Harold Macmillan

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Harold Macmillan as Prime Minister with John F. Kennedy, 1961

Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton OM (born February 10, 1894 in Chelsea , London , † December 29, 1986 in Birch Grove House, Horsted Keynes, East Sussex ) was a British politician of the Conservative Party and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from January 10, 1957 to October 12, 1963.

A rebellious backbencher for a long time , Macmillan was promoted to minister responsible for the western Mediterranean during World War II . As a representative of one-nation conservatism, he held several important government offices as a leading cabinet member after the Tories' election victory in 1951 , including that of defense minister , foreign minister and the treasury . Domestically, his tenure as Prime Minister was shaped by numerous reforms and a prosperous economy with low unemployment and uneven economic growth . In foreign policy, he resolved by the Suez crisis resulting estrangement with the United States , the supply reached by American Polaris - medium-range missiles as a new core of the British nuclear deterrent , and prepared the way for a partial nuclear test ban treaty . In addition, in an accelerated process of decolonization, he released several countries of the British Empire into state independence . The application he initiated and submitted on August 9, 1961 to join the EEC failed, however, because the French President de Gaulle surprisingly pleaded against it on January 14, 1963. The end of his term of office was overshadowed by some scandals such as the Profumo affair .

In addition to his political career, Macmillan was a publisher at the family-owned Macmillan Publishers and author of several political and economic non-fiction books for decades .

Life

Early years

Balliol College, Oxford

Harold Macmillan was born the third son of the Scottish publisher Maurice Crawford Macmillan (1853-1936) and the American Helen (Nellie) Artie Tarleton Belles (1856-1937). His grandfather Daniel Macmillan and his brother Alexander, sons of a tenant farmer on the Isle of Arran , founded Macmillan & Company in 1843 . His mother, on the other hand, came from the American Midwest .

After visiting the Summer Fields School , a prestigious preparatory school for boys, Harold Macmillan was at Eton College educated and studied at Balliol College of Oxford University . Formative was his friendship with Ronald Knox , who gave him private tuition after Macmillan had developed severe pneumonia and was taken from Eton College by his mother; Knox gave Macmillan a deep interest in the Christian faith . As a result Macmillan considered converting to the Catholic faith at times . He remained a practicing Christian throughout his life. At Oxford, Macmillan joined several debating clubs, as is customary among politically interested students ; so he was among the members of the "Hanover Club", a German-British debating club that existed from 1911 to 1913 under the leadership of Albrecht Graf von Bernstorff , which was supposed to promote mutual understanding. Like many of his fellow students, Macmillan experienced the summer of 1914 as a time of carefree satisfaction; He kept Balliol and Oxford in cherished memories throughout his life, and later liked to quote the verse “Balliol made me, Balliol fed me” from Hilaire Belloc's nostalgic poem To the Balliol Men Still in Africa . His political sympathies during his time in Oxford were primarily directed towards the ruling liberals .

Advancing British Infantry near Ginchy; Battle of the Somme, 1916

During World War I , Macmillan served as an officer in the Grenadier Guards in northern France , took part in the battles at Loos and the Somme and was wounded three times. His final hip injury, sustained in the Battle of the Somme in 1916 (near Ginchy ), ended his active participation in the war, forcing him into rehabilitation for the next four years, and leaving him with a shuffling gait for the rest of his life back. As a company commander , he did not set himself apart from the mostly working class ranks of the crew. The cross-class experience of the war and the respect he showed his soldiers shaped him for the rest of his life. The war experience established his sympathy for the labor movement, which he repeatedly expressed in the 1920s .

After the war Macmillan refused to return to Oxford because too many of his friends and fellow students there had died in the war. Instead, he served in Ottawa, Canada as an aide-de-camp for the 9th Duke of Devonshire , then Governor General of Canada . On April 21, 1920 he married his daughter, Lady Dorothy Cavendish (1900–1966), in St Margaret's Church in London ; the wedding took place in the presence of Queen Alexandra and Prince Albert and was the most important social event of the year within the British upper class. The Macmillans had four children: Maurice Victor (1921–1984), Caroline (1923–2016), Catherine ( 1926–1991) and Sarah (1930–1970). In late 1929, his wife began a lifelong affair with Macmillan's fellow party member, the bon vivant Robert "Bob" Boothby . Although unknown to the general public, the affair caused a scandal in higher British society, as his wife, contrary to all conventions at the time, did not bother to hide them, but on the contrary initially lived them out quite openly. Still, Macmillan refused to get a divorce (also for political reasons).

Entry into politics

Also in 1920 Macmillan joined the family-owned publishing house as a junior partner, but soon decided to run for a seat in the House of Commons and only work part-time for the company. In the general election in December 1923 , he scored as a Conservative candidate in the industrially dominated northern England Stockton-on-Tees a decent result, but narrowly lost to the candidate of the Liberal. After Labor Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald lost a vote of confidence, there was a new election in October 1924 and Macmillan was elected to the House of Commons . He gave his well-received maiden speech on April 30, 1925. In the years that followed, Macmillan concentrated primarily on social and economic issues. In his constituency of Stockton-on-Tees, which is characterized by high unemployment, he was also involved in the social sector, especially in the field of youth work. On a societal level Macmillan was soon in the extended circle of Winston Churchill , also known as "The Old Guard" (The Old Guard) included - Churchill's biography of his father, Lord Randolph Churchill , was published by Macmillan Publishers. Because of his often divergent attitudes from the party line, the former Prime Minister David Lloyd characterized George Macmillan as a "born rebel." In 1927 he wrote the booklet Industry and the State together with Bob Boothy, John Loder and Oliver Stanley . With his co-authors and a few other younger party members such as Duff Cooper , he formed a progressive group that was disparagingly dubbed " YMCA " by established Tories .

