Frederick II (HRR)
. Frederick II (* 26. December 1194 in Jesi in Ancona , imperial Italy ; † 13. December 1250 in Castel Fiorentino at Lucera , Kingdom of Sicily ) from the noble family of the Staufer was from 1198 King of Sicily , from 1212 Roman-German king and 1220 Emperor of the Roman-German Empire until his death . In addition, from 1225 he carried the title "King of Jerusalem". From his 39 years in office asRoman-German ruler he stayed in Italy for 28 years.
After the death of his father, the Roman-German Emperor Heinrich VI. , Friedrich succeeded in uniting his northern and southern empires (unio regni ad imperium) . In the empire north of the Alps he was able to assert himself against Otto IV and end the controversy for the throne with the Guelphs that had been going on since 1198 . Frederick made numerous concessions to the imperial princes north of the Alps through the Statutum in favorem principum ("Statute in favor of the princes") and the Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis ("Alliance with the princes of the church"). In the southern empire, on the other hand, under his rule the central royal power was strengthened through territorial administration and legislation. In 1224 he founded the University of Naples for this purpose . In 1231, the first secular legal codification of the Middle Ages was enacted with the Melfi Constitutions . With Frederick the Arab settlement of Sicily ended , the integration of the island into the western-occidental cultural area was completed. A network of forts in southern Italy and important buildings such as the Castel del Monte served to represent and legitimize the rulers. His court developed into an important center of poetry and science. Following his predilection for falconry, he wrote his famous work De arte venandi cum avibus (“On the art of hunting with birds”).
A departure for the crusade promised in 1215, Frederick postponed several times because of the reorganization of his kingdom of Sicily, which is why Pope Gregory IX. Excommunicated in 1227 . Although Frederick was excluded from the Christian community, he regained the most important pilgrimage sites on his crusade in 1228/29 without a fight. In 1230 a temporary settlement with the Pope was achieved, which resulted in the lifting of the excommunication.
In northern Italy, Frederick II was unable to perform the traditional ruling tasks of maintaining peace and justice in relation to the up-and-coming municipalities . In a society in which honor (honor) the social rank certain sparked defamation and the resulting pressure to succeed one for Frederick no longer manageable power crisis. The disputes with the municipalities were closely related to the conflict with the papacy that broke out again in 1239. At the Council of Lyon in 1245, Emperor Frederick was declared deposed. The power struggle between the secular and the spiritual leader was carried out to a previously unknown extent as a battle of the law firms . Frederick's conflict with Popes Gregory IX. (1227–1241) and Innocent IV (1243–1254) also prevented joint action against the impending Mongol threat . In general, on top of that, an ever-increasing end - time mood spread , while excommunication increasingly dissolved the ties of his rule based on personal fidelity. In the Roman-German Empire, the opposing kings Heinrich Raspe and Wilhelm von Holland were elected under Friedrich II . There were numerous conspiracies and assassination attempts in Sicily.
With the death of the last Hohenstaufen emperor, historical studies let the late Middle Ages begin. Papal propaganda demonized Friedrich as a persecutor and heretic , atheist , antichrist or as a beast of the Johannes apocalypse . For his followers, however, Friedrich was regarded as the “wonder of the world” (stupor mundi) or “greatest among the princes of the earth” (principum mundi maximus) .
From the late 13th century onwards, a large number of " false fries " appeared who claimed to be the returned Staufer. Among the nationally-minded German humanists , his grandfather Friedrich "Barbarossa" was upgraded, the importance of Friedrich II decreased. In Italy, the image of Friedrich remained negative for a long time due to papal propaganda. It was not until the Risorgimento epoch that Frederick was celebrated as the "father of the Ghibelline fatherland" in the struggle for national unification . In his biography, published in 1927, Ernst Kantorowicz stylized Staufer as an ideal ruler in Germany. This Friedrich image remained formative until the end of the 20th century and only since then has it slowly been replaced by a more sober approach.
Life up to the coronation of the emperor (1194-1220)
Origin and youth
Friedrich was born on December 26, 1194 in the central Italian town of Jesi in the Ancona region. He came from the noble family that was later called " Staufer " from the 15th century .
Of particular importance for the Hohenstaufen in a high-ranking society was their prestigious maternal relationship with the Salians . The grandfather of Frederick II, Frederick "Barbarossa", saw himself as a descendant of the first Salier emperor, Konrad II , to whom he referred several times as his ancestor in documents. After the male line of Salians died out in 1125, the Hohenstaufen was raised first by Duke Friedrich II of Swabia and then by Konrad III. vain claim to royal dignity. Only through the election of Konrad III. to become king in 1138, the Hohenstaufen rose to a royal family. In 1152 the royal dignity passed smoothly to Konrad's nephew Friedrich "Barbarossa", who also became Emperor of the Roman-German Empire in 1155. "Barbarossa" led a conflict with Pope Alexander III for decades . and the northern Italian municipalities. Honor played a special role in the personal hierarchy and rulership of the early and high Middle Ages . Violations of honor by the head of the Reich were at the same time a violation of the dignity of the Reich. The preservation of the "honor of the empire" ( Honor Imperii ) , which the emperor through the appearance of the cardinal Roland and later Pope Alexander III. saw attacked, and the duty to revenge defamation led to protracted conflicts with the papacy. It was not until 1177 that the conflict could be resolved in the Peace of Venice . In relation to the northern Italian cities, the imperial rights ( regalia ), which Frederick I claimed more strongly than his predecessors, were the cause for decades of conflict. In the Peace of Constance in 1183 a balance could be found with the cities. The problems with the municipalities of Northern Italy, which became more and more economically stronger and more independent in the High Middle Ages, were also to put a considerable strain on the reign of Frederick II.
In the middle of the 1180s, "Barbarossa" succeeded in marrying his son Heinrich with the Norman princess Konstanze von Hauteville , the daughter of Sicily's first Norman King Roger II. Heinrich intended to combine the empire with the Sicilian Regnum (unio regni ad imperium) . His wife Konstanze, who had remained childless until then, gave birth to Friedrich in 1194 after eight years of marriage and almost forty years of age. For these reasons, many rumors and legends circulated around the birth. According to the opponents of the Staufer, Friedrich on his father's side was not of royal descent at all, but the imputed son of a butcher, a falconer or a miller. According to the Florentine chronicler Ricordano Malispini (around 1282), in order to prove her motherhood, Konstanze is said to have given birth publicly in a tent on a market square. The anti-emperor statements are classified in the research as not very credible.
Friedrich was handed over to the Duchess of Spoleto after just three months . Her husband Konrad von Urslingen was one of Heinrich VI's closest confidants. Friedrich spent the first years of his life at the Herzogshof in Foligno . Around Christmas 1196, the princes in Frankfurt elected the two-year-old king's son in absentia as Roman-German king (rex Romanorum) . With this election, his father wanted to have his succession settled before he set out on his crusade . After the unexpected death of his father in Messina , the almost three-year-old Friedrich, whose coronation as Roman-German king had not taken place, came to the court in Palermo in the autumn of 1197 . On May 17, 1198 he was crowned King of Sicily in the Cathedral of Palermo . Simultaneously with the coronation as King of Sicily, Constanze renounced the title rex Romanorum for Friedrich , as the Pope feared a dual rule of the northern Alpine empire and Sicily.
At the age of four, Friedrich also lost his mother Konstanze on November 27, 1198. Friedrich was an orphan, whereupon Pope Innocent III. took over the guardianship. Internal power struggles broke out between the rival parties over the leadership of the government. In the following years tried the Chancellor Walter von Pagliara , Norman barons, papal legates and confidants of the late Emperor Henry VI. to exercise rulership by controlling little Friedrich. Many barons took the opportunity to break away from central power. The authority over the boy had Walter von Pagliara, since November 1201 Markward von Annweiler , since the end of 1202 Wilhelm von Capparone, presumably a German military leader, and from November 1206 to Christmas 1208 again Walter von Pagliara.
Nothing further is known about Frederick's childhood in Palermo. Legend has it that the young king wandered the streets of Palermo unsupervised and nourished himself on mild gifts. Rather, Friedrich received a knightly training, learned numerous languages, reading, writing and hunting. On December 26, 1208, the Pope's tutelage ended. Friedrich did not come of age, but entered a minor with limited legal capacity. Innocent had arranged a marriage for Friedrich with Konstanze , a daughter of King Alfonso II of Aragon , which was concluded in October 1208 by a representative of Friedrich in Aragon. The wedding took place in August 1209, when Konstanze arrived late in Sicily. In his first independent actions, Friedrich intervened in the occupation of the ore chair of Palermo and probably pushed his chancellor Walter von Pagliara out of office in February 1210.
Fight against Otto IV.
Heinrich's death had created a power vacuum in the empire north of the Alps. Since there were no written norms about the elections of kings, two kings were elected with the Guelph Otto IV and the Staufer Philipp von Schwaben - Friedrich's uncle - each supported by a group of princes. In 1208 Philip was murdered in Bamberg by Otto VIII von Wittelsbach , whereupon Otto IV took over the rule of the northern Alpine part of the empire unchallenged. Contrary to his promises to the Pope, his most important sponsor, the Guelph stayed in Italy after his coronation as emperor in 1209 and asserted his rule. He subjugated Apulia and Calabria and wanted to translate to Sicily. Otto intended to conquer the Sicilian empire of Frederick and thereby disregarded the papal feudal sovereignty. Thereupon he was excommunicated by the Pope in November 1210, but nevertheless advanced to southern Italy and Sicily. His actions were not based on consensus with the princes north of the Alps. In the empire north of the Alps, the Archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Albrecht of Magdeburg , Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia and the Bohemian King Ottokar I Přemysl therefore elected Frederick II as the “other emperor” (alium imperatorum) in Nuremberg in September 1211 . This had previously been proposed by the Pope to the princes as a candidate. In view of the endangerment of his claim to power, Otto rushed back to the empire north of the Alps. This strengthened Friedrich's conviction that only a success against his competitors could secure his Sicilian kingdom in the long term. He was also interested in succeeding his ancestors in the empire north of the Alps. With a small retinue and papal support, but without an army of his own, Friedrich set out there in March 1212. In the same month Friedrich's son Heinrich, who was not yet one year old, was crowned King of Sicily.
During the double kingship, the municipalities of northern Italy took different sides. Milan remained loyal to Otto IV, while Cremona and Pavia stood up for Philip and then for Frederick. Milan tried by all means to prevent Friedrich's train in the northern Alpine part of the empire. In front of the Milanese pursuers, Friedrich managed to cross the Lambro on a horse in the middle of the night . The Annales Mediolanenses Minores , the “Little Milanese Annals”, mocked the fact that Friedrich got “wet pants” ( balneavit sarabulum in Lambro , “he bathed his pants in the Lambro”) while fleeing the Milanese in the river Lambro . Despite all the problems, Friedrich reached Lake Constance in September 1212 with the support of the bishops of Trient and Chur and the abbot of Sankt Gallen . Just a few hours before Otto's arrival in Constance , Friedrich was able to gain entry through Bishop Konrad and win the important city in southwest Germany over. Otto avoided a siege and withdrew to the Lower Rhine.
On September 26, 1212, Friedrich issued his first documents on German soil for the King of Bohemia and the Margrave of Moravia . The documents are known as the Sicilian Golden Bulls because they were authenticated with Frederick's Sicilian king's seal in gold. The most famous (DF. II 171) of the three documents for King Ottokar I and his brother, the Moravian Margrave Wladislaw Heinrich , was interpreted in the Czech-German national debates of the 19th and 20th centuries as the cornerstone for the constitutional status of Bohemia. In the weeks and months that followed, Friedrich was able to bind his followers to himself through numerous privileges and privileges and to win over other princes. This enabled him to consolidate his position throughout the south of the empire. Through his sovereign generosity (milte) he clearly differed from his Guelph opponent; for this he was praised by chroniclers and poets, especially by Walther von der Vogelweide . In November 1212 Frederick concluded an alliance with the French King Philip II August , which brought him 20,000 silver marks. He immediately distributed this money among the greats of the empire in order to reward them for their efforts in service to the empire and to ensure their support in the future as well.
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On December 5, Friedrich was elected king in Frankfurt , his coronation was carried out on December 9, 1212 in Mainz Cathedral by Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz . On July 12, 1213, Frederick confirmed the promises that Otto IV had made to the Pope in March 1209 in the " Gold Bull of Eger ". With the Duchy of Spoleto and the Mark of Ancona, Frederick renounced important areas in Italy and also the rights claimed by his predecessors in the elections of bishops. In a brief document, Duke Ludwig of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine gave his consent to the king's orders in 1214. This is the first time that princely letters of will have been handed down as a new means of granting consensus.
