Peter Dinzelbacher: Handbook of the history of religion in the German-speaking area. Volume 2. High and Late Middle Ages . In: Peter Dinzelbacher (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte in German-speaking countries . 6 volumes, Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2000, ISBN 3-506-72021-X , phenomenological part. Holiness of man. Official holiness. Clergy. Monks and Nuns, pp. 354–357, Advice: pp. 354–355.
  16. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.3. Admission of Beguines to a Convention, pp. 152–156.
  17. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.4. Organizational structures of the beguinage communities, pp. 157–161.
  18. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.4. Organizational structures of the beguine communities, footnote 836, p. 159.
  19. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.5. Exit clauses and the loss of a position in the beguinage, pp. 161–165.
  20. ^ A b c d Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen. 4.4.4. The development of former beguinage communities as Terziarerkonvente, pp. 73–77.
  21. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 1st edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2001, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen. 4.4.3. The Constitution of the Third Order, pp. 70–73.
  22. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen. 4.4.5. On the problem of differentiating between Beguines and Terziarinnen, pp. 78–79.
  23. ^ A b Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog. Altenburg [Jestetten-Altenburg near Waldshut-Tiengen / Baden-Württemberg], pp. 213–214: self-cultivated garden; Bulach [Karlsruhe-Bulach / Baden-Württemberg], p. 231: including the garden; Egesheim [near Rottweil / Baden-Württemberg], p. 240: extensive livestock; Eltville [near Mainz / Rhineland-Palatinate], p. 241: Beguines cultivate farm; Göttingen [Lower Saxony], p. 258: four sheep in Esebeck owned by the beguines; Cologne [North Rhine-Westphalia]. Convent Busse, p. 285: permits grain to be ground 3 times a week; Kolmar [Colmar / Alsace], p. 297: get fields, vineyards; Metternich [Koblenz-Metternich / Rhineland-Palatinate], p. 319: lease seven vineyard parcels; Oberrad [Frankfurt am Main-Oberrad / Hessen], p. 332: Livestock farming.
  24. ^ A b Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.6. Asset base and fields of activity of the Beguines. 5.6.2. The Exercise of Crafts by Beguines, pp. 167–170.
  25. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.2. Selection of Beguine Orders from the 13th Century to Modern Times 9.2.3. Catalog. III. Mainz Inclusive Rule from 1279, pp. 398–399.
  26. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog. Habenscheid ( wüst ) [near Limburg an der Lahn / Rhineland-Palatinate], p. 260; Mainz [Rhineland-Palatinate]. Walpurgis Convention, p. 312; Oberrad [Frankfurt am Main-Oberrad / Hessen], p. 332; Ravensburg [Baden-Württemberg], p. 339.
  27. James Lester Hogg : Carthusians . In: Peter Dinzelbacher , James Lester Hogg (Ed.): Cultural history of the Christian orders in individual representations . Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-520-45001-1 , 2nd rule, constitution, costume, pp. 281–285, here p. 285.
  28. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.6. Asset base and fields of activity of the Beguines. 5.6.1. Foundation capital and donations, pp. 165–167.
  29. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.2. Founders and sponsors of beguine communities, pp. 149–152, Seelenheil: p. 150; Order as owner of beguinages: p. 151.
  30. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 5. Life in the Beginning Convention - Insight through Beguine Rules. 5.6. Asset base and fields of activity of the Beguines. 5.6.3. Nursing and Service to the Dead, pp. 170–174.
  31. Martin Erbstößer: Social religious currents in the late Middle Ages. Flagellants, free spirits and Waldensians in the 14th century. Berlin 1970, p. 113.
  32. a b c d e f g Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguinage in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.1. First evidence of the Begiian way of life reflected in the representations of Jacob von Vitry and Caesarius von Heisterbach, pp. 32–41.
  33. ^ A b Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.1. The curial and synodal Beguine's ordinances up to the Beguine's privilege of 1280, pp. 89–102.
  34. William A. Hinnebusch: A Short History of the Dominican Order . Preface by Guy Bedouelle . 1st edition, St. Benno-Verlag, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-7462-1688-5 , I. The foundation of the order. Dominikus der Gründer, pp. 22–25, equating poverty and penance movements: p. 23 (translated by Christophe Holzer, Winfried Locher).
  35. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen. 4.4.1 Contacts of mendicant orders with Beguines, pp. 63–69.
  36. ^ Karl Remmen: The urban space of Neuss. Correlation of geomorphological parameters and the development of usage requirements and spatial planning up to the Staufer period . Inaugural dissertation at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf 2002, Bocholt 2002, pp. 45, 50, 54, 148–149 ( full text in Universität Düsseldorf [PDF; 7.7 MB; accessed on November 5, 2019]).
  37. William A. Hinnebusch: A Short History of the Dominican Order . Preface by Guy Bedouelle . 1st edition, St. Benno-Verlag, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-7462-1688-5 , II. The expansion of the order 1221-1303. The last 18 years of the 13th century, pp. 68–71, tacit recognition: p. 70 (translated by Christophe Holzer, Winfried Locher).
