Avifauna of Central Europe
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As avifauna of Central Europe which are species of birds referred to as a breeding bird , migrant or wintering in Central Europe occur. The avifauna therefore also includes neozoa such as the Canada goose , which was naturalized by humans in Central Europe, and the so-called wanderers , whose actual breeding areas, migration routes and wintering areas are far away and which only rarely or exceptionally reach Central Europe. In total, breeding birds from 21 orders are currently represented in Central Europe, of which the recent breeding population of two orders, namely parrots and flamingos , can be traced back to captive refugees. None of the species is restricted to Central Europe. Only a few species, such as the red kite, have their distribution focus in Central Europe.
The number of breeding birds varies depending on the habitat diversity that a region offers. In Switzerland, for example, an average of 97 species breed on an area of 100 square kilometers in the flatlands, which tend to be more diverse in shape, whereas 47 species of breeding birds are counted in the comparatively poorer regions above 1,800 meters above sea level. The breeding bird population in a region is generally not static. Even without anthropogenic (human) influence, individual species are disappearing in certain areas or a region is opening up again. The field thrush and the turkish dove are examples of species that have naturally developed as a habitat in large parts of Central Europe over the past two centuries. The nesting populations of the stone sparrow, on the other hand, have died out due to, among other things, competition for nesting sites with starlings and house sparrows and a series of cool and humid summers in Central Europe. However, anthropogenic influences have a much stronger influence on both species diversity and the respective population. Large-scale deforestation during the history of Central European settlement gave many bird species that are not bound to the forest the opportunity to spread widely in Central Europe. The Central European heaths , a type of landscape that is of great importance as a breeding area for many wasteland breeders, were created almost exclusively through long-term overuse by humans. In the last few decades, however, humans have changed the Central European habitat very quickly. Groundwater lowering, drainage of wetlands, river straightening, destruction of floodplains and silting areas, peat removal, afforestation of moors, land consolidation, dike dike and the eutrophication of soils and water, as well as the widespread use of pesticides have led to significant populations of many species. At the same time, efforts to preserve Central European biodiversity have increased. Individual species were placed under protection very early on, which has led to significant populations of buzzards , gray herons and cormorants , for example . Significant nature conservation policy efforts have a positive portfolio development at sea , stone and osprey , owls and peregrine falcon out. A large part of the current efforts to preserve the diversity of the avifauna in Central Europe are now focused on habitat conservation.
Central Europe
The term Central Europe
Central Europe refers to a region in Europe for which there are no clear criteria that can be used for delimitation. The region can be defined politically , historically or in terms of natural space ; rough natural boundaries are the Rhine in the west and north-west , the North Sea , the Eider and Baltic Sea in the north and the Vistula and Eastern Carpathians in the east, the lower Danube in the south-east and the Drava in the south and the alpine chain . State borders are often used provisionally to define the area of Central Europe. The Handbook of Birds of Central Europe , which is followed here , takes up this approach . According to this definition, the Central European area comprises the states Belgium , Germany , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Austria , Poland , Switzerland , Slovakia , the Czech Republic and Hungary as well as the Principality of Liechtenstein .
Climatic conditions
Central Europe lies within the temperate zone, which is characterized by a cool, temperate climate with a pronounced change of seasons. Compared to Northern Europe, spring and autumn are long. Extreme temperature values are not very pronounced in Central Europe. Air temperatures of more than 30 ° C are seldom exceeded in summer and temperatures of −20 ° C are seldom fallen below in winter. From west to east there is a clear gradient in oceanity : the west and north-west of Central Europe have an Atlantic-subatlantic climate, while subcontinental climate conditions prevail in the east. Typical of the coastal areas of the North Sea are mild winters with less than 60 frost days per year. The mountain systems of the low mountain ranges such as Harz or Fichtel and Riesengebirge have 140 to 220 frost days. With an average rainfall of less than 500 mm per year, the Saale and Oder valleys and the Vistula basin west of Warsaw are particularly low in precipitation. In large parts of western Central Europe, precipitation falls on average between 600 and 850 mm, in eastern Central Europe 500 to 600 mm.