Frederick's rule in the empire north of the Alps was not yet consolidated at the end of 1213. At Christmas 1213 he had Philip's body transferred from Bamberg to Speyer , the most important burial place of the Roman-German kings and emperors. In doing so, he continued the tradition of his Salian and Staufer ancestors in order to publicly demonstrate the legitimacy of his rule.
Otto moved with an army to France to support his English ally, King Johann Ohneland . There he suffered a crushing defeat on July 27, 1214 in the battle of Bouvines between Lille and Tournai . Thereupon Otto retired to Braunschweig and remained unmolested by Friedrich until his death, but also without any supraregional influence. In the months that followed, Frederick enforced his rule throughout the empire. On July 25, 1215, he was crowned again by the Archbishop of Mainz in Aachen, the traditional coronation site of the Roman-German rulers. On the same day Friedrich committed himself to a crusade, which was an opportunity for him to distinguish himself as the protector of all of Christianity. There was also a notion that by participating in the crusade, full forgiveness of all sins could be obtained and fame gained in the struggle for the faith. In Aachen, Frederick sat on the throne of Charlemagne . Two days after his coronation, Frederick himself took part in the closing of the Charlemagne shrine when the remains of Charlemagne were reburied . Through this ritual act he followed up on the Charlemagne tradition and presented himself as the successor to the legendary Franconian emperor. In November 1215 Friedrich was finally recognized as Roman-German king at the Fourth Lateran Council and the lifting of Otto's excommunication was rejected.
In the following years Friedrich stayed mainly in the south of the empire, in the traditional Hohenstaufen region. In addition to the episcopal cities of Speyer, Augsburg or Würzburg and the Palatinate of Nuremberg , Ulm and Frankfurt , the Palatinate Hagenau, like its predecessors, was of particular importance. 22 stays are recorded in the Stauferpfalz Hagenau in Alsace.
King's election of Henry (VII.)
On July 1, 1216 in Strasbourg, during negotiations about the future coronation of the emperor, Frederick promised that after the coronation he would hand over the kingdom of Sicily to his son and that he would renounce the Sicilian royal dignity himself. However, he did not honor these promises, but brought his son Heinrich to the northern Alpine part of the empire in 1216 and transferred the Duchy of Swabia to him , and later also the rectorate of Burgundy . In February 1217 Heinrich used the title dux Suevie for the first time in a document . Henry's Sicilian royal title was dropped in the same year to allay concerns on the papal side that a connection with the Sicilian kingdom was being sought. In this context, Friedrich did not want to endanger his own coronation as emperor by the Pope. He repeated in Hagenau in 1219 to the new Pope Honorius III. the promises he had made in Eger in 1216.
At the end of April 1220, nine-year-old Heinrich was elected Roman-German king on a court day in Frankfurt. In order to approve this election, Friedrich made numerous concessions on April 26, 1220, especially to the clergy princes. These included the coinage and customs rights, which should lead to a considerable strengthening of the ecclesiastical territories. Since the 19th century this comprehensive privilege has been called Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis (alliance with the clergy princes). Historians of the 19th century interpreted it as an example of the loss of power of the royal central authority over princely particular interests. But it was hardly about new claims, because the process of expanding the episcopal territorial rule had already progressed well in the previous decades. The former royal rights were only evidenced by this comprehensive privilege for the clergy princes. The demonstrated loyalty that was hoped for in the future obliged the king to reward the princes with special favors and to seek consensus with them. As a result, this rule of law did not meet with criticism from contemporaries. Two years after the election, Heinrich was crowned and consecrated king on May 8, 1222 in Aachen by the Archbishop of Cologne. Until Heinrich came of age, the rulership was with Archbishop Engelbert of Cologne , Duke Ludwig of Bavaria and Bishop Konrad of Metz and Speyer .
Phase of universal rule (1220-1238)
Imperial coronation 1220
Friedrich promised in February 1220 that he would renounce the Kingdom of Sicily for his son Heinrich and that he would appoint a regent suitable for the Pope until he reached the age of majority. In September 1220 Friedrich was back in Italy after an eight-year absence. On November 22nd, Friedrich and his wife Konstanze were welcomed by Pope Honorius III. crowned emperor and empress in St. It was the last imperial coronation in Rome for 92 years. At the imperial coronation, Friedrich renewed his vow to carry out a crusade. In August of the following year he promised to leave for the crusade.
Securing and stabilizing the royal rule in Sicily
After eight years of absence, Friedrich returned to Sicily in December 1220. On December 20, 1220 he held a court day in Capua and issued a small collection of 20 laws for the Kingdom of Sicily, which became known as the Assises of Capua . One focus of the Assisen was the topic “On the Destruction of New Buildings” (De novis edificiis deruendis) . During Frederick's underage and absence, the Sicilian nobility built or took over numerous fortresses. All castles built since 1189 without royal consent should now be confiscated or destroyed. Friedrich also forbade the barons to build new forts. Another important part of the Assisen was an absolute ban on feuds for all subjects. Thus, unauthorized revenge in the event of injustice was forbidden and it was prescribed that justice should be sought before the court court or the courts established by the king in the provinces. A little later the Assises of Messina were issued, in which blasphemy and the game of dice were forbidden. Jews and prostitutes also had to identify themselves with special clothing. In 1224 Frederick issued a heresy edict - not at the instigation of the Pope, but probably at the request of the northern Italian bishops . Heretics should be punished with the stake or, as a deterrent, with the loss of their tongue. With this law, Frederick intended to continue to enforce his rule, but it also strengthened the authority of the northern Italian bishops vis-à-vis the townspeople.
A powerful administration was necessary for the implementation of the Assisen. A new uniform silver currency ( denarii ) was also introduced for their establishment , which enabled southern Italy to be integrated into the European economic area. Under Frederick's rule, the Kingdom of Sicily was divided into provinces with clearly defined borders. This was an innovation that was unknown in Europe up to that point in time. Frederick's provincial division remained in force until the unification of Italy in 1860. In the summer of 1224, Frederick founded a university in Naples . It was the first university in Europe founded by an emperor and independent of ecclesiastical influence. The foundation of the university was supposed to guarantee the next generation of specialists loyal to the emperor, especially lawyers, in the Kingdom of Sicily and this independently of the anti-Hohenstaufen Bologna or other northern Italian law schools. Frederick's Sicilian subjects should only study at this university in the future.
The stabilization of rule also included Frederick's fight against the Muslims in Sicily. They lived there since the 9th century, but the population structure had changed since Roger II to the advantage of the Latin-Christian population and to the detriment of the Muslims; the Muslims had withdrawn to the central west of the island in cave castles that were difficult to access . Raids by some insurgent Muslims resulted in unrest and losses in royal income. Therefore, Friedrich took military action against them in 1222. The Muslims offered considerable resistance until the spring of 1225 and Friedrich had to demand a Saracen tax from his subjects several times to finance the war. Between 1224 and 1245, thousands of Sicilian Muslims were deported to Lucera in Apulia, more than 800 kilometers away , where they could practice their religion undisturbed. Friedrich granted them the right to practice their religion, their own jurisdiction and self-administration. The Muslims came to terms with the situation, became loyal supporters of the emperor and served him as soldiers and court staff. With Frederick's rule in 1246, the Arab settlement of Sicily and the coexistence of Christian and Muslim cultures on the island ended. Friedrich also used the fight against the Muslims to get rid of the nobles, whose followers were insecure. The counts who carelessly pursued the fight against the Muslims were arrested and their property confiscated.
From 1220 Friedrich stayed mainly in Apulia and Campania . Until now, Palermo had been the residence of the kings of Sicily, but under Frederick Foggia became the preferred place of residence. Forty stays there are documented from 1221 until his death. In Foggia Friedrich began to build a palace complex in 1223, which was completed in 1225. Only a portal and an inscription remain from this residence . After the imperial coronation, Frederick rarely visited Palermo.
Friedrich had his rule visualized and secured through numerous buildings. According to recent research, 287 buildings were expanded or rebuilt in the Sicilian Empire between the year of the imperial coronation in 1220 and the death of the Staufer in 1250. In the 1230s in particular, numerous buildings were erected. The Castello d'Augusta was built from 1232 to 1242 and the Castello Maniace in Syracuse from 1234 to 1240 . The brisk construction activity in the south-west of Sicily could be related to the construction of a second residence for Frederick. The Castel del Monte is considered to be Friedrich's most fascinating building, although it was only given its name 200 years later. It is an octagonal fort with octagonal towers, built on a hill southwest of Andria , which must have been built after 1240. The use of the fort remains unclear. In many cases, functions as a hunting lodge, defense structure, representative building or favorite residence of the emperor have been considered. For the Castel del Monte, however, there is no evidence of Frederick's stay and numerous counter-arguments were also given for the other possible uses. It is possible that Friedrich consciously linked the fort's octagonal shape to the Marienkirche in Aachen .
The largest Frederician foundation outside of Sicily is Prato Castle . It was located on an important north-south connection between Tuscany and the Apennines and primarily served to represent the rulers. Between 1234 and 1239 Friedrich on left Volturno the bridge gate of Capua build that made clear to all travelers in the first major city in the Kingdom of Sicily as entrance gate, who held the power in this. The bridge gate is considered to be one of the most impressive testimonies to the representation of medieval power. Friedrich had hundreds of forts built, but with the Cathedral of Altamura in Apulia, founded in 1232, only one church was founded.
Disputes with the municipalities
In Cremona , Friedrich convened his first court day in Lombardy at Easter 1226. The imperial-friendly city was also Milan's main rival. The Milanese therefore feared disadvantages in the imperial jurisdiction at the court day in Cremona and fueled the fear of an overpowering rule of the Hohenstaufen. On March 6, 1226 Milan renewed the Lombard cities with Bologna, Brescia, Mantua, Padua, Vicenza and Treviso ; Piacenza, Verona, Alessandria and Faenza joined the alliance a little later. Verona blocked the Alpine passes and thereby prevented the influx of Friedrich's son Heinrich and the princes from the northern part of the empire to Cremona. The cities demanded that Friedrich refrain from exercising his jurisdiction during his stay in Lombardy and not take more than 1200 horses with him. The fear of a partisan ruler had existed in the communes since Friedrich Barbarossa. Milan did not expect a fair decision from an imperial court in disputes with cities allied with Frederick II.
The exercise of jurisdiction was very important for the recognition and representation of rulership. A rejection of the court therefore disregarded the imperial claim to power and violated the honor imperii et imperatoris . These events were the starting point for decades of conflict. The federal cities lost the imperial grace and were ostracized as enemies of the empire . Friedrich declared the Constance Peace of 1183 invalid.
From 1226, the papal arbitration determined Frederick's conflict with the federal government. The first arbitration award of January 5, 1227 provided that the federal government should provide 400 knights as compensation for insulting the emperor for the impending crusade. For this, the Lombards were to be re-accepted into the imperial grace. For Friedrich, on the other hand, it was essential that obedience and subordination as a performance of satisfaction were visibly demonstrated for the resumption of his grace through symbolic submission. Only through the ritual of the deditio could the emperor's claim to the restoration of the injured honor imperii be satisfied. In order not to endanger the impending crusade by a conflict, the emperor postponed this demand.
Crusade 1228/29
The reorganization of his kingdom was a priority for Friedrich. At the same time, the crusade enthusiasm suffered a considerable setback due to the defeat of the crusaders off Damiette in the late summer of 1221. Friedrich postponed the start of the promised crusade several times. In March 1223, the Emperor and Pope agreed to set off on the crusade in June 1225. In addition, Friedrich committed himself to marry Isabella von Brienne, the heir to the Kingdom of Jerusalem , after Friedrich's first wife, Konstanze, died in 1222. Because of his marriage to Isabella he carried the title "King of Jerusalem" from 1225 until his death. After the death of Pope Honorius III. was on March 19, 1227 Cardinal Bishop Hugolinus of Ostia as Gregory IX. elected pope. He was less willing to compromise with Friedrich than his predecessor. In July 1225, Friedrich had committed himself by the Treaty of San Germano to break up in August 1227 at the latest and take over the entire financing of the crusade company. In the event of non-fulfillment of these obligations, the contract provided for the excommunication of the emperor. However, because of a serious epidemic, Friedrich had to postpone the start of the crusade sworn in August 1227: he was still out to sea, but two days later he went ashore again in Otranto . Many died of the epidemic, including Landgrave Ludwig IV of Thuringia ; the emperor himself fell ill. On September 29, 1227, Frederick fell into disrepair through Pope Gregory IX, who did not recognize the imperial justifications, because of the broken promise of excommunication on the crusade.