  38. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.2. Semireligiosity as a problem of church discipline - The ambivalent attitude of the church on the beguine's question up to the beguin protection bull of 1321, pp. 102–115.
  39. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.4. The dissolution of some Beguine Convents under Charles IV in 1452, pp. 118–128.
  40. ^ Ferdinand Seibt : Karl IV. An Emperor in Europe 1316-1378 . new edition, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2003, ISBN 3-596-16005-7 , 8th chapter: Der Friedensfürst. The second train to Rome. Pp. 339-342.
  41. ^ Ferdinand Seibt : Karl IV. An Emperor in Europe 1316-1378 . new edition, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2003, ISBN 3-596-16005-7 , 9th chapter: We, Karl… Hofkultur. Pp. 367-376, here p. 372.
  42. Jiří Spěváček: piety and loyalty to the Church as an instrument of political ideology of Charles IV. In: Evamaria Engel on behalf Central Institute of History at the Academy of Sciences of the GDR (ed.) . Charles IV politics and ideology in the 14th century . Hermann Böhlaus successor, Weimar 1982, DNB 830490582 , pp. 158-170.
  43. William A. Hinnebusch: A Short History of the Dominican Order . Preface by Guy Bedouelle . 1st edition, St. Benno-Verlag, Leipzig 2004, ISBN 3-7462-1688-5 , II. The expansion of the order 1221-1303. [Introduction], pp. 40–41 (translated by Christophe Holzer, Winfried Locher).
  44. ^ A b c Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.5. The institutionalization of the Beguinage by Pope Nicholas V in 1452, pp. 128-137.
  45. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog. Landshut [Bavaria], p. 301.
  46. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 1st edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2001, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen. 4.4.3. The constitution of the Third Order. Footnote 374, p. 73.
  47. ^ Herbert Helbig : Society and Economy of the Mark Brandenburg in the Middle Ages (= Historical Commission of Berlin [Hrsg.]: Publications of the Historical Commission of Berlin . Volume 41). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1973, ISBN 3-11-003795-5 , Society and social order. The clergy, pp. 33–35, hardly any town charter: p. 33.
  48. a b Kirsten Schmies: Stendal. Franciscan Sisters . In: Heinz-Dieter Heimann , Klaus Neitmann , Winfried Schich and others (eds.): Brandenburgisches Klosterbuch. Handbook of the monasteries, pens and commander by the mid-16th century. Volume II (= Klaus Neitmann on behalf of the Brandenburg Historical Commission and in connection with the Brandenburg State Main Archive [Hrsg.]: Brandenburg Historical Studies . Volume 14). Be.Bra Wissenschaft Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-937233-26-0 , 2nd volumes, 2nd historical outline. 2.1 History of the monastery and monastery, pp. 1225–1226.
  49. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.6. Beguines and the Decline of Medieval Penance During the Reformation, pp. 137–144.
  50. Der Tagesspiegel online, travel magazine, June 27, 2004, page no longer available , search in web archives: Online .@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / archiv.tagesspiegel.de
  51. After 800 years the Beginism in Flanders is slowly dying out .
  52. Marcella Pattyn, the world's last Beguine, died on April 14th, aged 92 . (accessed October 28, 2015).
  53. Modern beguinage communities .
  54. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.6. The history of the "persecution" of the Beguines from the 13th to the 16th centuries as reflected in spiritual and secular ordinances. 4.6.3 The involvement of southern French Beguines in the poverty dispute of 1318–1323, pp. 115–118.
  55. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.4. Franciscans and Dominicans as pastors of the Beguines and Terziarinnen, pp. 63–79.
  56. Ferdinand Seibt : Splendor and misery of the Middle Ages. A finite story . Bassermann Verlag, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8094-1996-9 , IV Spiritual, spiritual and worldly adventures. Neue Ketzer - neue Orden, pp. 195–201 (first edition: Siedler Verlag, Munich 1987).
  57. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 4. The history of the beguines as part of the penance movement. 4.5. Cistercian monasteries, town courts and beguines, pp. 79–89.
  58. ^ A b c d Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 6. On the spirituality of the Beguines. 6.2. Juliana von Lüttich, Mechthild and Margareta von Magdeburg and Marguerite Porete - Ordinary Beguines ?, pp. 180–188.
  59. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 7. The Last Beguines of Modern Times, pp. 192–200 (number 26 not mentioned).
  60. ^ Frank-Michael Reichstein: The Beguines in Germany . 2nd edition, Verlag Dr. Köster, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89574-427-3 , 9th appendix. 9.1. Regesta on the German Beguines. 9.1.4. Catalog. Kranenburg [near Kleve / North Rhine-Westphalia], pp. 299–300 (Beginenberg can be found e.g. via OpenStreetMap ).
  61. ^ Bruno Rottenbach: Würzburg street names. Volume 1 . Franconian company printing house, Würzburg 1967, p. 51.