In zoogeography it is still debatable to what extent macroclimatic factors influence the dispersal potential of an individual bird species. In any case, climatic extremes lead to noticeable area shifts in some bird species. During the unusual series of hot and dry summers between 1761 and 1840, the European roller spread over large parts of Central Europe. The surviving from the late Middle Ages invasions of waxwings are an indicator that during this period the northern European weather was so cold and rough that rowan not ansetzten enough fruit to feed the winter stocks of the waxwings there. It is undisputed that not only climatic extremes affect the population and the reproductive success of a single species. The little owl , for example, is a breeding bird in the forest-free lowlands in Central Europe and only rarely breeds at altitudes above 600 meters, while in the southern Spanish Sierra Nevada it still occurs in places at altitudes of 2,300 meters. Its distribution in Central Europe is significantly influenced by the fact that the little owl is a real resident bird and does not leave its territory even during long periods of cold weather. However, high blankets of snow hinder him in his hunt, so that he starves to death if this persists for a long time. Regions that regularly have such snow cover cannot be colonized by this species. Climate extremes such as the harsh winters of 1978/79 and 1985/86, during which otherwise milder climatic regions had long-lasting snow cover, lead to large-scale populations of this species. After these severe winters in Germany, 30 and 38 percent of the little owl nesting sites were no longer occupied. Regions that have high levels of precipitation in spring are also suboptimal habitats for this species. Rain for days before the eggs are laid leads to a below-average clutch size, as the females then hunt less and accordingly have a less good nutritional status. The mortality rate of the nestlings also increases significantly if it rains for long periods in May and June.
Habitat Central Europe
Around ten percent of the Central European area is made up of residential and industrial areas. Forests take up about 30 percent and agriculturally used areas about 55 percent. The remaining five percent are areas with a low level of use, such as the remaining heather and moor areas, which are often under nature protection, as well as special habitats such as the Wadden Sea of the North Sea or the montane steps of the Alps. In particular, the Wadden Sea, despite its comparatively small area, is of great importance not only for the Central European but also for the European avifauna and is an internationally important resting and wintering area for numerous bird species.
Woods
Due to the prevailing climate and soil conditions in Central Europe, around 90 percent of the area of Central Europe would be covered by forest without human intervention. In large parts of Central Europe, common beech and English oak would be instrumental in building the naturally predominant forest landscape. The size of the area and species composition of forests are significantly influenced by human settlement history. Clearance in the course of the history of the settlement gave rise to the agriculturally used cultural landscape. Forest grazing , fattening is , Laubheugewinnung and litter have coined the remaining Central European forests for centuries. The resulting lighter forests have tended to increase biodiversity. Today, high forest management is usually carried out on the remaining forest areas , with preference given to alien tree species that promise high yields. Forests that have not been shaped by humans or have been unused for several tree generations are rare and at most only small areas have been preserved. Most of the forest areas are well developed and are managed to varying degrees of intensity. This is particularly problematic for species such as the capercaillie , which has very high habitat requirements. Stable capercaillie populations require at least 50,000 hectares of contiguous, largely undisturbed and adequately structured forest areas. Central European populations have been declining since the beginning of the 19th century, and smaller populations such as those in the Ardennes or Lower Saxony were already extinct in the first half of the 19th century. It can now only be found in old, untouched mountain forest regions, with the main distribution area being the Vosges , some Alpine regions, the Black Forest and the Bavarian Forest . Since the capercaillie has very little potential to spread, small populations are quickly isolated. Such residual populations can be found in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Saxony-Anhalt and Austria, some of which are only given a low long-term chance of survival.
Pure coniferous forests, which are still cultivated because of their high timber yield, are significantly poorer in species compared to mixed deciduous forests. Typical species that occur in coniferous forests are coal tit , crested tit, and winter and summer golden chickens . Riverside forests are particularly rich in species . In addition to the typical forest inhabitants such as woodpeckers, there are also water-bound species such as black stork , bittern , swirls and mockers . Softwood and, above all, hardwood meadows are only left in remnants in Central Europe.
Rural cultural landscape
The rural areas of Central Europe with its traditional and diverse forms of cultural landscape were subject to only very gradual changes until the beginning of the 19th century. In the small and medium rural dominated regions of Central Europe that was small block hallway next to the irregular field the most widespread form of corridor. Landscapes characterized by block corridors, in particular, typically had landscape elements such as unpaved roads, ditches, field edges , grasslands , orchards , ponds and hedges , the mosaic-like alternation of which offered a variety of bird species suitable habitats. In the 19th century, agriculture changed increasingly from a subsistence-oriented one to a market-oriented one. This went hand in hand with increasing mechanization, increased cultivation of new crops such as potatoes and maize and, in some cases, regional specialization. Since the end of the Second World War , this change accelerated, and traditional forms of agriculture changed fundamentally. Increasing mechanization and motorization of agricultural production have led to a strong reshaping of traditional land forms. The guiding principle of Central European agricultural policy is the family farm, but today's agriculture is characterized by increasing specialization and mechanization, so that it is more and more like the intensive agriculture in North America. In this change, however, there were significant regional and local differences. Peripheral and structurally weak areas have been able to preserve the traditional forms for longer than high-yield agricultural landscapes close to large cities.