On June 28, 1228, Friedrich set off from Brindisi with 40 ships on the crusade, without first having sought reconciliation with the Pope. So far it had never happened that a ruler set out for the Holy Land despite excommunication. Friedrich hoped to achieve the lifting of the ban from church through a success in the Holy Land. The largest crusader contingents in support of Frederick came from central Germany (Hesse, Meißen, Thuringia) and from the Hohenstaufen domains in the south-west of the empire (Swabia, Alsace and Burgundy). His armed forces consisted of about 1,000 knights and about 10,000 foot soldiers.
After a six-week stopover in Cyprus, where the feudal sovereignty of the empire was affirmed, Friedrich reached Acre on September 7, 1228 . The conflict with the Pope had split his army of crusaders. Templars and Johanniter refused allegiance to the excommunicated ruler. On the other hand, Sultan al-Kamil tried to avoid a fight as he threatened a war with his brothers. The emerging rumors about the incursion of papal troops into the Kingdom of Sicily put Friedrich under increasing pressure to succeed. After five months of negotiation, the Treaty of Jaffa reached an agreement with the Sultan on February 11, 1229. A ten-year armistice was signed. With Jerusalem , Bethlehem and Nazareth, the Sultan ceded the most important destinations of the Christian pilgrims as well as some other smaller places to Friedrich. However, with the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the founding site of the Templar Order remained with the Arabs. The temple square with the Dome of the Rock and the villages in the vicinity of Jerusalem also remained in Muslim hands. Friedrich demonstrated his claim to power by presenting himself in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher with a crown and royal robes on March 18, 1229. Contrary to the assumption of earlier historians, Friedrich, as an excommunicated person, renounced a self-coronation. On the same day Friedrich sent a circular to the Pope, the kings of England and France, to his son Heinrich and to the greats of the empire, in which he explained his success. However, the Pope did not lift the excommunication despite fulfilling the crusade vows.
Reorganization of the Kingdom of Sicily
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During Frederick's absence, mercenaries occupied large parts of the Kingdom of Sicily on behalf of the Pope. Some cities use Frederick's excommunication and absence to renounce his rule and submit to the Pope. Frederick left the Holy Land with seven galleys and landed in Brindisi on June 10, 1229. The papal troops were quickly repulsed. As a deterrent, Friedrich Sora (north of Montecassino ) and San Severo (near Foggia) were completely destroyed. Foggia, Troia, Casalnuovo, Larino and Civitate had to take hostages and tear down their fortifications.
In view of the weakening of his rule in Sicily, Frederick intervened in the structures of the kingdom through reform and legislative measures. In August 1231, the constitutions of Melfi were promulgated as a basic body of law , often also referred to in Latin as Constitutiones Regni Siciliae and, since the 19th century, also as Liber Augustalis ("Book of the Emperor"). The constitutions of Melfi are divided into 219 individual laws in three books and are the first secular legal codification of the Middle Ages. With the exception of individual provisions, the laws remained valid in Sicily and southern Italy until the time of Napoleon . The tasks and rights that the Melfi constitutions laid down for the officials in the provinces, however, rarely corresponded to the activities carried out in reality. Even the highest provincial officials had to look after the musicians for the imperial court or work-shy servants. Also in 1231 the Augustals (gold coins) were minted. Gold coins were not only used as a means of accumulation and long-distance trade, but also served to represent power. Friedrich is depicted on the front with a laurel wreath and an eagle and the name + FRID-RICVS appear on the back. Approximately one million gold coins were circulated between 1231 and 1250.
Reconciliation with the Pope
In the peace negotiations between the emperor and the pope that began in November 1229, the future status of Gaeta played an essential role. Gregory IX. had promised the pope-friendly city during Frederick's absence on the crusade that it would not be subject to any other rule and power in the future. As a result, Frederick's claim to power in his Sicilian hereditary realm was ignored and challenged again by the murder of the imperial messenger. In the Peace of San Germano on August 28, 1230, the conflict with the Pope was largely settled through the mediation efforts of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Hermann von Salza . On September 2, the Pope received Frederick at his parents' house in Anagni . The reconciliation was made public by sharing a meal as an act of demonstrative confidentiality. At this point the Gaeta question had probably already been resolved in favor of the emperor. By hesitating and lacking solutions for a long time, Frederick wanted to publicly disavow the Pope; only in June 1233 did he agree to a solution.
Confrontation with the Lombard League
The second phase of the dispute with the Lombard League began with the imperial announcement that a court day would be held in Ravenna on November 1, 1231 . As a result, the Lombard League again blocked the Alpine passes, thereby preventing the German princes from moving to the emperor. On January 14, 1232, Friedrich renewed the ban on the league. A second papal arbitration was then initiated. Friedrich expected the demonstrative recognition of his rule through submission, or the federal government should face a formal trial before the emperor as a judge. However, this was opposed by the notorious partiality of the imperial court since Friedrich's grandfather Friedrich “Barbarossa”. It formed a considerable structural weakness in the exercise of power south of the Alps against the mutually hostile municipalities. The Pope's arbitration was more aimed at balancing and treating the parties equally. The second award, with the provision of 500 knights, was not much different from the first. Friedrich then complained that the arbitration award did not provide him with adequate satisfactio for the insults he had suffered . The injured honor of the emperor and empire could only be restored through symbolic submission in the greatest possible public.
Conflict with Friedrich's son King Heinrich (VII.)
The actions of Friedrich's son Heinrich in the northern Alpine empire were entirely geared towards safeguarding the royal honor . Friedrich, on the other hand, wanted to maintain his patria potestas , the paternal power over his son, and expected unconditional obedience. Friedrich was only able to enforce his rule in the empire north of the Alps against his rival Otto IV. With the support of the princes, and he owed the empire to them. So he had to seek consensus for his actions with the big guys. A separate chancellery was set up for Heinrich and his own seal created, but he could not shape his royal rule in the empire north of the Alps independently of his father. The princes turned to Friedrich directly in conflicts with Heinrich. From the south, Friedrich repeatedly interfered in affairs of the empire north of the Alps, thereby disregarding the royal honor of his son. In his own kingdom Heinrich was degraded by his father to a mere recipient of orders. This problem led to a conflict between father and son and Heinrich's removal.
In April 1232 Heinrich and Friedrich met again for the first time in twelve years on a farm day in Cividale del Friuli in northern Italy . One month later, on a court day in Cividale, Frederick confirmed to the princes the great privilege known as Statutum in favorem principum (statute in favor of the princes). The statute in favorem principum was comparable to the privilege Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis : Both privileges affirmed the princes numerous prerogatives that they had already possessed. After some controversial decisions that had disadvantaged the princes in the empire, Heinrich had to swear an oath to obey his father's orders in the future. For their part, the great people present swore that in future they would regard their loyalty to Heinrich as dissolved as soon as Friedrich reported to them that his son had broken the oath.
Heinrich's supporters soon got into regional conflicts with Margrave Hermann V von Baden , a loyal loyal to Friedrich II. In November 1234, Hermann submitted his complaints about Heinrich's discrimination at the court of the emperor in southern Italy, whereupon Friedrich wrote his son's actions revoked. These letters of revocation brought Heinrich a considerable loss of reputation and dignity in public, so that he could hardly carry out his traditional duties as ruler. Heinrich thought he had to defend the royal honor against his father. He therefore tried to find supporters and allies who should improve his position vis-à-vis Friedrich. To this end, he entered into an alliance with the Lombard municipalities. This step is often viewed by historians as high treason. Heinrich sent the churchmen Siegfried von Mainz and Ekbert von Bamberg to Friedrich as advocates . They should explain Henry's point of view and the willingness of the king to submit to the emperor. In this situation a conflict broke out between Heinrich and Worms . The city refused entry and homage to Heinrich, thereby not paying him the royal honor he deserved . Heinrich besieged the city in vain. The citizens of Worms, on the other hand, succeeded in showing Friedrich that his son had violated the honor imperii .
Stay in the northern part of the empire (1235–1237)
Overthrow of King Heinrich and Friedrich's third marriage
In April 1235 Friedrich set out from southern Italy for the northern part of the Alps. His conflict with his son and the uprising of the Romans forced the emperor and pope to work closer together in 1234. At Gregor's instigation, Heinrich VII was excommunicated by the Archbishop of Salzburg. In addition, the Pope called for the support of Frederick and declared the oaths of loyalty once given to Heinrich to be invalid. The Grand Master of the Teutonic Order , Hermann von Salza , played a key role in settling the conflict . He moved the son to submit to the father. Heinrich appeared in July 1235 in the Königspfalz Wimpfen (north of Heilbronn) and, as a sign of his submission, renounced any public demonstration of his royal rank. Heinrich expected from the submission not only to regain the imperial grace, but also to preserve his royal honor . In Wimpfen Heinrich tried in vain for Friedrich's favor. Instead, Friedrich had his son come to Worms, the city that Heinrich had put up the toughest resistance shortly before. Heinrich appeared in front of his father in Worms in July and submitted to him in the presence of the assembled adults in order to regain his gratia (grace). Friedrich left him stretched out on the floor for a long time in a humiliating position. Heinrich was only allowed to rise up after the princes interceded. After the ritual of submission ( deditio ) , however, he received no grace, but lost office and dignity. Over the next seven years he was housed in various southern Italian dungeons, and in February 1242 he died as a prisoner. According to a network-theoretical analysis by Robert Gramsch (2013), Frederick II did not depose his son out of consideration for the princes and to restore order in the empire and have him imprisoned for the rest of his life, but wanted to unite the entire power of rule. Heinrich did not fail because of the dissent of the princes, rather he practiced a successful balancing policy between the individual imperial princes and princely groups.
As a Roman-German king, Heinrich had grown up with the traditions of conflict behavior prevailing north of the Alps; Frederick's tough, indomitable demeanor, on the other hand, corresponded to the mentality in the Norman kingdom. In the empire north of the Alps, disputes with ritual submission have been amicably settled since the Ottonian era . In the Kingdom of Sicily, it was less a matter of compromising with the nobles, but rather the ruler had to adamantly enforce his unrestricted claim to power. From this point of view, only ruthless hardship led to peace and stability. Matthäus Paris tried to justify the imperial strictness by saying that the son had planned the murder of his father in this situation.
Also in Worms a few days after the submission of the son took place on July 15, Frederick's wedding to Isabella , the sister of the English king Heinrich III. , instead of. His second wife, Isabella von Brienne , died in 1228. Four kings, eleven dukes and thirty counts and margraves took part in the splendid wedding celebrations in Worms.
Mainz Court Day 1235
Immediately after the events in Worms, a splendid court day took place in Mainz in August 1235 . There Frederick and the princes decided on a land peace that was supposed to restore the order that had been disrupted in recent years. The Landfriede of Mainz was published in German for the first time. It brought an expansion of the court structures and a restructuring of the court according to the Sicilian model. At the head of the new court was a freelance court judge . Court judges were appointed for the first time by the Peace of Mainz in the Roman-German Empire. This innovation was significant insofar as the ruler had until now had sole jurisdiction. However, the court judge did not yet have a fixed location, but had to orientate himself on the travel kingship of the ruler. The effect of the new Reichshofgericht initially remained modest, but this institution was taken up again by Rudolf von Habsburg .
In Mainz, the quarrel between the Hohenstaufen and Guelphs , which had been smoldering since the deposition of Henry the Lion in 1180, was resolved. Friedrich's marriage to Isabella from the English royal family, who was close to the Guelphs, had already prepared the settlement. Otto the child , grandson of Henry the Lion, was made Duke of Braunschweig and Lüneburg in Mainz . The Guelph had to humiliate himself with a bent knee in front of the emperor and transfer his own property before he was made imperial prince by Frederick. At the Mainzer Hoftag, Friedrich also complained about the violations of the honor imperii by the Lombards Association. The princes were so excited by the insults against the empire that the Lombards had committed for a long time that they decided of their own accord to take revenge and to restore the authority of the empire to an army expedition against the Lombards.
Appearance in Marburg and consequences of the Fulda murder of Jews in 1236
On May 1st, 1236, Friedrich appeared barefoot in Marburg at the grave of Elisabeth of Thuringia in a gray tunic and took part in the solemn elevation of her bones. Gregory IX. Elisabeth had canonized a year earlier in Perugia . Such public symbolic acts should clarify the requirements and obligations of the ruler. By being barefoot and wearing his penitential garb, Friedrich demonstrated his readiness for humiliatio (self- humiliation ). Such symbolic acts, however, can hardly serve as evidence of the personal piety of the ruler.