In the general election in 1929 that the first all women suffrage conceded Macmillan lost his seat. In the two years without a seat in the House, he sought to focus on the work as a publisher, and took a leading position in the Publishers Association , a . Both remained unsatisfactory for him personally, since as a junior partner he had little influence in the family's own publishing house. Then there was his desperate private situation. In the late summer of 1931 he suffered a nervous breakdown and was treated for a few weeks in the sanatorium of the Neuwittelsbach sanatorium . In October 1931 he returned to England and won his parliamentary seat in Stockton back in the general election on October 27 . When the Labor renegade Oswald Mosley founded his New Party , Macmillan initially showed sympathy. As soon as Mosley started adopting fascist content, however, Macmillan distanced himself again. A five-week trip through the Soviet Union in August and September 1932 increased his interest in foreign policy issues and aroused in Macmillan an instinctive aversion to totalitarian forms of government, although his hosts largely shielded him from the actual living conditions.

In the lower house he spent the 1930s as a backbencher . During these years he wrote the books Reconstruction: A Plea for a National Policy , Planning for Employment , The Next Five Years and The Middle Way , the "sum" of his economic policy thinking. Based on the theories of Keynesianism of John Maynard Keynes, published by Macmillan & Company, and Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal , he sketched a “middle path” between Manchester capitalism and planned economy . At the same time, it was a reckoning with British class society that attracted great attention and was published several times (most recently in 1994). Macmillan attacked his party as "a party dominated by ... corporate promoters - a casino capitalism - unlikely to represent anything other than itself." His conservative "left" views and his harsh criticism of Stanley Baldwin and Arthur Neville Chamberlain isolated him within his party. From the beginning, Macmillan was also an outspoken opponent of the appeasement policy advocated primarily by Neville Chamberlain . In December 1935, he criticized in a letter to the editor of the London Times that the Anglo-French Hoare-Laval Pact could mean the collapse of the League of Nations . Later he was one of only two Conservative MPs who spoke out against the pact. He described the Munich Agreement as “a complete surrender to the racial principles of Nazi philosophy.” He then took in 50 refugees from the Sudetenland on his Birch Grove estate in East Sussex .

Second World War

Allied commanders in Tunisia. Macmillan in the upper left, Eisenhower in the lower left

During the Second World War he made a semi-official trip to Scandinavia in 1939 in order to report from there to the House of Commons about the Finnish-Soviet winter war . During the so-called Norwegian debate on May 7 and 8, 1940, Macmillan voted (as one of 80 Conservative MPs) against Chamberlain's government, which resigned after the debate. Macmillan was a member of the newly formed coalition government . Appointed to his wartime government by Prime Minister Winston Churchill , he initially worked for two years at the Ministry of Supply under Lord Beaverbrook before moving to the Colonial Ministry for a short time as Undersecretary of State . He was also a member of the Privy Council , an appointment that also came from Churchill's initiative.

In 1942 he became representative of the British government (Minister Resident) at the allied headquarters (AFHQ for short) in the western Mediterranean. This post, nominally associated with cabinet responsibility, marked a career leap for Macmillan. He was directly subordinate to Churchill, bypassing the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was supposed to serve as a liaison between the war cabinet and the local Allied headquarters in Algiers . In this capacity he attended the Casablanca Conference. The classically educated Macmillan ironically described this conference as the meeting between the Emperor of the West and the Emperor of the East, borrowing from the late Roman Empire . During his time in North Africa , it was his task repeatedly as a mediator to resolve tensions between the British and Americans that arose from different perspectives on the conduct of the war. He also had to eliminate internal rivalries in the French Committee for National Liberation . In contrast to Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, Macmillan was open to Charles de Gaulle , who had repeated arguments with Churchill and Roosevelt. Macmillan's mediation prevented the Anglo-American alliance from withdrawing support from De Gaulle. Macmillan also built a harmonious relationship with Dwight D. Eisenhower and his American counterpart Robert Murphy . In February 1943, the plane in which he was to fly from Algiers to Alexandria had an accident while it was taking off. Macmillan, who saved the life of another passenger in the accident, suffered a concussion and burns to his body and face.

British units during the Battle of Athens

After the successful Allied invasion of Italy , Macmillan moved the AFHQ from Algiers to Caserta . With Roosevelt's approval, Churchill appointed Macmillan - in addition to his functions as Resident Minister and Advisor to the Commander-in-Chief - Chief Commissioner of the Allied Control Commission, which again considerably expanded his influence and scope. However, this brought him into conflict with Foreign Minister Anthony Eden , who disagreed with Macmillan on various issues and feared for his own position. In the further course of the war he played a decisive role in the installation of Archbishop Damaskinos Papandreou as the Greek regent; During the Battle of Athens Macmillan succeeded in convincing Churchill of the reign in the besieged British embassy . He actually preferred a restoration of the monarchy under the unpopular George II . On May 12, 1945, shortly after Germany's unconditional surrender , Macmillan flew to Klagenfurt am Wörthersee , where he met with the commander of the British 5th Corps , General Charles Keightley . In the room there were discussions about the impending conflict with Tito's People 's Liberation Army , which had partially occupied Carinthia and Julisch Venetia and claimed it for communist Yugoslavia . He advised Keightley (in accordance with an agreement between the Western Powers and the Soviet Union to surrender all Soviet citizens freed from British troops to the Soviet Union “regardless of their wishes”) to hand over the Cossack units camped there to the Red Army . Macmillan returned to Caserta and from there to England the next day, while the final decision on extradition was not made until a military conference in Udine on 26/27. May 1945 fell; In the 1980s, however, his involvement in this process, later also known as the Lienz Cossack Tragedy , caused a public controversy.