The widespread loss of diversity of forms over the past two centuries has had and still has a far-reaching influence on the diversity of species and population density of the avifauna. The little owl in Central Europe, for example, is primarily dependent on extensively managed, small-parceled permanent grassland areas such as cattle and mowing pastures, ruderal areas as well as paths and ditch edges, whose low vegetation and high food supply enable species-specific ground hunting. Because these habitats are increasingly no longer available, the little owl population has declined dramatically in all Central European countries. Due to the disappearance of the small-scale cultural landscape in many regions of Central Europe, the quail is no longer a characteristic of the open field. The introduction of artificial fertilizer, the significant decline in sheep farming and the possibility of upgrading land through amelioration or afforestation also caused the heather areas and grassland locations to decrease dramatically. So-called low pastures and hats made up 3,094,000 hectares in the area of today's Federal Republic of Germany in 1878. In 2002 it was only 133,000 hectares. Common pipit , heather and crested lark are examples of species whose populations are declining in Central Europe because they increasingly lack such habitats. Bogs and wet meadows have a high population of particularly endangered bird species. Among the rare species found on these sites include, among other things, Meadow Pipit , meadows and hen harrier , short-eared owl , corncrake , common snipe , black-tailed godwit , Wagtail , curlew , Ruff , Tüpfelralle , brown and stonechat and redshank and lapwing . The so-called bog colonization began in the late Middle Ages and had a high point in the 18th and 19th centuries. In Central Europe, there is no longer any significant peat digging in the remnants of the bog ; many of the remaining areas are under protection or are even being renatured. As a rule, wet grassland does not produce sufficient yields in today's agriculture. In contrast to moors, wet grassland cannot be left to its own devices, but has to be cultivated because otherwise it will become bushy. In large parts of Central Europe, wet meadows are therefore subject to contractual nature protection, which specifies, among other things, grazing livestock density and mowing dates, since early mowing and too high numbers of grazing cattle lead to the loss of eggs and young birds among meadow breeders. Experience in a number of countries shows, however, that these measures do not necessarily lead to sustainable reproduction rates in the endangered bird species. Target species-specific management strategies and the inclusion of the adjacent arable and green areas seem to be more promising.
Settlement area
The number of bird species that live in the immediate vicinity of humans is high. This even applies to metropolitan areas . Species such as the great tit , blue tit , starling , chaffinch , nuthatch and robin can be observed regularly in urban green spaces . The city pigeon , the feral form of the domestic pigeon , which in turn was bred from the rock pigeon , has developed into an inner-city character. Up until the 20th century, city pigeons were relatively few in number, as they found suitable nesting sites as rock breeders in cities, but had to make longer foraging flights to the outskirts of the cities because the inner-city food supply was limited. This changed significantly from the 1950s onwards: a plentiful supply of food and reduced predator pressure led to large populations of pigeons being part of the cityscape in numerous cities. The attitude of man towards the city pigeon is ambivalent. It is considered a pest because its excrement pollutes buildings and squares and can cause damage due to the high uric acid content. Many people also feel annoyed by the smell and noise of the city pigeons. At the same time, many people are ignoring the feeding ban, which was enacted in many cities to keep stocks low. Some common city birds also counts Blackbird . For around 150 to 200 years, this bird, which was originally native to the interior of damp, dark forests, has undergone a process of urbanization that varies from region to region. In Bamberg city blackbirds were already known in the 1820s, in eastern Poland, however, the Blackbird is still relatively rare in the settlement area before. Overall, this species has so successfully opened up the human settlement area that it is one of the most common Central European bird species. As with other birds, the milder urban microclimate and artificial lighting result in a longer breeding season. At the same time, there is a good food supply all year round, so that the blackbird population in large parts of Central Europe is higher within localities than in its original habitat. In metropolitan areas, rare species such as the peregrine falcon can also be found. Since the peregrine falcon population increased significantly after the DDT ban and numerous protective measures, the peregrine falcon has also been using large buildings within city centers as nesting sites. In Frankfurt am Main, for example, peregrine falcons breed on the Commerzbank Tower , which is temporarily the tallest building in Europe. Other couples have settled on the chimneys of power plants and telecommunications towers, so that the maximum existing capacity has now been reached in Frankfurt am Main.