In autumn 1235 Friedrich renewed a certificate from March 1226 for the Teutonic Order (the so-called gold bull of Rimini ). In doing so, he confirmed the order's rule over the Kulmer Land . The Grand Master of the order and his successors were given equal status to the imperial princes through sovereignty and jurisdiction.
During his stay north of the Alps, Friedrich was also confronted with the Fulda ritual murder charge of 1235 in his Alsatian Palatinate in Hagenau . From the 13th century on, ritual murder legends began to appear in Europe . Jews were accused of killing Christian children and using their blood for ritual purposes. The citizens of Fulda brought some children's corpses with them to Hagenau for the emperor and demanded further punitive measures against the Jews. In response, the citizens of Fulda had already murdered 30 Jews in a pogrom . A consultation with the assembled greats brought no result. Friedrich then asked Jewish scholars who had converted to Christianity from England, France and Spain to send to his court. This commission of experts refuted the allegations made against the Jews. With the consent of the princes, the Jews were acquitted in a document issued at the Augsburg court in July 1236. They were called “servants of our chamber” (servi camere nostri) and had to pay for imperial protection.
Conrad IV was elected the king and Cortenuova was won in 1237
In February 1237 Konrad , Friedrich's son from his marriage to Isabella von Brienne, was elected king in Vienna . A coronation of Konrad in Aachen did not take place after Friedrich's experience with Heinrich (VII.). The stay in Austria was also related to the conflict over Duke Friedrich II of Austria (the controversial). The Kaiser had previously received several complaints against Duke Friedrich. However, the duke did not appear at the court conference in Augsburg in October 1235 or at the court conference in Hagenau in January 1236 to negotiate the complaints brought against him. The charge disobedience was a violation of the honor imperii . Duke Friedrich was ostracized by a prince judgment at the Augsburg court in July 1236. In the conflict with the duke, the Hohenstaufen was evidently "driven by the princes". In 1236, Emperor Friedrich had to assure the imperial princes in writing for their support that he would only conclude peace or agreement (concordia) with the Babenberger with their consensus . The self-commitment of the ruler shows the extent of his dependence on the approval of important imperial princes. In 1240 there was an equalization. Until his death in 1246, the duke remained one of the emperor's most loyal supporters.
In August 1237 the army gathered in Augsburg to set off for Italy. In September Emperor Friedrich left the northern part of the empire, to which he was no longer to return. His nine-year-old son Konrad stayed behind as the elected king. Because of Konrad's underage, the Archbishop of Mainz Siegfried III supported him . , the Thuringian Landgrave Heinrich Raspe and the Bohemian King Wenzel I. On November 27th and 28th, 1237 Milan suffered considerable losses in the battle of Cortenuova (southeast of Bergamo ). In addition, Milan lost its flag car ( Carroccio ) , the commune's most important symbol of rule. The flag car was taken on a triumphal procession through Cremona and to Rome. An agreement with Milan failed because of the imperial demand for unconditional submission and the partiality of the imperial court. Milan had already submitted unconditionally to Friedrich "Barbarossa" in 1162 and was then destroyed by the imperial-friendly cities of Pavia and Cremona. These cities had supported the emperor to a considerable extent, so "Barbarossa" had to take into account the expectations of his allies and loyal followers in the peace conditions. The memory of the destruction in 1162 was present through reliefs on Milan's city gates and through local historiography. Because of the distrust of the ritual of submission (deditio) and the lack of personal ties between the conflicting parties, no trust could be achieved through symbolic gestures. The agreement between Milan and Frederick II therefore had to fail. Milan estimated the damage from further resistance to be less than that from submission. The city remained the allies Bologna, Brescia, Faenza and Piacenza. In the autumn of 1238 Friedrich did not succeed in breaking the resistance of the Lombard League in Brescia. In October Friedrich's army withdrew to Cremona.
Ezzelino III. da Romano , one of Frederick's partisans, succeeded in conquering Vicenza and Verona. In addition, Pietro Tiepolo, a son of the Venetian Doge Jacopo Tiepolo , fell into captivity as Podestà of Milan in the battle of Cortenuova . Venice was now acting neutral. In 1242 the Doge married Valdrada, a daughter of Tankred of Sicily .
Culture, science and falconry at Friedrich's court
Since the 12th century the court developed into a central institution of royal and princely rule. The permanent court staff included around 200 people. The Archbishop of Palermo, Berard von Castagna , the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza and the later overthrown Chancellor Petrus de Vinea stayed as close confidants for years in the vicinity of the imperial court and advised Friedrich on his political decisions.
The most important part of the court was the office , which was responsible for issuing the certificates. About 2700 documents are known from the reign of Friedrich. The office was seen as a “mouthpiece of the imperial will”, as the texts written there reflected the emperor's self-styling. The office activity illustrates the joint government of the king and prince. In the introductions ( Arengen ) of Frederick's documents, reference is made to the mutual benefit of joint decisions by king and prince. For important political decisions, Friedrich gathered the most important ecclesiastical and secular greats at court days. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the court days were considered to be the “most important political points of concentration” in the empire. They not only represented the empire in its entirety, but also made clear the hierarchy of the respective princes.
The court was not only a political, but also a cultural focal point. Christian, Muslim and Jewish scholars gathered at Friedrich's court. For these reasons, his court was referred to in medieval studies as the “hub of cultural transfer”. The most important scientific advisor and translator for Arabic philosophical texts at the court of the Scots was Michael Scotus . His Liber introductorius ("Book of Introduction") is one of the most important works that emerged at Frederick's court. The emperor was also interested in mathematics. Discussions about mathematical problems were held at court by the mathematician Johannes von Palermo and the court doctor Theodor von Antiochia . The important mathematician Leonardo da Pisa also met Friedrich; in July 1226 he discussed problems of arithmetic with him. A group of poets also gathered at Frederick's court. In addition to Friedrich himself and his sons Manfred , Enzio and Friedrich von Antioch , Jakob von Morra, Arrigo Testa, Jakob Mostacci, Giacomo da Lentini , Guido delle Colonne, Rainald von Aquino and Petrus de Vinea belonged to the so-called Sicilian school of poets . Of the 320 poems that were written and still preserved at court, more than half have been handed down anonymously. In this environment, not only new poems were created, but also, through Giacomo da Lentini, the sonnet, consisting of fourteen eleven-syllable verses, as a completely new lyrical form. Friedrich's interest in medicine and the natural sciences was also reflected in reality. The emperor passed laws against air and water pollution as well as a license to practice medicine for doctors and pharmacists.
His favorite pastime was falcon hunting . Probably no other medieval ruler was so enthusiastic about hunting with falcons as Friedrich II. At times up to 50 falconers were in Friedrich's service. Hunting with trained falcons or hawks was not just a courtly status symbol or a mere pastime, but a science for Friedrich. For this purpose he had the literature on ornithology brought in. He had the Arabic hunting literature translated into Latin. The emperor drew numerous Muslim falconers from Egypt and Arabia to his court. Inspired by the contact with Saracens , Friedrich introduced the falcon hood to occidental falconry and developed it further. Another innovation was the use of cheetahs for pickling.
Didactic hunting literature reached a high point under Frederick II. In the last decade of his life, the emperor wrote his book De arte venandi cum avibus (“On the art of hunting with birds”). The falcon book describes different approaches to catching and taming falcons. It also describes experiments that should clarify scientific questions. The eyes of a hawk were sewn shut to find out whether these birds of prey perceive meat with their sense of smell or optically. Another attempt should clarify whether ostrich eggs can be hatched by the power of the sun. Over a hundred species of birds are described, some for the first time. The work is an extremely important source for zoology in the 13th century. When Friedrich died, the book was not yet finished. His son Manfred was also an avid falconer and continued to work. The work received (partial) translations into French as early as the 13th and 15th centuries. Another important book on falconry is the so-called Moamin . The Moamin are two Arabic falconry extracts from the 8th and 9th centuries. Friedrich commissioned his doctor Theodor of Antioch to translate the translation from Arabic into Latin in 1240 and made extensive additions himself, so that there is talk of a second book of falcons by the emperor.
In addition to the multicultural staff of his retinue, the exotic animals also caused astonishment during his visit to the realm north of the Alps. In terms of the size and variety of animal species, Friedrichs Menagerie was unique in Europe until then. The display of animals while traveling, on the other hand, was not an innovation by Frederick, but had historical forerunners with Thomas Becket or perhaps Henry I of England .
Friedrich's thirst for knowledge caused numerous false rumors about experiments on humans: he had isolated newborns in order to find out the original language (according to Salimbene of Parma ). He had two people eat a meal, then sent one to the hunt and the other to sleep, and finally killed both of them and had their bellies cut open to find out who had digested better. He let someone condemned to death die in a wine barrel to see whether the soul escaped when he died. These stories were not intended to underscore Friedrich's thirst for knowledge, but to expose him as a heretic.
Women and children
Friedrich had at least 20 children with at least 13 women. Some news about the emperor's affairs, however, are probably due to papal propaganda, which portrayed him as a libertine and therefore unsuitable for rule. Frederick's first marriage to Constance of Aragón brokered Pope Innocent III. The marriage was concluded in Palermo in August 1209 in the presence of both spouses. Konstanze's first marriage was to King Emmerich of Hungary , who died in 1204 . From the connection with Friedrich, Heinrich (VII.) Emerged as the only child in 1211 . After Friedrich set off for the empire north of the Alps in 1212, his wife stayed in Palermo and reigned for his one-year-old son Heinrich. After four years of spatial separation, Friedrich brought Konstanze and Heinrich to the northern Alpine part of the empire in 1216. There she spent most of the time in Hagenau, Alsace. In 1220 she was crowned empress. On June 23, 1222 Konstanze died in Catania after thirteen years of marriage . The high esteem for his first wife shows her magnificent burial place in the Cathedral of Palermo. In the case of Friedrich's future wives, their participation in power decreased significantly. There were also no coronations.
In addition to his marriage to Konstanze, Friedrich had several affairs. Around the time of Heinrich's birth he fathered another son with a Sicilian noblewoman named Friedrich von Pettorano, who later received a fort in Abruzzo . From a relationship with a Swabian noblewoman Adelheid, born around 1194 or 1195, a daughter of Konrad von Urslingen, the Duke of Spoleto, two children emerged, Enzio (Heinrich) born around 1215 or 1216 and Katharina born between 1216 and 1218. Enzio was married to Adelesia of Sardinia. He was captured in 1249 and died in 1272 as a prisoner in the city of Bologna. After Constance's death, the now thirty-year-old emperor married Isabella von Brienne, who was almost fourteen years old, the heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The marriage was probably made by Pope Honorius III. stimulated and mediated by the Teutonic Order Master Hermann von Salza. The connection should consolidate Frederick's crusade vows. The wedding took place on November 9, 1225 in the Cathedral of Brindisi . A daughter born in 1226 died early. After only two and a half years, Isabella died in 1228 of the consequences of the birth of their son Conrad IV , who later became the Roman-German king.
In the 1220s, Friedrich had several illegitimate children. The son Frederick of Antioch came from a relationship with a Sicilian noblewoman . The mothers of the children Richard, Salvaza, Margarete and perhaps others are unknown; a son Gerhard and a daughter named Blanchefleur are also mentioned. In the second half of the 1220s, Friedrich entered into a relationship with Bianca Lancia , who came from a Piedmontese margrave family. He had three children with her. The oldest was the daughter Konstanze , born around 1230, who married the Byzantine emperor Johannes Vatatzes around 1241 . In 1232 the son Manfred was born. He succeeded him as King of Sicily in 1258 . The third child was probably Violante, who was born around 1233. She was married to Count Richard von Caserta .
The third marital union entered into the now forty-year-old Friedrich in Worms in 1235 with the twenty-one-year-old Isabella von Plantagenet . She was the sister of King Henry III. of England and daughter of the late English King Johann Ohneland . Isabella brought numerous riches to the marriage. The dowry amounted to the enormous sum of about seven tons of silver. After the wedding, Isabella disappeared from the public. Matthäus Paris claims that Frederick gave "the empress to several Moorish eunuchs and similar ancient monsters". With Isabella, Friedrich had a daughter named Margarete and a son, Heinrich (also called Carlotto or Zarlotto), who was born in February 1238 at the end of 1236 . Isabella may have died of a miscarriage on December 1, 1241 after six years of marriage in Foggia . The planned marriage project with Gertrud of Austria , with which the emperor wanted to secure the support of an important prince, was planned in the mid-1240s , but probably failed because of Frederick's excommunication. Likewise, the plan to marry Jutta von Sachsen was not carried out. This marital union would have considerably strengthened Frederick's position in the north of the empire. In 1245, or perhaps not until 1248, Frederick married his long-time lover, Bianca Lancia, in order to increase the number of his legitimate descendants and possible successors.