Opposition phase in post-war Britain

European Congress in the Great Hall in The Hague , May 1948

After the war, he returned to a greatly changed England - Macmillan noted in his diary that he felt “almost like a stranger at home”. He was Minister of Aviation for two months in Churchill's transitional government . In the clear defeat of the Conservatives in the general election in 1945 (which he had already forecast from late 1942), Macmillan also lost his seat in the lower house. However, by winning a by-election in Bromley, he was able to move back into the House of Commons in November 1945. Bromley, a suburban town in Kent and a safe constituency for the Tories , remained Macmillan's constituency until he left the House of Commons. Harold Nicolson noted at the time Macmillan's increased standing, especially among the backbenchers of his party: “They feel that Winston is too old and Anthony (Eden) is too weak. They want Harold Macmillan to lead them. ”Aspiring young Tories like Edward Heath were programmatically drawn to Macmillan. The former outsider Macmillan, often described as boring before the war, was now more conspicuous for his self-assured, distinguished and urbane demeanor. Always attributed to the one-nation conservatism originally propagated by Benjamin Disraeli , his programmatic priorities before the war, his advocacy of Keynesianism and his opposition to appeasement were now completely in line with the official party line, which favored his further rise . In the early years of the conservative opposition, Macmillan became a front bencher and was considered a potential future executive by the newspaper The Observer . He was part of several conservative working groups that pushed for a realignment of the Tories. Alongside Rab Butler , he was the lead author of the Industrial Charter , which advocated a mixed economy and a mix of Keynesianism, social security and labor rights. The industrial charter became one of the central cornerstones in the election campaign of the Tories , who after their clear defeat in 1945 now endeavored intensely to also address welfare state issues and to expand the welfare state. From the beginning, Macmillan was a supporter of Churchill and Duncan Sandys launched Union Europe Movement , which advocated a united, federal Europe. In 1948 he took part in the Hague European Congress and regularly in meetings of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg and in 1950/1951 was in fact the spokesman for the British Conservative delegation. Prior to the 1950 general election , which Labor narrowly won, Macmillan was a co-author of the Tories' electoral manifesto .

Cabinet member under Churchill and Eden

Churchill's Cabinet 1955; Macmillan is on the far left

When the Conservatives came back to power in the October 25, 1951 election , Macmillan became Minister of Housing under Prime Minister Winston Churchill and was now to fulfill the Tories' promise to build 300,000 new homes in the budget year to address the housing shortage in postwar England . Macmillan, who initially accepted the newly created post rather hesitantly, soon organized the new ministry along the lines of the Ministry of Supply in World War II. In 1953 the stated goal was achieved, a year earlier than originally planned. However, Macmillan (who had been given by Churchill on the way that this task would either ruin or favor his political career) also fulfilled this by partially reducing the previous structural standards. During this time he also advocated a more active role for Great Britain in the Council of Europe and in an internal memorandum advocated both the Schuman Plan and the idea of ​​a European security system in which Great Britain should take an active role. However, he was faced with a negative majority in the cabinet , led by Secretary of State Anthony Eden.

From October 1954, after a cabinet reshuffle, he was Minister of Defense, a post with which he had originally flirted but which was soon spoiled by Churchill's constant reign. During his time as Defense Minister, Macmillan realized that the conventional armed forces were increasingly obsolete and that Great Britain could only protect itself against a (Soviet) attack with nuclear weapons through the possibility of a second strike . As the aging Churchill, long held in office, was successively pushed to resign by his cabinet, Macmillan was the envoy who directly confronted Churchill with the views of the cabinet.

Palace of Westminster , London, view in the 1950s

In the cabinet of Churchill's successor Sir Anthony Eden, Macmillan was first foreign minister. As in his time as Minister of Defense, he again assumed an office that the Prime Minister saw as his very own portfolio. Eden, who, with one brief exception, had never held any ministerial office other than Foreign Minister, continued to try to control the Foreign Office and the core competencies of foreign policy. In the end, Eden suggested to Macmillan in mid-September 1955 that he move to the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer in order to replace him with his longtime, loyal subordinate, Selwyn Lloyd . Macmillan attached several conditions to his consent; Above all, he asked for complete autonomy as Chancellor of the Exchequer and also demanded that Rab Butler should not be a Deputy Prime Minister (and thus be above him in the hierarchy). After Eden had met most of his demands, he finally agreed in December 1955 and moved to the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer (1955-1957) in the subsequent cabinet reshuffle. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, he introduced the innovation of premium bonds in his budget from April 1956 , increased the discount and - against Eden's will - carried out the elimination of subsidies for bread and milk. He was also significantly involved in the negotiations with the Federal Republic of Germany about further German compensation payments for the maintenance of the British Army of the Rhine . At the end of June 1956, both sides agreed to extend the German direct payments to Great Britain again until April 1957.

During the Suez Crisis, initially one of those who encouraged Eden to take a resolute course against Nasser , Macmillan was directly involved in the planning of the Anglo-French intervention and presented himself as a hardliner. After his talks with President Dwight D. Eisenhower, US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and US Treasury Secretary George M. Humphrey (at a meeting of the International Monetary Fund in the USA), he reported to the British Cabinet about the support expressed by the US government. However, he failed to inform Eden of statements by Secretary of State Dulles, in which he had warned against an action before November 6 (the day of the US presidential election ), and trusted in his good personal relationship with US President Eisenhower . Macmillan encouraged Eden to be optimistic that the Americans would ultimately support Britain and accept a fait accompli . As soon as the US administration began to exert political and, above all, economic pressure on Great Britain in response to the Anglo-French attack, Macmillan turned around and demanded a quick end to the action within the cabinet. This complete turnaround was later characterized by the Labor politician Harold Wilson in his sarcastic bon mot "first in, first out". Macmillan later destroyed his diaries covering the time period of the Suez Crisis.