Compared to the inner-city areas, the biodiversity is greater in the residential areas and continues to increase on the outskirts and in the large parks. Here, for example, also breed Dunnock , Wren , Goldammer , Stieglitz , Wagtail , Linnet , ringed and collared dove and treecreeper . Where the building is not too close, look for smoke and House Martin and hatching facilities. Cities, settlements and industrial plants in many places now have a far lower supply of mineral and organic nutrients than the fields, so that there is a greater variety of plants and, as a result, a more species-rich fauna. According to the studies of the zoologist Josef Reichholf , the species richness of breeding birds in the outskirts of the cities even exceeds that of the alluvial forest.
Avifauna
All breeding birds in Central Europe and the main migrants are listed below. Neozoa are named when they have reproduced in Central Europe for at least three generations. Odd guests are only listed if they can be observed relatively regularly in Central Europe. The order of the orders reflects the current state of knowledge of the phylogenetic relationships.
Okay goose birds
The order of the geese includes not only the defensive birds and the cracked geese , which do not occur in Central Europe, bird species that are colloquially referred to as swans , ducks and geese. There are birds, which are bound in their way of life of water and webbed have between the front toe.
Ducks and geese
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The mallard is the largest and most common swimming duck in Europe and the ancestral form of most, but not all, domestic ducks . Their frequency can be traced back to the fact that they are not very demanding in terms of both their breeding sites and their whereabouts and, as a decidedly omnivorous species, eats everything that it can adequately digest and obtain without great expense. New food sources are quickly recognized by this species and used immediately. Compared to the mallard duck, gadfly , spit , spoon , teal , knack , long-tailed , heron , piston , bog and pochard are much rarer in Central Europe. They are breeding and summer birds as well as some annual birds and winter guests. The teal, for example, is a partial migrant in Central Europe , at the same time breeding birds from the north-west of Russia, the south-west of the Baltic and Fennos Scandinavia are found in Central Europe in the winter half-year , so that the winter population is regularly higher than the breeding bird population. The Pintail has a circulation area of 10 million square kilometers, the largest circulation area of all ducks, however, occurs only with 90 to 150 breeding pairs in Central Europe. However, breeding birds from northern Europe to western Siberia migrate in a south-westerly direction along the coasts to their wintering areas, and in January thousands of pintail ducks can be seen in the Netherlands, among other places. The goose and medium sawsaws are relatively rare Central European breeding birds. It is predicted that in the course of the 21st century their Central European brood population will disappear completely due to global warming and that their breeding area will shift significantly to the north. An even greater loss of area is expected for the dwarf slayer, who winters with several 10,000 individuals on the IJsselmeer and in the Szczecin Bay , among other places . It is forecast that by the end of the 21st century today's breeding area of this species will no longer offer suitable habitats and that European breeding areas will only exist in the far north of Russia.
Both eider and shelduck occur on the Central European coasts. In the Wadden Sea of Germany there are internationally significant accumulations of moulting swarms of these two species in summer, which significantly exceed the Central European breeding population. Whistling , mountain , ice , greater , velvet and common scoters , as well as great , short-billed , barnacle and barnacle goose are predominantly Central European winter guests. A rare migrant is the dwarf goose , which is only observed annually in the east of Austria, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary when the few remaining European breeding birds migrate to the winter quarters on the Black Sea. The greylag goose , on the other hand, is a breeding and summer and regional annual bird in almost all of Central Europe. By the end of the 19th century, the area of this species had continuously shrunk due to increasing hunting and eventually became extinct west of the Elbe. Targeted settlements in Belgium and the Netherlands during the 1950s and in North Rhine-Westphalia after 1960 resulted in an area expansion of this species and a sometimes very large increase in population. The breeding bird population in the Netherlands grew from 100 to 150 breeding pairs in 1973 to 8,000 to 9,000 breeding pairs in 1998 to 2,000. Population forecasts assume, however, that due to global warming, the distribution area of the greylag goose in Central Europe will decrease considerably.