Battle with the Popes and the Northern Italian cities (1239-1250)
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Renewed excommunication in 1239, Mongol threat and naval battle of Montecristo in 1241
Compared to the Lombard city union, the ruler's room for maneuver was severely restricted, as he was obliged to maintain and defend the honor imperii (“honor of the empire”). The obligation to succeed and to avoid a loss of reputation also unleashed a spiral of violence and thus triggered an unmanageable crisis of domination in northern Italy. The conflict with the Lombard League was closely related to the struggle with the papacy that began in 1239. This broke out when Friedrich's son Enzio married Adelasia in 1238, heiress of two of the four small kingdoms ( Judicates ) of the Kingdom of Sardinia . Enzio took the two judges from Frederick as a fief and from then on called himself King of Sardinia. The Pope saw his sovereign rights on the island, which he derived from the Donation of Constantine, impaired . At the end of 1238 he concluded an alliance with the leading cities of the League as well as with Genoa and Venice to drive the Hohenstaufen out of the Kingdom of Sicily.
On March 20, 1239, Friedrich was again excommunicated by Gregor. The excommunication was to continue until his death. On the same day, Hermann von Salza, who had always been able to mediate successfully in the conflict between Pope and Emperor, died. With the encyclical of July 1, 1239, presumably written by Cardinal Rainer von Viterbo , an arch enemy of the emperor, the demonization of Frederick began. In an apocalyptic tone, Friedrich was described as a heretic and forerunner of the end-time Antichrist . The document was addressed to all kings, princes and bishops of Christianity. At first, however, the Pope only succeeded in winning Duke Otto of Bavaria and King Wenceslaus of Bohemia . On the other hand, Gregor had more success in northern Italy with his propaganda against the emperor. In response to the worsening conflict with the Pope, Frederick began to emphasize his resemblance to Christ. In a letter dated August 1239, he compared his native city of Jesi with Bethlehem . In an eulogy, Nikolaus von Bari portrayed the emperor's family as an end-time emperor family, described Friedrich himself as the “new David” and brought his empire close to a “messianic empire”. Partisans of the emperor denounced the secularization of the papacy or portrayed the pope himself as an antichrist.
The conflict between the emperor and the pope also prevented joint action against the Mongol threat . Batu , a grandson of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan , had two successes against Christian armies of knights from the region in the east on April 9, 1241 near Liegnitz (west of Breslau ) and two days later with Mohi . The Mongol storm in Eastern Europe triggered intense end-time expectations. Friedrich refused to intervene there; in view of his bad experiences at the crusade, he made peace with the Pope a prerequisite. Only the sudden death of the great khan Ögödei prevented a further advance of the Mongols into Europe.
On August 9, 1240, Gregory called a general council for Easter 1241 in Rome. The assembly should resolve the removal of the emperor. The journey of the council participants should guarantee Genoa. With the help of Pisa, Genoa's competitor, Friedrich succeeded in preventing the council participants from arriving by blocking the sea. A sea battle therefore broke out on the island of Montecristo . Genoa suffered a devastating defeat on May 3, 1241 against the fleet of Pisa's allied with Friedrich. Out of 27 Genoese ships, only two were able to escape. More than a hundred prelates were captured and incarcerated in southern Italy. As a result of this measure, the demonization of the emperor by papal propaganda reached its climax.
Gregory IX died on August 22nd, 1241, which raised hopes for a settlement. Shortly after Gregor's death in autumn 1241, Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz and Archbishop Konrad of Cologne distanced themselves from the emperor. They used his excommunication to expand their territories. After the short pontificate of Celestine IV and a long vacancy on June 25, 1243, Gregory's successor became Pope Innocent IV. The new Pope wanted to include the Lombard League in the negotiations and expected Frederick to act as arbiter in his conflict with the communes submit. But mutual distrust prevented the conflict from ending.
Frederick's deposition in 1245, anti-kings and battle of Parma in 1248
At the end of 1244, Innocent IV called a council to Lyon on June 24, 1245 . On July 17, 1245, Frederick was deposed at this council at the instigation of the Pope. About 150 bishops, mainly from Spain, France and England, attended the council. The deposition bull, which offers a comprehensive compilation of the points of criticism against Friedrich, circulated throughout Europe in the following months and found its way into historiography. Cardinal Rainer von Viterbo, in letters that were circulated in Germany and England, called for a crusade against Friedrich because he was a "son and disciple of Satan", "herald of the devil" and forerunner of the Antichrist. Extremely curialist circles explicitly emphasized the papal claim to sovereignty over secular violence in their pamphlets. The French King Louis IX. , who maintained good relations with the emperor and the pope, tried in vain to mediate. On May 22, 1246, Heinrich Raspe was elected king against Emperor Friedrich II and his son Conrad IV by a few clergy princes under the leadership of the archbishops of Cologne and Mainz in the northern part of the empire. but none of the secular princes took part. On August 5, 1246, Raspe succeeded in defeating an army of Conrad IV in the battle of Frankfurt . A siege of the city of Ulm , however, remained in vain. Sick, the rival king had to retreat to Thuringia, where he died on February 16, 1247 in the Wartburg . After Raspe's death, on October 3, 1247, William of Holland was elected by a small circle to be the anti-king against Frederick II. Most of the princes, however, stuck to Friedrich, so that the new king had to withdraw to Holland.
In March 1246 an assassination attempt on Kaiser Friedrich failed. Those involved were executed. After the conspiracy of high officials in southern Italy, Friedrich occupied important positions in Italy with his illegitimate sons Enzio, Friedrich von Antioch and Richard von Chieti and his sons-in-law Ezzelino da Romano, Thomas von Aquino and Richard von Caserta. This was also a resumption of the traditional dynastic politics of his grandfather Roger II. In 1247 the emperor learned that his opponents had taken over the city rule in Parma and that the imperial occupation had been put down. Friedrich had little prospect of conquering the city and was unable to completely enclose it. He tried to persuade Parma to give way by besieging a small part of the city and devastating the surrounding area. In autumn he had the wooden camp town of Victoria (Victory) built outside the walls of Parma to prepare for winter. On February 18, 1248 Frederick's troops suffered a crushing defeat; the Parmesans destroyed the camp city and conquered the entire imperial property, including the precious "Book of Birds and Dogs", a crown, its seals and its entire library. At this point in time, the emperor was hunting for falcons. It was his worst defeat against a single northern Italian commune. Thereupon Ravenna and many cities of Romagna came to the papal side. Friedrich suffered another setback in 1249: His long-time confidante and head of the law firm Petrus de Vinea was arrested for high treason and corruption. Friedrich had Peter imprisoned in the Tuscan castle of San Miniato al Tedesco and then blinded .
death
In December 1250, the Hohenstaufen died unexpectedly, perhaps from typhoid , paratyphoid fever or blood poisoning . His last hours are portrayed differently in historiography. Historians hostile to him drew a picture that corresponded to the idea of a typical heretic death: he is said to have been poisoned or suffocated or to have died in agony after severe diarrhea and foaming at the mouth. His body is said to have stunk so much that it could not be transferred to Palermo. This was to make it clear that it was a question of a godless person, just as it was taken for granted according to medieval belief that the corpse of a saintly person smelled pleasant. According to other accounts, the emperor repented of his sins; Archbishop Berard of Palermo then gave him absolution before he died dressed as a simple Cistercian. In any case, the emperor had carefully made final provisions beforehand in his will; among other things, his son Konrad should inherit the crown of Sicily.
On February 25, 1251, Frederick was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo in a porphyry sarcophagus under a canopy supported by six porphyry columns. In 1257, the double election with Alfonso X of Castile and Richard of Cornwall brought the empire two kings, the so-called Interregnum . This period only ended with the election of the Roman-German King Rudolf von Habsburg in 1273. Northern and central Italy took over regional rulers. Sicily was ruled by alien dynasties for centuries to come.
effect
Judgment of the contemporaries
Papal propaganda defamed Friedrich as an antichrist, heretic, blasphemer, tyrant and persecutor of the church. This is the main reason why he found “in the historiography much more and more consistent enemies than eulogists.” The Franciscans who wandered through the country ensured that papal propaganda was widespread. Friedrich's followers, on the other hand, glorified him as Messiah and Emperor of Peace . The imperial circulars and manifestos, however, found only a small group of recipients in the form of the ruling and princely courts.
A contemporary overview of Frederick's deeds has not survived; Mainardino von Imola wrote a biography that is lost. No world, country or city history put him in the center. Frederick also found little echo in the Latin chronicles of the later 13th century in the Kingdom of Sicily.
The Friedrich myth, which presents the Hohenstaufen as an extraordinary ruler, is essentially based on Matthew Paris and Salimbene of Parma . The contemporary chronicler Matthäus Paris, a monk of the English Benedictine monastery of St. Alban , wrote one of the most extensive historical works of the European High Middle Ages with his Chronica Maiora . Paris used the Hohenstaufen as a creative means to work out the behavior of the English king as well as the popes more clearly. Despite criticism, his judgment on Friedrich was basically positive. In his obituary for the emperor, probably written in 1251 or 1252, Paris characterized the deceased with the words that later became famous: “Friedrich, the greatest of the princes of the world (principum mundi maximus) , amazement of the world and its wonderful transformers (stuporquoque mundi et immutator mirabilis) , died after he had entered the Cistercian order, humble and repentant. ”The Franciscan Salimbene de Adam from Parma was under the influence of papal propaganda, which portrayed Frederick as a heretic and persecutor of the church, but he admired the courtly and cultural environment of the emperor.
Premodern judgments
The belief in a return of Emperor Frederick II has been documented since 1257, along with the hope of a new Emperor Frederick. Notarized bets were made in San Gimignano that the Staufer was not dead. The distant grave was decisive for the fact that by the end of the 13th century people appeared in Germany who claimed to be the resurrected Staufer Emperor ("false Friedriche"). The first deceiver of this kind appeared in Sicily near Mount Etna in 1261 , perhaps because the people believed that the legendary British King Arthur and the Hohenstaufen emperors were staying in Mount Etna . The impostor was captured and hanged by Manfred.
The most successful "false Friedrich" was Dietrich Holzschuh ( Tile Kolup in Low German ), who appeared in Cologne around 1283/84. For a year he asserted himself extremely successfully as a Friedrich impersonator. He was received with honor in Neuss . He held court and issued documents with forged imperial seals. Thanks to large financial donations, he was able to surround himself with a court. Kolup justified the long absence of Friedrich, who has now allegedly returned, with a pilgrimage he had undertaken. The rightful Roman-German King Rudolf von Habsburg had to raise an army to defeat the impostor. He was burned as a heretic at the gates of the city of Wetzlar .
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a large number of false peace or other false rulers appeared, which is interpreted by research as a reaction to current crises in society due to famine, poor harvests or price increases. No other ruler of the Middle Ages was imitated as often as Friedrich II. The expectation of Frederick's return and with it the hope for a better, more peaceful time remained alive in Germany until the years of the Peasants' War . The last "false Friedrich" appeared in Thuringia on Kyffhäuserberg in 1546.
According to the Düringische Weltchronik by Johannes Rothe , it was believed around 1420 in Thuringia that Friedrich was wandering through the ruins of the castle on the Kyffhäuser . Since the 16th century, Friedrich "Barbarossa" increasingly replaced his grandson Friedrich II as a memorial figure and in the legend of the rapt emperor. For nationalist-minded German humanists, Frederick II was not a suitable representative of Germany because of the concentration of his activities on Italy. In the 17th century it was no longer clear which Friedrich was meant in the Kyffhauser saga. After 1800, “Barbarossa” finally ousted his “non-German” grandson as a memory figure. “Barbarossa” became a German myth through the legend “Friedrich Rothbart auf dem Kyffhäuser” by the Brothers Grimm and Friedrich Rückert's poem; Frederick II, on the other hand, took a back seat.
In Italy the authors painted a negative picture of Friedrich. The decisive factor for this was the papal propaganda, which had a stronger effect than the imperial-friendly judgments. For Giovanni Villani from Florence, the Staufer was the embodiment of a tyrant and persecutor of the church. One of the most formative and lasting judgments in Italy goes back to the poet and founder of Italian literature Dante Alighieri . Half a century after Frederick's death, Frederick banished Staufer to hell as a heretic in his Divina Comedia (1311–1321). Nevertheless, Dante appreciated Friedrich's services to the vernacular Italian poetry. It was not until the end of the 15th century that the humanist Pandulfo Collenuccio set new accents. For him, Friedrich was not primarily a tyrant and persecutor of the church, but a forerunner of the Renaissance princes, since he promoted art and science and broke the power of the barons.