A fragile constitution for years, Eden suffered a collapse in health after the fiasco and initially went on a vacation to Jamaica . During this time, a triumvirate consisting of Lord Salisbury (the chairman of the Tories in the House of Lords and Lord President of the Council , also Macmillan's brother-in-law), Rab Butler and Macmillan provisionally headed the official business; Macmillan was already positioning himself for the now foreseeable search for a new prime minister. In contrast to the butler, who appeared extremely dispassionate on this occasion, he gave a deliberately combative 30-minute speech to the 1922 backbencher committee . When Eden finally resigned in January 1957, the two suitable candidates to succeed the Conservatives as prime minister and party leader were Macmillan and Rab Butler. Both had been linked by a subliminal rivalry for a long time. Contrary to what many observers suspected, Macmillan prevailed. Since the Conservatives did not have a formal process for determining a successor at the time, Queen Elizabeth II sought advice from several people on whom to send: an unofficial poll of cabinet members held by Lord Salisbury showed a clear majority for Macmillan. On Salisbury's advice, Chief Whip Edward Heath and 1922 Committee Chairman John Morrison were asked for their views; both were also in favor of Macmillan. Churchill, also interviewed, advised the Queen to Macmillan on the grounds that "Harold is more determined". In addition, Macmillan's close contacts with the US administration came under the given circumstances, who also preferred Macmillan as Eden's successor. The outgoing Prime Minister Eden, who had expressed a preference for Butler, made no formal recommendation.

Prime Minister (1957-59)

10 Downing Street, the Prime Minister's London residence

In forming his cabinet , Macmillan made no major changes. Since he was determined from the start to set his own accents in foreign policy, he refused Rab Butler the Foreign Office and instead offered him the Ministry of the Interior. In the Foreign Office he left the loyal but less capable Selwyn Lloyd in office. Macmillan appointed Peter Thorneycroft to the vacant post of Chancellor of the Exchequer . He replaced Defense Secretary Antony Head with the determined Duncan Sandys, who was to work out a reorientation of British defense doctrine for Macmillan. He also nominated Lord Hailsham as the new Minister of Education ( Education Minister ).

Macmillan brought the Chancellor's financial worries into office - in addition to the immediate need to renew the battered relationship with the United States, the economy was initially his main concern. He supported the formation of the “National Income Commission” as part of his “growth without inflation” policy. Still strongly influenced by the experiences of the economic crisis of the 1930s, he saw it as his priority to aim for the highest possible employment rate; on the other hand, his finance secretaries said that above all the currency had to be stabilized, which would have led to increased unemployment because of the strict budgetary restrictions that would then have been necessary. Their proposals were rejected, and in January 1958 all three secretaries resigned, led by Chancellor of the Exchequer Peter Thorneycroft. Macmillan, currently on a trip through the Commonwealth , brushed this incident off the table as a "little local problem". Instead of Thorneycrofts he appointed Derick Heathcoat-Amory (until then the Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food) as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Many domestic policy reforms were subsequently carried out under Macmillan's aegis, for which Interior Minister Rab Butler was mostly responsible. Legislative reforms have been carried out in the judicial system, and the existing rules on licensing, gambling and prostitution have been relaxed. In addition, several laws were passed to improve the general standard of living of the population, such as a Clean Air Act in 1956 as a result of the smog disaster in London , a Noise Abatement Act in 1960 to reduce noise, and the Factories Act 1961, a law on occupational health and safety. The standard working time per week has been reduced from 48 hours to 42 hours. In order to limit the massive influx of immigrants - in theory a quarter of the world's total population was eligible to immigrate to Great Britain - Macmillan's government responded in 1962 with an immigration law that restricted freedom of movement in the Commonwealth.

Like his predecessors in office, Macmillan stuck to the British nuclear weapons program. The resulting demands on the nuclear industry are blamed in part for the Windscale fire in October 1957. The actual severity of the accident was kept under lock and key in order not to worry the population and not to endanger the already agreed cooperation with the USA in the field of nuclear research. In November 1957, the first successful hydrogen bomb test was carried out near Kiritimati . Conventional armaments were further reduced in favor of nuclear deterrence. Macmillan's newly appointed Defense Secretary Duncan Sandys has been tasked with refitting the British armed forces. Sandys' concept, presented in a white paper on April 4, 1957 , defined nuclear weapons as the essential foundation of British defense. Along with this, the conventional British armed forces should be further reduced and restructured; Sandys' plans envisaged a gradual reduction in the number of personnel from 690,000 to 375,000 in 1962. In addition, the share of the defense budget in the gross national product was to be reduced from the previous ten percent to seven percent in 1962 through ongoing budget cuts. The end of general conscription in Great Britain was decided in 1960.

Conference with Eisenhower in Bermuda, 1957

In foreign policy, Macmillan was convinced that summit conferences with other state leaders could effectively reduce tensions and achieve diplomatic success. As Prime Minister he tried repeatedly, but unsuccessfully, to resolve the conflict between the Warsaw Pact and NATO through a four-power conference. In the following years of his tenure he developed an extensive travel activity. At first, Macmillan tried to eliminate the differences that had arisen between Great Britain and the USA as a result of the Suez crisis in autumn 1956 and to renew the special relationship . His wartime friendship with Eisenhower was useful in this. As early as March 1957, the two held a friendly conference in Bermuda. The stationing of 60 Thor missiles under joint control in Great Britain was also agreed to replace the outdated nuclear-armed bombers of the Strategic Air Command . The good relationship later continued with the rise of John F. Kennedy .