Swans
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In Europe , the mute swan was originally only native to northern Central Europe , southern Scandinavia , the Baltic States and the Black Sea . It was deliberately settled in individual regions as early as the 16th century, but at the same time hunted so intensively that it was almost only found in the wild in the Baltic Sea region. A significant increase in the population began in the 1950s and is due, among other things, to the temporary complete sparing of hunting, the omission of the earlier usual egg harvest, increasing feeding, especially in winter and a partly resulting reduction in the escape distance, which is necessary for the settlement of busy banks and still waters has led. As the settlement density increased, the area of distribution expanded to the south and southeast. In the meantime, the maximum population density has been reached in many bodies of water, which can be seen, among other things, from the high proportion of non-breeding adult mute swans. The pronounced territoriality of breeding pairs is the essential corrective for the population. The whooper swan , which breeds in the northern latitudes of Eurasia, is a regular migrant and guest bird in Central Europe in the winter months. The number of oversummer has been increasing for a number of years, and breeding settlements have occurred in various regions of Central Europe, some of which have been increased by captive refugees and injured migratory birds.
Central European neozoa of the order geese
On the ornamental poultry more, not originally native to Central Europe geese birds have been able to successfully establish. The Canada goose is considered the most successful neozoon among them . There was first evidence of breeding of free-flying park birds in Germany as early as the 1920s and in 2004 more than 6,000 breeding pairs were counted. Similar growth rates were observed in Belgium and the Netherlands, although the Canada goose began to spread somewhat later in these countries. The Egyptian goose is considered to be the introduced bird species with the greatest increase in area in recent years. Starting in the Netherlands, where it has been breeding since 1967 and had already reached a breeding population of 5,000 pairs in 1999, it first settled in the Lower Rhine region . In the meantime over 500 pairs are likely to breed in Germany, with breeding birds already occurring in Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg and Hanover, among others. Since 1993 there has been a small breeding population of Magellan Geese in Belgium and occasionally in the Netherlands . In Munich area a population of about 50 existing bar-headed geese , derived from birds that from 1956 under semi-natural conditions at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Seewiesen were held. These geese, which are native to Central Asia, do not show any tendency to spread and due to competition with other geese species, the population seems to be declining. The population of feral hump geese, which occur mainly in the Rhine-Neckar area, is rated as more problematic . This domesticated form of the swan goose hybridizes with other field goose species and produces fertile offspring with the gray goose . The black swan also belongs to the neozoa , whose Central European wild bird population is estimated to be at least 80 to 90 breeding pairs. When coming from North America Wood Duck Central European breeding settlements have so far only temporarily passed. However, experts consider it possible that it will become firmly established in the near future. The mandarin duck, which is native to Asia, has meanwhile succeeded in doing this, with the main distribution being in Germany and the Netherlands with a total of around 530 breeding pairs. The predominantly in Switzerland observed ruddy shelduck is the only geese Bird neozoon not exclude any is that even wild birds in the emergence of the Central European stocks involved. Ingress of rust geese is documented from earlier centuries and in 1978 a wild bird ringed in Kyrgyzstan was found in Poland.
Okay chicken birds
Chicken birds are small to large ground birds with a mostly slightly curved bill and strong legs with mostly relatively long toes. The back toe is usually slightly higher than the three front toes.
In addition to the capercaillie include black grouse , ptarmigan , grouse and hazel grouse to those found in Central Europe grouse . The red grouse naturally occurred in Central Europe until the 17th century and then died out due to climatic changes, habitat loss and hunting pursuits. In the High Fens , Scottish red grouse were released into the wild in 1890. They first multiplied rapidly there, but then continuously declined due to changes in their habitat. For the period 1990 to 1999, the population was estimated to be less than ten individuals.
The alpine stone grouse , which belongs to the pheasant-like species and is restricted to Austria and Switzerland in Central Europe, is likely to continue to spread as a result of climate change. Germany, Hungary and Poland will probably also offer suitable habitats for this species by the end of the 21st century. The stocks of the red grouse died out in Central Europe in 1920, although the causes are not fully understood. The intensification of agriculture, which led to a loss of the small-scale cultivation areas, probably played a role. It is also considered to be a decisive reason why the quail and partridge populations in Central Europe are in some cases very sharply declining. The turkey is also one of the pheasant-like species and is repeatedly released into the wild as hunting game. In Germany alone there were eleven attempts to establish this species, which is native to North America, between 1953 and 1993. The largest population of free-range turkeys is in the Czech Republic, where 530 individuals were counted towards the end of the 1980s. It is questioned whether this species could survive permanently without active support such as winter feeding. This is also believed to be the case for many populations of the hunting pheasant . It is a hybrid of several subspecies of the pheasant , which the Romans already kept as an ornamental and table bird. In the 18th century it was widely used in Europe, because as game birds played a major role and an entire industry is busy with breeding, and reintroduced hunt of this kind. It is still bred for hunting in pheasantries , but this practice has declined so much that the species has disappeared from many sub-optimal habitats.