Historical images and research perspectives
In the 19th century, historians in Germany were looking for the reasons for Germany's delayed emergence. They described medieval history from the perspective of royal power. The medieval rulers were measured according to whether they were responsible for a decline in power over princes and the papacy. According to this historical picture, the rise of the empire began under the Ottonians . The Salier and Staufer times were seen as the high point of imperial glory. The Hohenstaufen Friedrich II was considered the last representative of the German imperial glory. His concern for southern Italy was interpreted as a neglect of his rule duties in Germany; it had considerably accelerated the unfortunate development of the fragmentation of Germany into many small territories. Frederick's conflict with the Pope and the northern Italian cities was seen as one of the reasons for the fall of the Empire. His death was associated with the beginning of the "emperorless, the terrible time", as Friedrich Schiller put it. Friedrich's representation of power, which appears to be oriental, was also viewed critically. For Leopold von Ranke , Friedrich could hardly be considered “a German” anymore, as “he ascended the throne almost as a stranger”. He called him “a Sicilian through and through”. For Johannes Haller (1923) he was "the first foreigner on the German throne".
In Germany, the myth of the Hohenstaufen's “modernity” had a lasting impact on Frederick II's reception. Jacob Burckhardt said in his account of the Italian Renaissance published in 1860 that Friedrich was the “first modern man on the throne”. Burckhardt's judgment was meant negatively, however. For him, the “modern” state created by Friedrich in the south was an absolutist power state with an oriental character. Burckhardt's judgment became the catchphrase for the Staufer's supposed modernity. Equally influential was Friedrich Nietzsche's assessment of Kaiser Friedrich as an atheist. Nietzsche had never given a detailed assessment of Friedrich, but as a philosophical authority he shaped the view of history of the intellectuals gathered around Stefan George , including Ernst Kantorowicz . His biography of Friedrich, published in 1927, is still considered to be the most important and most impressive mythicalisation of the Hohenstaufen. For Kantorowicz the regnum Siciliae was the “first absolute monarchy of the West” because “Sicily, forged as hard as steel” is said to have been a “crystal hard state” under the Hohenstaufen emperor. Friedrich himself was considered the "final and fulfillment emperor of German dreams". Kantorowicz's portrayal of Friedrich as a superhuman ruling genius was later abused by the National Socialists: Nazi historians such as Karl Ipser presented Adolf Hitler as the "savior" of Frederick II longed for by Kantorowicz, who revealed to the Germans the importance of the Hohenstaufen emperor and completed his work. In his book published in 1942, Ipser described Friedrich as the "next to Adolf Hitler [...] the greatest leader figure in German history" and also as the "greatest Germanic builder of the millennium until Adolf Hitler". In National Socialism, however, Friedrich's assessment remained ambivalent. The “Ostpolitik” of the emperor, ie the preference given to the Teutonic Order, could be used as a means of propaganda for the development of new living space in the east. On the other hand, Friedrich's tolerant attitude towards the Jews did not fit into this picture, so that it was mostly left unmentioned.
In Italy, Frederick remained branded a tyrant and persecutor of the church for a long time by the papal demonization. Only in the course of the Risorgimento in the 19th century was the Staufer's assessment revised. The longing for just rule and the nation-state led to a complete re-evaluation of his person. Italian patriots saw the papal state as an obstacle to national unification. Italian historiography celebrated the Staufer in the course of the nation-state movement as the "father of the Ghibelline fatherland". Pietro Giannone described him in the Istoria civile del Regno di Napoli , published in 1723, “as the creator of a modern model state free from any ecclesiastical tutelage”. Ugo Foscolo celebrated Friedrich in 1824 as the early unifier of the Italian language and as a forerunner of the unity of Italy. In Luigi Settembrini's Lezioni di Letteratura Italiana , published between 1866 and 1872, “Frederick II alone was able to create the unity of Italy because he had the strength, the right, the fortitude, because he was born and raised an Italian, because he wanted his empire here. ”This Neoghibelline image of Friedrich shaped Italian historiography to a considerable extent until the first half of the 20th century. In contrast to Germany, where Friedrich Barbarossa became particularly popular in the 19th century, Barbarossa's attempt to forcefully subjugate the Italian urban communes, especially in northern Italy, was remembered negatively. The sympathy in Italy was primarily aimed at Frederick II, who was seen less as the son of Henry VI from Hohenstaufen and more as a son of Constance from Sicily, who grew up in Palermo.
After the Second World War , Friedrich II. Resigned as a thematic subject and by the 1970s at the latest, an “objectification of the Friedrich image” began. In the post-war period, Hans Martin Schaller presented numerous studies on Friedrich. His studies made him one of the leading Friedrich researchers in Germany. However, his short biography, written in 1964, could not escape the effect of the Kantorowicz depiction. The biography published by the English historian David Abulafia in 1988 was Friedrich's most detailed academic biography since Kantorowicz. In Germany in particular, it met with reluctant approval from experts. Abulafia took the point of view that Frederick was an ordinary medieval ruler. Friedrich took on the role of a “solid conservative” for Abulafia, who did not practice progressive politics either in the Kingdom of Sicily or in the German Empire.
Since the 1980s, medieval studies have gained numerous new insights into high medieval kingship. By taking greater account of factors such as consensual rule , symbolic communication , the preservation of the Honor Imperii (“honor of the empire”) and unwritten but socially binding “rules of the game” in a ranked society, a better understanding of the rulership practice of medieval kings could be gained. Since 1985 Walter Koch has been working on behalf of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica on the total edition of Friedrich's documents, calculated in at least eight volumes and with a term until 2034. In 2002 the first volume from the time of Frederick's Sicilian beginnings was published. The Friedrich biography of Wolfgang Stürner , published in 1992/2000, is considered an authoritative work and forms the basis for any further discussion of the Staufer. In his epilogue, Stürner praised Friedrich as a highly gifted and versatile ruler. On the occasion of the 800th birthday on December 26, 1994 and the 750th anniversary of death on December 13, 2000, a large number of contributions, exhibitions and conferences dealt with Friedrich II in Germany and especially in Italy. In Italy, the Staufer was also given a two-volume reference work in 2005 , dedicated to the Enciclopedia Fridericiana . Friedrich shares this extraordinary honor only with the most important Italian poet, Dante Alighieri . A conference held in Barletta in October 2007 examined Friedrich's politics primarily from a Sicilian point of view.
Hubert Houben structured his portrayal, published in 2008, according to the ruling personality of Friedrich, the fascinating "man" and the Friedrich myth. Despite some partial successes, the conclusion of Friedrich's reign is "overall negative". In view of the strong position of the northern Italian cities and the papacy, he failed in the attempt to realize his universal imperial idea. For Houben, Friedrich was a pioneer of modern monarchies in Europe through his demand for state power independent of the Church. Also in 2008, a state exhibition took place in Oldenburg, which classified Friedrich's person in the "world and culture of the Mediterranean region". An exhibition shown in Mannheim in 2010 and in Palermo in 2011 showed " The Staufer and Italy - regions of innovation in medieval Europe ".
In his biography published in 2010, Olaf B. Rader worked out the Sicilian character of Friedrich. Numerous behaviors of the ruler can only be understood from a “south-Mediterranean perspective”. Rader compares Friedrich's style of government with that of a tyrant, because "a real participation of great barons or other rulers of the kingdom is seldom felt".
Despite scientific efforts to historicize Friedrich, the myth lives on to this day, especially in Apulia and Sicily, and is marketed economically. Friedrich is considered to be a figure of identification because Apulia played an important political role under him and his buildings, especially the Castel del Monte , are seen as an expression of a "golden age".
swell
- Klaus van Eickels , Tania Brüsch: Friedrich II. Life and personality in sources of the Middle Ages. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf 2000, ISBN 3-538-07093-8 (biography and source collection).
- Klaus J. Heinisch (Ed.): Kaiser Friedrich II. In letters and reports of his time. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1968.
- Klaus J. Heinisch (Ed.): Kaiser Friedrich II. His life in contemporary reports (= German documents. Volume 2901). Munich 1977.
- Alphonse Huillard-Bréholles: Historia diplomatica Friderici Secundi. 6 vols., Paris 1852–1861 (reprinted 1963).
- Theo Kölzer , Marlis Stähli (eds.), Gereon Becht-Jördens (text revision and translation): Petrus de Ebulo. Liber ad honorem Augusti sive de rebus Siculis. Codex 120 II of the Burgerbibliothek Bern. A pictorial chronicle of the Staufer period. Thorbecke, Sigmaringen 1994, ISBN 3-7995-4245-0 .
- Wolfgang Stürner : The Constitutions of Frederick II for the Kingdom of Sicily. Hahn, Hannover 1996, ISBN 3-7752-5470-6 .
- Ludwig Weiland: Constitutiones et acta publica imperatorum et regum inde from a. MCXCVIII usque a. MCCLXXII (1198-1272). Hanover 1896.
-
The documents of Frederick II (= Monumenta Germaniae Historica Diplomata. Volume 14.1). Edited by Walter Koch with the assistance of Klaus Höflinger and Joachim Spiegel and using preliminary work by Charlotte Schroth-Köhler.
- Part 1: The documents of Frederick II. 1198–1212. Hahn, Hannover 2002, ISBN 3-7752-2001-1 .
- Part 2: The documents of Frederick II. 1212–1217. Hahn, Hannover 2007, ISBN 978-3-7752-2002-6 (formally incorrect ISBN).
- Part 3: The documents of Frederick II. 1218–1220. Hahn, Hannover 2010, ISBN 978-3-7752-2003-3 .
- Part 4: The documents of Frederick II. 1220–1222. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-447-10087-8 .
- Part 5: The documents of Frederick II. 1222–1226. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-447-10753-2 .
- Part 6: The documents of Frederick II. 1226–1231. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2021, ISBN 978-3-447-11375-5 .
- Il Registro della cancelleria di Federico II del 1239-1240 (= Fonti per la storia dell'Italia medievale. Antiquities Volume 19). Edited by Cristina Carbonetti Vendittelli. 2 vols., Roma 2002.
literature
Overview representations
- Knut Görich : The Hohenstaufen. Ruler and empire. 4th, revised and updated edition. Beck, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-406-73805-0 .
- Wolfgang Stürner : 13th century. 1198–1273 (= Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte. Volume 6). 10th, completely revised edition. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-608-60006-3 .
Biographies
- David Abulafia : ruler between cultures. Friedrich II of Hohenstaufen. Translated from the English by Karl Heinz Siber, Siedler, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-88680-354-6 (original edition was published in London in 1988).
- Klaus van Eickels : Friedrich II. In: Bernd Schneidmüller , Stefan Weinfurter (eds.): The German rulers of the Middle Ages, historical portraits from Heinrich I to Maximilian I. Beck, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-406-50958-4 , p 293–314 (brief overview of Friedrich II.).
- Hubert Houben : Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart et al. 2008, ISBN 978-3-17-018683-5 ( review at Sehepunkte ).
- Ernst Kantorowicz : Kaiser Friedrich II. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1980, ISBN 3-12-915400-0 . (First edition as Kaiser Friedrich the Second . Georg Bondi, Berlin 1927.)
- Olaf B. Rader : Friedrich II. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. A biography. 4th revised edition. Beck, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-406-60485-0 (review) .
- Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Beck, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-406-64050-6 (very concise biography from the series CH Beck Wissen ).
- Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Figures of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . Vol. I: The royal rule in Sicily and Germany 1194-1220 ; Vol. II: The Emperor 1220-1250 . Darmstadt 1992–2000 (special edition of the Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Primus Verlag, Darmstadt 2003, ISBN 3-534-17414-3 , ISBN 3-89678-483-8 ).
- Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. 1194-1250 . 3rd edition, bibliographically completely updated and expanded to include a foreword and documentation with additional information, in one volume. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-534-23040-2 .
- Eduard Winkelmann : Kaiser Friedrich II. Yearbooks of German History Volume 1 . Leipzig 1889; Volume 2 . Leipzig 1897, reprint Darmstadt 1967 (more volumes not published).
Enciclopedia Fridericiana
- Maria Paola Arena (ed.): Enciclopedia fridericiana. Volume 1: A-H, Volume 2: I-Z. Rome 2005 ( online . Enter the term "Federico II" or other Italian terms in the search field and click on the results with "Federiciana").
Special studies
- Alexander Knaak: Prolegomena to a corpus work of the architecture of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen in the Kingdom of Sicily 1220–1250 (= studies on art and cultural history. Volume 16). Jonas, Marburg 2001 (on the pioneering architectural works that emerged during the reign of Frederick II in the Kingdom of Sicily, including Castel del Monte).