Comparison of clocks with John F. Kennedy in Key West , 1961

Macmillan also saw the value of moving closer to Europe. He sought access to the European Economic Community (EEC) - which started on January 1, 1958 - and explored the possibility of a European free trade area ( EFTA ). Macmillan also sought to maintain Britain's position of power in the Middle East - in Oman he used the Royal Air Force to crush a revolt against the Sultan of Oman , financed by Saudi Arabia and Egypt . In 1957 he strongly supported a US plan to overthrow the regime in Syria . This policy also led to an intervention in Jordan in 1958, where airborne troops were sent to fend off an attempted coup against the Jordanian royal family initiated by Syria. Macmillan sanctioned a further intervention in Kuwait in 1960 after a military coup had taken place in neighboring Iraq and the new regime, which was drawing closer to the Soviet Union, threatened Kuwait with a military invasion.

Macmillan was nicknamed "Supermac" for the first time in a cartoon in November 1958 by the cartoonist "Vicky" ( Victor Weisz ), in which he was wearing a Superman costume with the number 10 (short for Downing Street number 10 ) pointed on the chest. Originally meant ironically, the caricature soon developed its own momentum and was positively associated with Macmillan.

In February 1959 he visited the Soviet Union to discuss the status of West Berlin with Nikita Khrushchev , to mediate between Khrushchev and Eisenhower and to initiate a possible ban on nuclear weapon tests. Macmillan then worked hard to convene a summit conference of the four victorious powers. This and his efforts to reduce the costs of the British troops stationed in West Germany also created tensions in the British-German relationship, since Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred a policy of strength. In addition, the suspicious Adenauer feared secret agreements between the great powers at Germany's expense. Macmillan's subsequent visit to Bonn on March 12, 1959 failed to dispel the moods of the relationship and Adenauer's suspicions about a west-east détente at German expense. Macmillan also collided with outgoing US Secretary of State Dulles on his five-day visit to Washington, DC and Camp David the following week; Dulles also felt the British and Macmillan were too willing to compromise with the Soviet Union in the Berlin crisis and tried to swear Macmillan to an unyielding attitude. The conflict remained unsolved, but Macmillan managed to get the US administration to hold a meeting of foreign ministers that would ease the tension and prepare a summit conference of the four victorious powers . He also agreed with Eisenhower to leave the Scottish naval base Holy Loch to the US Navy as a location for nuclear submarines .

Second term as Prime Minister (1959–1963)

In the October 1959 general election , Macmillan led the Conservatives to a great victory: The party won 365 out of 630 seats, expanding its existing majority in the lower house from 60 to 100 seats. Macmillan's election campaign was based on the achieved economic progress and the increased standard of living under the campaign slogan: "Life's Better Under the Conservatives" . Macmillan's saying from this period, which he incorporated in a speech in Bedford , is well known: "Let's be frank: most people have never had it this good." However, the actual growth rate was weak compared to the rest of Europe and was increased by the high defense spending . Despite cuts, defense spending still amounted to almost ten percent of gross national product, even under Macmillan's administration.

Map of British Decolonization in Africa; Year of independence in brackets

With regard to the British Empire , Macmillan continued to sack the British colonies and protectorates . Ghana and Malaya gained independence in 1957, British Somaliland and Nigeria in 1960, Sierra Leone , Tanganyika and Kuwait in 1961, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Uganda in 1962, Singapore , Zanzibar and Kenya in 1963. 1960 became the so-called African year . Macmillan traveled the continent early that year and accepted - much criticized - an invitation from South Africa , which was preparing its secession from the British Commonwealth. In front of its parliament on February 3, 1960, he repeated the formulation he had previously chosen in Ghana, that a "wind of change" is blowing through the continent. “Whether we like it or not, this growing national consciousness is a political fact. We all have to accept this as a fact and adjust our own policies accordingly. ”He particularly referred to the economic relations between the two countries and referred to the boycott of English consumers against South African products in the face of an increasingly radical apartheid policy . He openly stated the differences between the two countries regarding their respective domestic and foreign policies. It is a basic principle of the modern Commonwealth that each member respects the domestic politics of the other, but that domestic political developments in each nation also produce effects outside of it. The South African Prime Minister Verwoerd , on the other hand, stressed that he wanted to maintain white supremacy in the country. Ultimately, however, Macmillan's speech set a historic milestone. He also agreed to the dissolution of the Central African Federation . Macmillan fell out with his brother-in-law Lord Salisbury over this question, which had been discussed for years . of Cyprus left the cabinet. Even a staunch old-school imperialist , he repeatedly criticized Macmillan's policies for being too left-wing after the break. Salisbury also accepted the presidency of the Conservative Monday Club , a small right-wing interest group formed in 1961 within the Tories that criticized Macmillan's government for being too liberal and left-wing and opposed to decolonization.

Macmillan's attempt at the Paris summit conference in May 1960 to reach a treaty to ban nuclear weapons tests, to gradually defuse the still smoldering Berlin crisis and to initiate a détente between the two power blocs failed in the face of the affair over the espionage flight of the US pilot Gary Powers with the U-2 . Khrushchev snubbed Eisenhower and let the summit 'burst' right at the beginning. Macmillan, who had high hopes for the conference, described the failed conference as a serious setback and viewed it as a personal defeat. Immediately afterwards and later in an interview with the BBC , he described the failure of the summit as "one of the most tragic moments of my life."

Before the parliamentary summer recess in 1960, Macmillan reshuffled his cabinet; He promoted Alec Douglas-Home to Secretary of State. The previous Foreign Secretary, Selwyn Lloyd, moved to the Treasury, where he replaced Derick Heathcoat-Amory, who (for reasons of age) left the House of Commons and was knighted a little later. Edward Heath, previously Chief Whip, was nominated for the office of Lord Seal Preserver in order to conduct the accession negotiations with the European Economic Community in Brussels . Christopher Soames , previously minister in the redundant War Office , became minister for agriculture, fisheries and food. In addition, Macmillan brought Peter Thorneycroft and Enoch Powell , who had resigned in January 1958, back into government: he entrusted the office of aviation minister, Powell became minister of health .