Okay flamingos and okay grebes
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According to DNA hybridization and DNA sequence data, as well as the composition of the endoparasite fauna , flamingos are a sister group of the grebes . The greater flamingo breeds in southern Europe, among other places, and from there it occasionally flies into Central Europe. In Switzerland, for example, pink flamingos were detected seven times up to 2003, and they are definitely wild birds. In Zwillbrocker Venn nest next to pink flamingos and Cuba flamingos and there are mixed breeds between Flamingo and Chilean Flamingo . The flamingos that have lived in this North Rhine-Westphalian wetland since 1986 are, however, captive refugees. You overwinter in the Netherlands.
Grebes are a very ancient group of birds that most certainly had their evolutionary origin in South America. They are diving birds with legs set far back and toe lobes instead of closed webs. The best known Central European grebes is the great crested grebe, which is about the size of a mallard . The Little Grebe is similar in Central Europe such as the great crested grebe is a breeding bird, but he clearly lives discreet and is difficult to detect, especially during the summer months because it is hidden in the riparian vegetation often dense breeding waters. Red-necked and black-necked grebes are patchy breeding birds in Central Europe with a distribution focus in the lowlands of Germany and Poland. The eared grebe breeds in Central Europe with only a few pairs. He can be seen more often as a migrant and winter visitor. Forecasts of population development based on climate models assume that red-necked grebes and eared grebes will be completely absent in Central Europe by the end of the 21st century. The range of the black-necked grebe will shrink significantly.
Order loons and order tubular noses
Loons move awkwardly like the grebes on land due to their legs that are set far back. In contrast to the rag-divers, however, the front toes are completely connected by webbed divers. Their resemblance to the grebes is based only on a convergent evolution. According to the current state of knowledge, they are a sister group of the penguins , which are not represented in Central Europe, as well as the tube noses . Star , ice and yellow-billed divers are irregular to regular migrants and winter guests in Central Europe, depending on the species. They then wear their simple dress, so that species identification is very difficult. In the black-throated diver, non-breeding birds occasionally spend the summer in the Baltic Sea region and there are even sporadic breeding indications from this area.
Tube noses are deep sea birds that only come ashore during the breeding season. In Central Europe only petrels from this order are represented with the fulmar as breeding bird. For about 200 to 250 years, the population of this species has been increasing significantly with the simultaneous expansion of the area. This species has been breeding on Heligoland since the 1970s and in 2003 it had a breeding population of 113 pairs. Some other species from this family, such as the dark shearwater and the Atlantic shearwater, are regularly seen migrants on the North Sea coast. Petrels are more or less regular guest birds. One of the most frequently observed birds is the wave runner , which breeds in Western Europe and can be observed relatively frequently on the North Sea coast. Of the albatrosses also belonging to this order , the black- browed albatross was sighted twice in the 1980s; there are two unsecured observations of the wandering albatross from the 19th century.
Order of the wading birds and order of the copepods
Based on molecular studies, the taxonomic position of the wading birds and rowefoots is currently in flux. Cormorants and gannets and not occurring in Central Europe darters are secured monophyletic . It has not yet been finally clarified whether pelicans are closer to this group or to ibises and herons.
Pelicans, boobies and cormorants
The Dalmatian pelican , which breeds in southeastern Europe , used to be one of the breeding birds in Hungary, but was only a rare exceptional guest in the 20th century. The Dalmatian pelicans occasionally observed in other Central European countries are presumably exclusively captive refugees. Only one Dalmatian pelican observed in November 1975 and January 1976 is recognized as a wild bird. Great white pelicans were still regularly observed as guest birds in Austria in the 19th century. More recent observations, especially in western Central Europe, are also considered to be prisoners.
The gannets from the family of gannets breeding on since 1991 Helgoland , the only Central European breeding ground. The colony had 93 breeding pairs in 2000 and 145 in 2003. The cormorant was massively persecuted as a supposed food competitor of humans in Europe, so that in the 1920s the species had largely disappeared in the central European interior. The species has recovered from this in a spectacular way: Based on the remaining populations in the Netherlands and Poland, cormorants began to repopulate central European inland areas from around the mid-1940s, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania from 1950, Brandenburg from 1965 and Schleswig-Holstein from 1982. In Germany bred 23,500 to 23,700 pairs in 2005. Today's European distribution area probably corresponds to the occurrence at the beginning of the 19th century, but the population is likely to exceed it. Although a number of scientific studies have not identified the cormorant as the main cause of lower fish yields, there is again an intensive hunting of cormorants regionally.