- Arnold Esch , Norbert Kamp (ed.): Friedrich II. Conference of the German Historical Institute in Rome in the commemorative year 1994 (= library of the German Historical Institute in Rome. Volume 85). Niemeyer, Tübingen 1996, ISBN 3-484-82085-3 .
- Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Rulership spaces , rulership practice and communication at the time of Frederick II (= Munich contributions to historical studies. Volume 2). Utz, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8316-0756-3 .
- Robert Gramsch: The empire as a network of princes. Political structures under the double kingship of Frederick II and Henry (VII) 1225–1235 (= Medieval Research. Volume 40). Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2013, ISBN 978-3-7995-0790-5 ( digitized version )
- Bodo Hechelhammer : Crusade and rule under Frederick II. Scope for action by crusade politics (1215–1230) (= Medieval research. Volume 13). Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2004, ISBN 3-7995-4264-7 (detailed study on Friedrich II's crusade policy).
- Hannes Obermair : The Staufer Friedrich II. And the historiography of the 19th and 20th centuries. In: Concilium Medii Aevi 11, Göttingen 2008, pp. 79-100 PDF 1 MB (on the history of historiography and reception).
- Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery gentleman from the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity (= Kiel historical studies. Volume 42). Thorbecke, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-7995-5942-6 (on reception history).
- Carl A. Willemsen : Bibliography on the history of Emperor Frederick II and the last Staufer. (= Monumenta Germaniae historica. Volume 8). Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Munich 1986, ISBN 3-88612-019-3 .
Web links
- Literature by and about Friedrich II in the catalog of the German National Library
- Works by and about Friedrich II in the German Digital Library
- Fridericus II Imperator in the repertory "Historical Sources of the German Middle Ages"
- Stupor mundi Italian website, partly in German
- Document of Frederick II for the establishment of the Teutonic Order in Nuremberg, January 30, 1215, digitized image in the photo archive of older original documents of the Philipps University of Marburg .
Remarks
- ↑ Uwe Israel: Personnel exchange between the regions. In: Alfried Wieczorek, Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (eds.): Die Staufer and Italy. Three regions of innovation in medieval Europe. Vol. 1, Darmstadt 2010, pp. 247-255, here: p. 248.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 19.
- ↑ Hubertus Seibert: The early Staufer - research balance sheet and open questions. In: Hubertus Seibert, Jürgen Dendorfer (Ed.): Counts, dukes, kings. The rise of the Hohenstaufen and the empire 1079–1152. Ostfildern 2005, pp. 1–39, here: p. 4.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Die Ehre Friedrich Barbarossas became fundamental . Communication, Conflict, and Political Action in the 12th Century. Darmstadt 2001.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 26. Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 12.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 69–71. Knut Görich: The Hohenstaufen. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 88. Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 108.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 68.
- ↑ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 30.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II., Part 1: The royal rule in Sicily and Germany 1194-1220. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 104f.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II., Part 1: The royal rule in Sicily and Germany 1194-1220. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 120.
- ↑ Gerd Althoff: Otto IV. - How did the Guelph dream of empire fail? In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 43, 2009, pp. 199–214, here: p. 211.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 18. Wolfgang Stürner: 13th century. 1198–1273 (Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte 6) 10th, completely revised edition. Stuttgart 2007, pp. 184f.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 20.
- ↑ Martin Wihoda: The Sicilian Gold Bulls of 1212. Emperor Frederick II. Privileges for the Přemyslids in the memory discourse . Vienna et al. 2012. Karel Hruza: The three "Sicilian Golden Bulls" of Frederick II from 1212 for the Premyslids. On a new book, diplomatic questions and a “historians' debate” in Czech research. In: Archives for diplomacy, history of writing, seals and heraldry. 53, 2007, pp. 213-249.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II., Part 1: The royal rule in Sicily and Germany 1194-1220. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, pp. 155–161.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II., Part 1: The royal rule in Sicily and Germany 1194-1220. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 155f.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 92.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 111.
- ↑ Jürgen Dendorfer: Mutual Authority - Princely Participation in the Empire of the 13th Century. In: Hubertus Seibert, Werner Bomm, Verena Türck (eds.): Authority and acceptance. The empire in Europe in the 13th century. Ostfildern 2013, pp. 27–41, here: p. 32. Monika Suchan: Princely opposition to royalty in the 11th and 12th centuries as a designer of medieval statehood. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 37, 2003, pp. 141–165, here: p. 163.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 92; Olaf B. Rader: The Staufer graves as places of remembrance. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter, Alfried Wieczorek (eds.): Metamorphoses of the Staufer Empire. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 20–33, here: p. 29; Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart et al. 2008, pp. 35, 154.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 380f.
- ↑ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart et al. 2008, p. 129.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: 13th century. 1198-1273. (Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte 6) 10th, completely revised edition. Stuttgart 2007, p. 197.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 215.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: 13th century. 1198-1273. (Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte 6) 10th, completely revised edition. Stuttgart 2007, p. 206.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 94.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, pp. 103, 116.
- ↑ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 38.
- ↑ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 44f. Andreas Fischer: Sovereign self-image and the use of the accusation of heresy as a political instrument. Frederick II and his heretic edict of 1224. In: Sources and research from Italian archives and libraries 87, 2007, pp. 71-108.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 43.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Emperor Friedrich II. As ruler in the empire and in the kingdom of Sicily. In: Werner Hechberger, Florian Schuller (eds.): Staufer & Welfen. Two rival dynasties in the High Middle Ages. Regensburg 2009, pp. 172–189, here: p. 183.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Emperor Friedrich II. As ruler in the empire and in the kingdom of Sicily. In: Werner Hechberger, Florian Schuller (eds.): Staufer & Welfen. Two rival dynasties in the High Middle Ages. Regensburg 2009, pp. 172–189, here: p. 188.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 43; Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Vol. 2. Darmstadt 2000, pp. 34–57.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 34.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 33.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 129.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 195.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 60 and 129.
- ↑ See Hubert Houben: Castel del Monte. In: Enciclopedia Fridericiana 1, pp. 237-242.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 196-200.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 191.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 206.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 218–223. Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, pp. 1-6.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 214.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Mistrust from experience: Milan and Friedrich II. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 411–429, here: p. 414.
- ↑ See Knut Görich: The ruler as a partisan judge. Barbarossa in Lombardy. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 29, 1995, pp. 273–288.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Inevitable Conflicts? Friedrich Barbarossa, Friedrich II. And the Lombardy League of Cities. In: Oliver Auge, Felix Biermann, Matthias Müller, Dirk Schultze (eds.): Ready for conflict. Strategies and media for creating and resolving conflicts in the European Middle Ages. Ostfildern 2008, pp. 195–213, here: p. 205 ( digitized version )
- ↑ Knut Görich: Mistrust from experience: Milan and Friedrich II. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 411–429, here: p. 416.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 397.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 48.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 99.
- ↑ see the prosopographical directory of the crusaders in Bodo Hechelhammer: Crusade and rule under Friedrich II. Scope of action of crusade politics (1215–1230). Ostfildern 2005, pp. 327-387.
- ↑ Bodo Hechelhammer: Crusade and rule under Friedrich II. Scope of action of crusade politics (1215-1230). Ostfildern 2005, p. 264.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 52. Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 397.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Peace negotiations with regard to the honor ecclesiae. Pope Gregory IX and Emperor Friedrich II in the dispute over Gaeta (1229–1233). In: Theo Kölzer, Franz-Albrecht Bornschlegel, Christian Friedl and Georg Vogeler (eds.): De litteris, manuscriptis, inscriptionibus… Festschrift for the 65th birthday of Walter Koch. Vienna et al. 2007, pp. 617–632, here: p. 620.
- ↑ On the reception history of Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, pp. 189–210.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 100.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 49.
- ^ Christian Friedl: Studies on the civil service of Emperor Frederick II in the Kingdom of Sicily (1220-1250). Vienna 2005, p. 146.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 139–146.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Peace negotiations with regard to the honor ecclesiae. Pope Gregory IX and Emperor Friedrich II in the dispute over Gaeta (1229–1233). In: Theo Kölzer, Franz-Albrecht Bornschlegel, Christian Friedl and Georg Vogeler (eds.): De litteris, manuscriptis, inscriptionibus ... Festschrift for the 65th birthday of Walter Koch. Vienna et al. 2007, pp. 617–632, here: p. 619.
- ↑ See Gerd Althoff: The peace, alliance and community-creating character of the meal in the early Middle Ages. In: Irmgard Bitsch, Trude Ehlert, Xenja von Ertzdorff (eds.): Eating and drinking in the Middle Ages and modern times. Sigmaringen 1987, pp. 13-25.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Peace negotiations with regard to the honor ecclesiae. Pope Gregory IX and Emperor Friedrich II in the dispute over Gaeta (1229–1233). In: Theo Kölzer, Franz-Albrecht Bornschlegel, Christian Friedl and Georg Vogeler (eds.): De litteris, manuscriptis, inscriptionibus ... Festschrift for the 65th birthday of Walter Koch. Vienna et al. 2007, pp. 617-632, esp. 630ff.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Mistrust from experience: Milan and Friedrich II. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 411–429, here: p. 423.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Mistrust from experience: Milan and Friedrich II. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 411–429, here: p. 417.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Inevitable Conflicts? Friedrich Barbarossa, Friedrich II. And the Lombardy League of Cities. In: Oliver Auge, Felix Biermann, Matthias Müller, Dirk Schultze (eds.): Ready for conflict. Strategies and media for creating and resolving conflicts in the European Middle Ages. Ostfildern 2008, pp. 195–213, here: p. 207 ( digitized version ).
- ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 280.
- ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 293.
- ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 294.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 176.
- ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 294. Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 103.
- ↑ Theo Broekmann: "Rigor iustitiae". Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 300ff.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220-1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 302. Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194–1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 63. Theo Broekmann, on the other hand, thinks that it was not high treason: “Rigor iustitiae”. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 309f.
- ↑ Theo Broekmann: "Rigor iustitiae". Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 319.
- ↑ Theo Broekmann: "Rigor iustitiae". Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 325.
- ↑ Robert Gramsch: The empire as a network of princes. Political structures under the dual kingship of Frederick II and Henry (VII) 1225–1235. Ostfildern 2013 ( [1] ).
- ^ Gerd Althoff: Royal rule and conflict resolution in the 10th and 11th centuries. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 23 (1989), pp. 265-290; again in: Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 21-56.
- ↑ Theo Broekmann: "Rigor iustitiae". Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, pp. 260-368.
- ↑ Theo Broekmann: "Rigor iustitiae". Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, pp. 364-366.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 46.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Emperor Friedrich II. As ruler in the empire and in the kingdom of Sicily. In: Werner Hechberger, Florian Schuller (eds.): Staufer & Welfen. Two rival dynasties in the High Middle Ages. Regensburg 2009, pp. 172–189, here: p. 179.
- ↑ Claudia Garnier : The legitimation of violence by the high and late medieval peace movement. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 42, 2008, pp. 229–251, here: p. 237.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 65.
- ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 159.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Honor as a factor of order. Recognition and stabilization of rule under Friedrich Barbarossa and Friedrich II. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Hrsg.): Configurations of order in the high Middle Ages. Ostfildern 2006, pp. 59–92, here: p. 66 ( online ).
- ↑ Gerd Althoff: Public humility: Friedrich II. And the saints. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Dominion spaces, rule practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 229–252. See also Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194–1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 154.
- ↑ Jürgen Sarnowsky: The German Order. Munich 2007, p. 35f. Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 66.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 183-190.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Norms in Conflict. Emperor Friedrich II. And the 'trial' against Duke Friedrich the arguable of Austria. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Dominion spaces, rule practice and communication at the time of Emperor Frederick II. Munich 2008, pp. 363–388, here: p. 378.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Norms in Conflict. Emperor Friedrich II. And the 'trial' against Duke Friedrich the Warriors of Austria. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Dominion spaces, rule practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 363–388, here: p. 364.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The honor of Friedrich Barbarossas. Communication, Conflict, and Political Action in the 12th Century. Darmstadt 2001, pp. 249-256.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Mistrust from experience: Milan and Friedrich II. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 411–429, esp. 424ff.
- ^ Andrea Da Mosto: I dogi di Venezia nella vita pubblica e privata. Florence 1983, p. 83.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 133.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 139–161.
- ↑ Sebastian Gleixner: mouthpiece of the imperial will. The chancellery of Emperor Frederick II (1226–1236). Cologne et al. 2006.
- ^ Monika Suchan: Princely opposition to royalty in the 11th and 12th centuries as a designer of medieval statehood. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 37, 2003, pp. 141–165, here: p. 162.
- ↑ Timothy Reuter: Only in the West anything new? The emergence of premodern forms of government in the European High Middle Ages. In: Joachim Ehlers (Ed.): Germany and the West of Europe. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 327-351, here: p. 347.