In 1961 the government froze wages and salaries for seven months and increased some indirect taxes. This resulted in a loss of popularity for the government and a series of defeats in by-elections. Macmillan then planned to undertake a profound cabinet reshuffle after the parliamentary summer recess in 1962, as he told Rab Butler and Iain Macleod ( Leader of the House of Commons ) in confidence. Butler passed this on to press magnate Lord Rothermere on the evening of July 12, 1962 , who had his Daily Mail report on it the next day with the headline "Mac's Master Plan". A horrified Macmillan was forced to act rashly and dismissed seven cabinet members in the so-called “ Night of the Long Knives ”, who he replaced with aspiring younger men such as Reginald Maudling , Sir Keith Joseph and Michael Noble . Although a long-term asset to his party, Macmillan's brutal cabinet reshuffle proved to be a heavy burden in the short term. In the House of Commons, the opposition capitalized on what went on and made Macmillan a target for criticism; in addition, his personal popularity fell in the polls.

HMS Repulse in the Firth of Clyde , a Resolution-class nuclear submarine

In September 1962, the government official John Vassall spy scandal rocked Great Britain; Vassall had been blackmailed with his homosexuality to reveal secrets of the British Embassy in Moscow and later the British Naval Intelligence Department to the Soviet Union. Macmillan's government subsequently came under heavy criticism from the British press.

The British attempts at the beginning of the 1960s to use the Blue Streak program to build up their own missile force for atomic deterrence failed because of the high costs and the vulnerability to a theoretical Soviet first strike. After the Skybolt missile program was also canceled for technical and financial reasons, Macmillan achieved the delivery of American Polaris medium -range missiles in December 1962 with the Nassau Agreement . On the four nuclear submarines of the Resolution class installed they should until the 1990s in the heart of the British nuclear deterrent policy form. At the same time, Macmillan was for many years one of the main driving forces in the negotiations that ultimately led to the 1963 Treaty on the Restriction of Atomic Bomb Tests, which was signed by Great Britain, the USA and the Soviet Union in Moscow.

In December 1962, Macmillan and Charles De Gaulle met at Rambouillet Castle to discuss Britain's application to join the EEC and a possible European nuclear force. A joint letter from Kennedy and Macmillan to De Gaulle, who offered France a similar arrangement to the Nassau agreement, was rejected by De Gaulle. He feared that “in the end there would be a huge Atlantic community dependent on America” . He always saw Great Britain primarily as a partner of the USA and as a potential Trojan horse through which the interests of the USA would penetrate the European community to an inadmissible extent. He also spoke to his confidante Alain Peyrefitte that he was annoyed by the Anglo-American nuclear deal, which provided Britain with nuclear weapons that the Americans had long denied the French. Macmillan, on the other hand, was of the opinion that UK accession to the EEC should best take place during de Gaulle's presidency, because de Gaulle had a British view of the political formation of the community. He even suggested in an internal memorandum that de Gaulle be offered a deal that would involve the French more closely in British-American world politics. France would thus become a de facto world power, while the British in turn could exert considerable influence over the EEC. However, Britain's application failed on January 14, 1963 due to the Veto de Gaulle.

Macmillan also embarrassed the Profumo affair of 1963, as a result of which he survived a vote of confidence in the House of Commons. Macmillan, previously perceived as urbane and “unshakable”, with his Edwardian habitus was increasingly seen as alien to the present and anachronistic in the emerging zeitgeist of the swinging sixties . In satirical stage programs like Beyond the Fringe , his habitus has now been caricatured. In the final months of his tenure, Macmillan hesitated for a long time about whether to lead the Tories in the next election campaign; in October 1963, however, he resigned after illness and surgery.

At his instigation, Alec Douglas-Home, his previous foreign minister, was chosen as his successor in a controversial process. Macmillan had expressly advised Queen Elizabeth II about Douglas Home in a memorandum. In later years, Macmillan was accused of pulling the strings with some party leaders in the background to prevent Rab Butler as his successor.

Retired as a politician, worked as a publisher and writer

Entrance portal to Birch Grove, Macmillan's primary private residence

Macmillan made his last speech in the House of Commons on July 28, 1964, and retired from active politics in October 1964. From then on he devoted himself above all to his publishing house, of which he became CEO as the successor to his brother Daniel. As chairman of the board, he modernized the publishing offer, gave up the too small publishing house on St. Martin's Street and expanded the publishing house with Pan Books, which took over the distribution of paperbacks . He had also been elected Chancellor of Oxford University in 1960 and devoted himself to this office with great energy in the decades that followed. A prolific writer, he wrote a six-volume autobiography that appeared between 1966 and 1973, spanning the years from the outbreak of war in 1914 to his resignation as Prime Minister in 1963. In 1975 he published The Past Masters: Politics and Politicians, a bestselling book about famous political contemporaries. Macmillan also kept diaries for decades; Under the title War Diaries he published a book form of his entries in 1984 during his time in the Mediterranean. Further parts of his diaries were published posthumously in an edited version.

Macmillan was an avid reader all his life; even as a minister he spent many mornings reading in bed (he mainly carried out his official duties in the afternoons and evenings) and even as prime minister, as his diaries testify, he often read more than 100 books a year. He was also a passionate golfer and enthusiastic hunter who took part in grouse hunts almost every hunting season . He usually spent his vacations in Scotland. From his youth onwards, Macmillan (like his contemporaries Churchill and Willy Brandt ) periodically suffered from melancholy phases (sometimes also known as Black Dog in England ), which he fought through temporary withdrawal and constant reading. His wife Dorothy died in May 1966; Macmillan spent the rest of his life a widower. In old age he commuted between his Birch Grove mansion and the various London gentlemen's clubs of which he was a member (Carlton Club, Turf Club, Pratt's, Beefsteak Club and Buck's Club) and which he frequented. In 1974 he retired as chairman of the Macmillan & Company publishing house to the office of president, which he held until his death. In 1977 he assumed the presidency of the prestigious Carlton Club , of which he had been a member since 1929. After a few months he merged the Carlton Club and the Junior Carlton Club to ensure the future financial survival of the club.