Ibises and ibises
Of the ibises and Sichlern belongs Glossy Ibis in Central Europe to the very rare and only locally widespread breeding birds whose breeding population is currently limited to Hungary. Overturning birds are also observed in Slovakia. The spoonbill is much more common , for which a population increase has been recorded in Central Europe for several years, while the population numbers are falling significantly, especially in south-eastern Europe.
The northern bald ibis died out so early in Central Europe that it was temporarily mistaken for a mythical creature in the 19th century . In 1897 Walter Rothschild , Ernst Hartert and Otto Kleinschmidt were able to prove beyond any doubt that the medieval bald ibis is identical to the crested ibis native to the Middle East and North Africa . Today there are various efforts to re-establish the bald ibis as a breeding bird in Central Europe. The motivation for these efforts is also the drastic decline of this species in the Middle East .
Herons and storks
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The gray heron is the most common member of the heron family in Central Europe . Similar to the cormorant, it was closely followed by humans for decades. After the persecution ceased to a large extent in the 1970s, the population has clearly recovered and in some regions may even reach capacity limits. The purple , night , great egret and little egret are breeding and summer birds that are locally widespread in Central Europe, but their main distribution is more in southern Europe. Forecasts of future population development, which are based on climate forecasts, assume that the purple, night and little egret will continue to spread in Central Europe and that the black heron will also belong to the Central European breeding birds in the future . A relatively young Central European breeding bird is the cattle egret , the population of which has increased significantly in southern Europe since the 1970s and which has been breeding in both the Netherlands and Belgium since 1998. The bitterns and bitterns , which lived very hidden, were still frequent breeding birds in Central Europe in the 19th century, but their populations in some cases collapsed drastically in the 20th century after habitat changes. Similar to the purple and night heron, long-term droughts in the African roosting and wintering areas of the little bittern, which is only sparsely distributed in Central Europe, may have led to increased mortality during migration times and may be one of the causes of the decline in the population.
The stork family in Central Europe is represented exclusively by the black and white stork . The white stork, which regularly breeds in localities, is considered a good luck charm in many regions of Central Europe and after the population of white storks migrating in a south-westerly direction fell sharply, there were targeted reintroductions and other measures to, among others, in Belgium, Switzerland and the Netherlands to preserve the white stork population. Similar to the white stork, the populations of the much rarer black stork have also recovered. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Central European population is estimated at 2,500 to 3,200 breeding pairs, which corresponds to around four to five percent of the population of white storks.
Order birds of prey
Birds of prey are mainly diurnal hunters of very different body sizes who grab their prey with their fangs. They are characterized by a strong beak with sharp cutting edges and a sharp, downward-curved tip of the hook. The most famous Central European birds of prey include kestrel and peregrine falcon , buzzard , goshawk and sparrowhawk .
Hawks
The peregrine falcon population fell dramatically in almost all of Europe in the 1950s. In Germany only 40 to 50 breeding pairs were breeding in the 1970s. This highly specialized bird hunter had completely disappeared in Belgium, Liechtenstein, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The main cause of the decline was the uptake of chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT and HCB via prey, which led to a reduced eggshell density and thus to a greatly reduced breeding success. The population has recovered significantly thanks to considerable nature conservation efforts. The red chalk falcon, which is very similar to the kestrel, was still breeding in 1960 with 280 breeding pairs in Carinthia and Styria, the breeding population there has now completely disappeared, as in Hungary. It is only very rarely found as a guest bird in Central Europe. The distribution center of the red-footed falcon is in Russia, the western border of its distribution area runs through the south-east central Europe, where this species is considered to be the character bird of the Hungarian lowlands . The Central European distribution of the saker falcon is also in Hungary, at the beginning of the 21st century there was also one breeding pair in Germany and two in Poland. The smallest European falcon, the Merlin , can be seen as a migrant in large parts of Central Europe. The tree falcon, on the other hand, is native to all of Central Europe, albeit nowhere often. Almost two thirds of the Central European population live in the Netherlands, in the North German Plain and in Poland.
Ospreys and hawks
In addition to hunting, chlorinated hydrocarbons are also the cause of the drastic decline in the number of ospreys and sea eagles . The osprey, which is placed in a separate family due to numerous special characteristics, only breeds in Central Europe on Polish and German territory. The white-tailed eagle , which belongs to the species-rich family of hawk-like species , is also found in Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. Both species have shown a significant recovery in the past few decades, which in some cases was only possible through strict legal protection and guarding of breeding sites. The decline in the short-toed eagle population, which continues to this day, is due to the loss of suitable habitats. It only breeds in south-east Poland, Slovakia and Hungary and is a very rare and irregular summer visitor in other regions of Europe.