- ↑ Gundula Grebner: The 'Liber Introductorius' of Michael Scotus and the reception of Aristotle: the court of Frederick II as the hub of cultural transfer. In: Mamoun Fansa, Karen Ermete (ed.): Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194–1250). Mediterranean world and culture. Oldenburg 2008, pp. 250-257.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 284.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 265.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 262. Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 149.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 148.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 64.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 289.
- ↑ Martina Giese: The keeping of animals at the court of Friedrich II. Between tradition and innovation. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Herrschaftsäume, Herrschaftspraxis und Kommunikation at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 121–171, here: p. 153. Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194 -1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 140.
- ↑ On this in detail Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220–1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, pp. 429–457.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 68.
- ↑ Fundamental to this Stefan Georges: The second falcon book of Emperor Frederick II. Sources, origin, tradition and reception of Moamin. With an edition of the Latin tradition. Berlin 2008.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 130.
- ↑ Martina Giese: The keeping of animals at the court of Friedrich II. Between tradition and innovation. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Domestic spaces, domination practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 121–171, here: p. 153.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 112. Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 144f.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 42.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 42.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 133.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 231f.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 117 and 126 (table of Friedrich's illegitimate children).
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 245.
- ↑ Quoted from Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 232.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 120.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 254.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Inevitable Conflicts? Friedrich Barbarossa, Friedrich II. And the Lombardy League of Cities. In: Oliver Auge, Felix Biermann, Matthias Müller, Dirk Schultze (eds.): Ready for conflict. Strategies and media for creating and resolving conflicts in the European Middle Ages. Ostfildern 2008, pp. 195–213 ( digitized version ); Knut Görich: The Hohenstaufen. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 110.
- ↑ See also Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery lord of the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, pp. 36-43. Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 73. Andrea Piazza: Anticristo / Messia . In: Enciclopedia Fridericiana 1, pp. 49-57.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 75f.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 74, 188-190.
- ↑ The dating of this sermon is not exactly certain. For a long time it was dated to the year 1229, shortly after Frederick's return from the crusade. However, due to allusions to the content, it is also possible that it was not held until 1235/37, see Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220–1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, pp. 174–178.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 186.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The Staufer. Ruler and empire. Munich 2006, p. 113.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 178.
- ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005, p. 368.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 179.
- ↑ This included the anti- imperial pamphlet Eger cui lenia , which was written at this time, but which was probably not made by Pope Innocent himself. Cf. Peter Herde: A pamphlet of the papal curia against Emperor Friedrich II. From 1245/46 ("Eger cui lenia"). In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages 23, 1967, pp. 468-538.
- ↑ Jacques Le Goff : Louis the saint. Stuttgart 2000, pp. 144f.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 124f.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 95.
- ↑ On the various source reports Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, pp. 485–491.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220-1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 590.
- ↑ On the will, see Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220–1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, pp. 588f.
- ↑ Andrea Sommerlechner: Stupor mundi? Emperor Friedrich II. And medieval historiography. Vienna 1999, p. 428.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 225.
- ↑ Andrea Sommerlechner: Stupor mundi? Emperor Friedrich II. And medieval historiography. Vienna 1999, p. 421ff .; 479ff.
- ↑ Wolfgang Giese: Kaiser Friedrich II. In the Latin chronicle of the Sicilian empire from the second half of the 13th century. In: Theo Kölzer, Franz-Albrecht Bornschlegel, Christian Friedl and Georg Vogeler (eds.): De litteris, manuscriptis, inscriptionibus… Festschrift for the 65th birthday of Walter Koch. Vienna et al. 2007, pp. 633–653, especially p. 652.
- ↑ Björn Weiler: Stupor Mundi: Matthäus Paris and the contemporary perception of Frederick II in England. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Herrschaftsäume, Herrschaftspraxis und Kommunikation at the time of Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 63–95.
- ↑ Björn Weiler: Stupor Mundi: Matthäus Paris and the contemporary perception of Frederick II in England. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Herrschaftsäume, Herrschaftspraxis und Kommunikation at the time of Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 63–95, here: p. 73.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Friedrich Barbarossa - from redeemed emperor to emperor as a national redeemer figure. In: Johannes Fried, Olaf B. Rader (ed.): The world of the Middle Ages. Places of remembrance of a millennium. Munich 2011, p. 195-208, here: p. 199. Hannes Möhring : The prophecies about an emperor Friedrich at the end of time. In: Wolfram Brandes, Felicitas Schmieder (Hrsg.): Endzeiten. Eschatology in the monotheistic world religions. Berlin et al. 2008, pp. 201-213. Hannes Möhring: The world emperor of the end times. Origin, change and effect of a millennial prophecy. Stuttgart 2000, pp. 217-268 ( digitized version ).
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 197; Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery gentleman from the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, pp. 46-49.
- ↑ See for example Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194–1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 195-199.
- ^ Rainer Christoph Schwinges: Constitution and collective behavior. On the mentality of the success of false rulers in the empire of the 13th and 14th centuries. In: František Graus (Ed.): Mentalities in the Middle Ages. Sigmaringen 1987, pp. 177-202, here: pp. 190-192.
- ↑ Alexander Schubert: Salvation expectation and return belief. In: Alfried Wieczorek, Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (eds.): Die Staufer and Italy. Three regions of innovation in medieval Europe. Vol. 1, Darmstadt 2010, pp. 33–38, here: p. 37.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Emperor Friedrich II. As ruler in the empire and in the kingdom of Sicily. In: Werner Hechberger, Florian Schuller (eds.): Staufer & Welfen. Two rival dynasties in the High Middle Ages. Regensburg 2009, pp. 172–189, here: p. 188.
- ^ Werner Hechberger: admired, instrumentalized, hostile. Staufer and Welfen in the judgment of posterity. In: Werner Hechberger, Florian Schuller (eds.): Staufer and Welfen. Two rival dynasties in the High Middle Ages. Regensburg 2009, pp. 216–239, here: p. 219.
- ↑ Knut Görich: Friedrich Barbarossa - from redeemed emperor to emperor as a national redeemer figure. In: Johannes Fried, Olaf B. Rader (ed.): The world of the Middle Ages. Places of remembrance of a millennium. Munich 2011, pp. 195-208, here: pp. 200f.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 106.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 23.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: The divided emperor - Friedrich II. In Germany and Italy. In: Johannes Fried, Olaf B. Rader (ed.): The world of the Middle Ages. Places of remembrance of a millennium. Munich 2011, pp. 261–275, here: p. 267.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 226.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 208.
- ↑ On the historical picture of the Germans with the fixation on a strong imperial power: Gerd Althoff: The Middle Ages picture of the Germans before and after 1945. A sketch. In: Paul-Joachim Heinig (Ed.): Empire, regions and Europe in the Middle Ages and modern times. Festschrift for Peter Moraw. Berlin 2000, pp. 731-749. Gerd Althoff: The Germans and their medieval empire. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Ed.): Holy - Roman - German. Dresden 2006, pp. 119-132. On the late Middle Ages as an era of disintegration: Bernd Schneidmüller: Consensus - Territorialization - Self-interest. How to deal with late medieval history. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 39, 2005, pp. 225–246.
- ↑ Quoted from Hubert Houben: Friedrich II., A Sicilian on the imperial throne? In: Sources and research from Italian archives and libraries 97, 2017, pp. 83–98, here: p. 86 ( online ).
- ↑ Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery lord of the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, pp. 166-169 and 224; Johannes Haller: The Epochs of German History. Stuttgart et al. 1923, p. 81.
- ↑ On Friedrich's modernity, see Marcus Thomsen: Modernity as Topos: Friedrich II. In German Historiography. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp and Theo Broekmann: Dominion spaces , rule practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 21–39.
- ^ Jacob Burckhardt: The culture of the Renaissance in Italy. One try. Basel 1860, p. 3 ( digitized version ).
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Kaiser Friedrich II. Munich 2012, p. 109.
- ^ Quotations from Ernst Kantorowicz: Kaiser Friedrich II. Berlin 1927, pp. 104, 195, 197, 268. Cf. also Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 429.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 220.
- ↑ Karl Ipser: Emperor Friedrich the Second. Life and work in Italy. Leipzig 1942, p. 7 and p. 59.
- ↑ Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery lord of the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, pp. 259-270.
- ↑ See Roberto Delle Donne: Storiografia dell'Ottocento e del Novecento. In: Enciclopedia Fridericiana 2, pp. 787-802.
- ↑ Roberto Delle Donne: The Father of the Ghibelline Fatherland. Friedrich II. In modern historiography and culture of Italy. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Reigns spaces, domination practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 41–60. See also: Hubert Houben: Kaiser Friedrich II. (1194–1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 212f.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 208.
- ↑ Roberto Delle Donne: The Father of the Ghibelline Fatherland. Friedrich II. In modern historiography and culture of Italy. In: Knut Görich, Jan Keupp, Theo Broekmann (eds.): Domestic spaces , domination practice and communication at the time of Emperor Friedrich II. Munich 2008, pp. 41–60, here: p. 50.
- ↑ Hubert Houben: The bad and the good Federico. Staufer myths in Italy, past and present. In: From Palermo to Kyffhäuser. Staufer places of remembrance and Staufer myth. Göppingen 2012, pp. 26–45, here: p. 26.
- ↑ Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery gentleman from the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, p. 304.
- ↑ The most important studies are printed in: Hans Martin Schaller: Stauferzeit. Selected essays. Hanover 1993.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 221.
- ↑ See the review by Hans Martin Schaller in: Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 47, 1991, pp. 290f. ( online )
- ↑ See also Marcus Thomsen: "A fiery lord of the beginning ...". Emperor Friedrich II. In the view of posterity. Stuttgart 2005, p. 305.
- ↑ Bernd Schneidmüller : Consensual rule. An essay on forms and concepts of political order in the Middle Ages. In: Paul-Joachim Heinig (Ed.): Empire, regions and Europe in the Middle Ages and modern times. Festschrift for Peter Moraw. Berlin 2000, pp. 53-87.
- ↑ Gerd Althoff : On the importance of symbolic communication for understanding the Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien 31, 1997, pp. 370–389.
- ↑ Knut Görich: The honor of Friedrich Barbarossas. Communication, Conflict, and Political Action in the 12th Century. Darmstadt 2001.
- ↑ Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997.
- ↑ Wolfgang Stürner: Friedrich II. Part 2. The Kaiser 1220-1250. 3rd, bibliographically updated edition in one volume, Darmstadt 2009, p. 594.
- ^ Cosimo Damiano Fonseca : Friedrich II. A balance sheet of two anniversary years (1994 and 2000). In: Friedrich Barbarossa and his court. Göppingen 2009, pp. 168-182. Theo Kölzer : The year of commemoration of Frederick II. A review. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages 54, 1998, pp. 141–161. ( online )
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Hubert Houben, Georg Vogeler (a cura di): Federico II nel Regno di Sicilia. Realtà locali e aspirazioni universali. Bari 2008.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 103. The following is fundamental to Friedrich II's emperor idea: Martin Schaller: Friedrich II's emperor idea. In: Gunther Wolf (Ed.): Stupor mundi. On the history of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. 2nd Edition. Darmstadt 1982, pp. 494-526.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, p. 232.
- ↑ Mamoun Fansa, Karen Ermete (ed.): Kaiser Friedrich II. 1194-1250. Mediterranean world and culture. Accompanying volume for the special exhibition in the State Museum for Nature and Man. Mainz 2008.
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 28. Critical to this: Hubert Houben: Friedrich II., A Sicilian on the imperial throne? In: Sources and research from Italian archives and libraries 97, 2017, pp. 83–98 ( online ).
- ↑ Olaf B. Rader: Friedrich the Second. The Sicilian on the imperial throne. Munich 2010, p. 434.
- ^ Hubert Houben: Emperor Friedrich II. (1194-1250). Ruler, man, myth. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 222-224.
| predecessor | Office | successor |
|---|---|---|
| Otto IV. |
Roman-German King from 1220, Emperor 1212–1250 |
Conrad IV. |
| Constance of Sicily |
King of Sicily 1198–1250 |
Conrad IV. |
| Philip |
Duke of Swabia from 1208 (de jure) and immediately from 1212 to 1217 |
Heinrich (VII.) (HRR) |
| personal data | |
|---|---|
| SURNAME | Frederick II |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Friedrich Roger (baptismal name) |
| BRIEF DESCRIPTION | Holy Roman Emperor |
| DATE OF BIRTH | December 26, 1194 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Jesi near Ancona |
| DATE OF DEATH | December 13, 1250 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Fiorentino at Lucera |