House of Lords Chamber

In 1976 he was awarded the Order of Merit . In October of the same year he suggested (unsuccessfully) the formation of a "government of national unity", consisting of all parties and intended to effectively combat the British economic crisis . After Margaret Thatcher was elected party leader of the Tories and his post-war consensus- dominated policy was attacked by his party's financial experts (especially the monetarists Norman Tebbit and Nicholas Ridley ), Macmillan spoke out more frequently. At the beginning of the Falklands War he was an important advisor to Thatcher; Among other things, he gave her the advice now, bearing in mind the Suez debacle, to form a smaller war cabinet that should confer daily and to exclude the Chancellor of the Exchequer ( Geoffrey Howe ) from it. Thatcher later expressly acknowledged this advice in her memoirs.

In 1981 he was elected an honorary member of the British Academy . In 1984 he was awarded the Freedom Medal . Macmillan did not accept the title of nobility , which he had repeatedly been offered since 1964, until 1984 on his 90th birthday. He was named Earl of Stockton and Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden of Chelwood Gate in the County of East Sussex and of Stockton-on-Tees in the County of Cleveland on February 24, 1984 , a title he himself chose. Macmillan was the first British citizen since 1965 to receive a new hereditary title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and to actually inherit it. A dining room at the Carlton Club was named after him. In his first speech in the House of Lords , he criticized Thatcher's handling of the miners' strike in 1984/1985 in harsh terms. Shortly after her election as party leader, Thatcher had praised Macmillan as the politician of the twentieth century she most admired in one of her first interviews, but now she criticized Macmillan's politics in the 1960s.

At the end of December 1986 he died in Birch Grove at the age of 93. Since his eldest son Maurice was already dead at that time, his grandson Alexander inherited the title. Macmillan was on January 5, 1987 in the expanded private setting on the St. Giles Church cemetery in Horsted Keynes ( Mid Sussex buried), where he regularly attended the church service and the reading of Scripture had argued.

Macmillan family grave; St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes (2012)

memory

Memorial plaque for Harold Macmillan and his wife Dorothy

Immediately after his death, Macmillan was widely recognized as a distinguished statesman; on January 12, 1987, his was commemorated in the House of Commons; and on February 10, 1987, a public memorial service for Macmillan was held at Westminster Abbey in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II . Other memorial services were held in various locations such as the Church of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford and in South Africa. Tributes came from Prime Minister Thatcher, who hailed him as an "extraordinary person and great patriot", from US President Ronald Reagan , the President of the ANC , Oliver Tambo , and from the Commonwealth. Labor leader Neil Kinnock , on the other hand, was more differentiated, praising Macmillan's achievements but also criticizing the fact that the era over which he presided was a time of missed opportunities and avoided changes.

In the 1980s there was an increasingly intense public debate about the extent of British involvement in the question of the forced repatriation of Soviet citizens who had fought on the side of the Wehrmacht against the Soviet Union. In the wake of this controversy, the writer Robert Graves called Macmillan a "murderer". At the end of 1986 the author Nikolai Tolstoy finally published his book The Minister and the Massacres in which he made the British military, first and foremost Harold Macmillan and Toby Low, 1st Baron Aldington , directly responsible for the Bleiburg massacre . He accused Macmillan of having, as part of a "Klagenfurt conspiracy," brought General Harold Alexander to extradite Cossacks and Soviet citizens for forced repatriation. Initially with a lot of praise, Tolstoy's descriptions were quickly assessed critically. Christopher Booker , who at first also believed in Macmillan's personal guilt, proved Tolstoy's numerous perversions in his own book; Tolstoy also used testimony that would describe events forty years earlier. Scottish author Ian Mitchell further accused Tolstoy of his unsubstantiated claim that Macmillan was a secret ally or agent of the NKVD . Lord Aldington successfully sued Tolstoy in 1989 for defamation. Macmillan's various biographers, especially his official biographer Alistair Horne, also largely rejected Tolstoy's theses. In 1990, after four years of work , an independent commission of inquiry (headed by Brigadier Anthony Cowgill and assisted by Lord Brimelow and Christopher Booker) finally published its report. They unanimously concluded that, "contrary to the impression that has been widely accepted in recent years, the role that Harold Macmillan played in repatriation as UK Resident Minister was extremely small and marginal in its consequences." In addition, Macmillan was not involved in any decision to transfer the dissidents against their will.

In 1967, while Macmillan was still alive, a first political monograph on him, written by Anthony Sampson , appeared; In 1982 Nigel Fisher's biography was published. Macmillan had cooperated with Fisher on the premise that he would skip his wife's affair with "Bob" Boothby and would not give him access to his private papers. In 1988 and 1989, respectively, the two-volume official biography of Alistair Horne followed . Horne had been personally chosen as his biographer by Macmillan in the summer of 1979. Hornes biography relies heavily on Macmillan's private notes and diary entries. From the mid-1990s, further biographies and books followed that deal with Macmillan's life.

Macmillan is best known to many Brits for the quote that comes from a speech he gave at a 1957 Tory conference. In it he said: Indeed let us be frank about it - most of our people have never had it so good . The phrase "Never Had It So Good" represents to this day the British welfare state of the postwar period . In a September 2008 BBC Newsnight poll aimed at voting for the best prime minister after 1945, Macmillan came fourth (behind Churchill, Clement Attlee and Thatcher). In 2010, Macmillan was again in fourth place in an identical survey by the University of Leeds ; the survey was among 106 academics who specialize in British history and politics .

Own works and writings

  • With Robert Boothy, John Loder, Oliver Stanley: Industry and the State: A Conservative View . Macmillan, London 1927.
  • Reconstruction: A Plea for a National Policy . Macmillan, London 1933.
  • Planning for Employment . Macmillan, London 1935.
  • The Next Five Years . Macmillan, London 1935.
  • The Middle Way. A study of the problem of economic and social progress in a free and democratic society . Macmillan, London 1938 (and further editions), ISBN 0-7158-1333-1 .
  • Winds of Change, 1914-1939 . Macmillan, London 1966, ISBN 0-333-06639-1 .
  • The Blast of War, 1939-1945 . Macmillan, London 1967, ISBN 0-333-00358-6 .
  • Tides of Fortune, 1945-1955 . Macmillan, London 1969, ISBN 0-333-04077-5 .
  • Riding the Storm, 1956-1959 . Macmillan, London 1971, ISBN 0-333-10310-6 .
  • Pointing the Way, 1959-1961 . Macmillan, London 1972, ISBN 0-333-12411-1 .
  • At the End of the Day, 1961-1963 . Macmillan, London 1973, ISBN 0-333-12413-8 .
  • The Past Masters: Politics and Politicians . Macmillan, London 1975, ISBN 0-333-19017-3 .
  • War Diaries: Politics and War in the Mediterranean, January 1943– May 1945 . Macmillan, London 1984, ISBN 0-312-85566-4 .
  • The Macmillan Diaries. The Cabinet Years 1950-57. Edited by Peter Catterall. Macmillan, London 2003, ISBN 0-230-76843-1 .
  • The Macmillan Diaries. Prime Minister and After, 1957-1966. Edited by Peter Catterall. Macmillan, London 2011, ISBN 978-1-4050-4721-0 .

Literature on Harold Macmillan

  • Richard Aldous, Sabine Lee (Eds.): Harold Macmillan: Aspects of a Political Life . St. Martin's Press, London 1999, ISBN 0-312-21906-7 (several essays on various aspects of Macmillan's life and work).
  • Richard Aldous, Sabine Lee (Eds.): Harold Macmillan and Britain's World Role . Palgrave Macmillan, London 1996, ISBN 0-333-63053-X (several essays on Macmillan's foreign policy).
  • Gerhard Altmann: Farewell to the Empire. The internal decolonization of Great Britain 1945–1985 . Wallstein, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-89244-870-1 .
  • Simon Ball: The Guardsmen: Harold Macmillan, Three Friends and the World They Made . Harper Perennial, London 2005, ISBN 0-00-653163-6 .
  • Francis Beckett: Macmillan (20 British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century) . House Publishing, London 2006, ISBN 1-904950-66-3 (short biography).
  • LJ Butler, Sarah Stockwell (Eds.): The Wind of Change: Harold MacMillan and British Decolonization . Palgrave, London 2013, ISBN 978-0-230-36103-4 (on the "Wind of Change" speech and its aftermath).
  • Richard Davenport-Hines: An English Affair: Sex, Class and Power in the Age of Profumo. HarperCollins, London 2013, ISBN 978-0-00-743585-2 (on the Profumo affair).
  • Anthony O. Edmonds, E. Bruce Geelhoed: Eisenhower, Macmillan and Allied Unity 1957-61 . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2003, ISBN 0-333-64227-9 .
  • Nigel Fisher: Harold Macmillan . Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1982, ISBN 0-297-77914-1 .
  • Daniel Gossel: British, Germans and Europe. The German Question in British Foreign Policy 1945–1962 . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-515-07159-8 .
  • Peter Hennessy : Having It So Good: Britain In The Fifties . Penguin Books, London 2006, ISBN 0-14-100409-6 .
  • Alistair Horne: Macmillan Volume I: 1894-1956 . Macmillan, London 1988, ISBN 0-333-27691-4 .
  • Alistair Horne: Macmillan Volume II: 1957-1986 . Macmillan, London 1989, ISBN 0-333-49621-3 .
  • George Hutchinson: The Last Edwardian at No. 10: An Impression of Harold Macmillan. Quartet Books, London 1980, ISBN 0-7043-2232-3 .
  • Elizabeth James: Macmillan: A Publishing Tradition . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2002, ISBN 0-333-73517-X (via Macmillan-Verlag).
  • Richard Lamb: The Macmillan Years 1957-63: The Emerging Truth . Murray, London 1995, ISBN 0-7195-5392-X .
  • Peter Mangold : The Almost Impossible Ally. Harold Macmillan and Charles De Gaulle . IB Tauris, London 2006, ISBN 1-85043-800-5 (on Britain's failure to join the EEC in 1963).
  • Giles Radice : Odd Couples: The Great Political Pairings of Modern Britain . IBTauris, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-78076-280-7 (chapter Never Had it so Good: Macmillan and Butler ).
  • Dominic Sandbrook: Never Had It So Good: A History of Britain from Suez to the Beatles. Abacus, London 2005, ISBN 0-349-14127-4 (on Great Britain from 1956 to 1963).
  • DR Thorpe : Supermac - The Life of Harold Macmillan. Chatto & Windus, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-7011-7748-5 (awarded the Marsh Biography Award in 2011 ).
  • John Turner: Macmillan (Profiles in Power) . Routledge, London 1994, ISBN 0-582-55386-5 .
  • Charles Williams: Harold Macmillan . Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-7538-2702-4 .

Web links

Commons : Harold Macmillan  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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