The most famous representative of the Aquilinae subfamily is the golden eagle , which after centuries of intense persecution had disappeared from most regions of the lowlands and low mountain ranges and its distribution was limited to the Alps and the Carpathians until well into the 20th century. Targeted species protection programs and strict legal protection have also contributed to the recovery of this species. This subfamily also includes little eagles , lesser spotted eagles and spotted eagles , which are only represented with a few breeding pairs in Central Europe. The Eastern Imperial Eagle is a more common breeding bird, especially in Hungary and Slovakia. Since the end of the 20th century there have been the first breeding pairs in the Czech Republic and Austria.
The subfamily of the buzzard-like in addition to the common buzzard by the honey buzzard represented. It lives mainly on insects and often digs up wasp nests with its feet and beak, and peels out their larvae and pupae from the combs. As a bird that is so dependent on insects in its way of life, it inevitably has to move to more suitable habitats during the winter months. Of all Central European birds of prey, it has one of the longest migration routes and winters in tropical and southern Africa. The buzzard does not breed in Central Europe, but it is a regular migrant and winter visitor and during the winter months, for example, in the lowlands of Schleswig-Holstein, it is sometimes the second most common bird of prey.
From the genus of harriers , only the marsh harrier is a relatively common breeding bird in Central Europe , whose populations have increased slightly in recent years. Both the hen harrier and the Montagu's Harrier can only be found in remnants in Central Europe due to the destruction of their habitats. The steppe harrier , which breeds in the south of Russia , occasionally flies into Central Europe in large numbers. Exceptionally, there are also broods. The genus of kites belonging Red Kite has its center of distribution in Germany - almost 60 percent of the world population breeds on German territory, while in other parts of Central Europe the way the part is a rare breeding bird. The Black Kite is significantly less compared to the Red Kite and occurs mainly in Switzerland and in southern Germany in Central Europe.
The large hawk-like family also includes bearded vultures , black vultures and griffon vultures , which were still among the Central European breeding birds in the 19th century. There has been a re-introduction project for the bearded vulture since 1986 and at the end of the 20th century two pairs each were breeding in the French and Italian Alps. There are also two potential breeding pairs for Austria and Switzerland. This low population does not guarantee that the bearded vulture can establish itself as a breeding bird in the Alps over the long term. It is estimated that at least 20 breeding pairs are necessary for the species to survive in this region. The griffon vulture can be observed above all in the Austrian Central Alps, where for some time up to 80, sometimes younger, individuals have migrated from Dalmatia. A couple that are among the free-flying aviary birds of the Salzburg Zoo successfully brooded on the nearby Unterberg. The black vulture, which is the largest and heaviest bird of prey in the Old World , only breeds in Spain, the breeding population in Slovakia already died in the 19th century.
Order crane birds
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The order of the crane birds usually includes relatively long-legged and long-necked swamp or steppe birds. The best-known species is the crane , which is a breeding and summer bird in northern Central Europe. A far lesser known species from this order is the great bustard , whose males can weigh up to 18 kilograms and are therefore among the heaviest birds in Europe. In Central Europe it still occurs in Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Slovakia, but it is severely threatened everywhere. In Brandenburg there is a comprehensive protection project in which, among other things, large areas are leased, which are then extensively maintained in order to preserve the most important habitats of this species.
The species-rich family of rallen , whose main distribution area is in tropical and subtropical Africa and Asia , also belongs to the order of the crane birds . In Central Europe there are only a few species of the family: water rail , pond rail and coot are common breeding birds throughout Central Europe. The corn corn and spotted marsh grouse have their Central European distribution focus in Poland, the small marsh grouse is a widespread breeding and summer bird in Eastern Central Europe, the pygmy marsh grouse , on the other hand, is a very rare and only irregular central European breeding bird.
Order plover-like
This order includes small to large waders and seagulls, some species of which are pronounced deep-sea birds and other species are adapted to a life on dry land. They are characterized by well-developed nasal glands and an either poorly developed or even absent rear toe.
The oystercatcher and the triel are each the only representative of their families of the same name in Central Europe. The triel is a particularly endangered species, the population of which has been declining since the middle of the 19th century due to habitat destruction. The last breeding bird population in Poland died in 2000. Only Hungary has significant populations with a maximum of 250 breeding pairs. From the family of the avocets, in addition to the avocet, which is common on the coasts, the stilt also breeds occasionally in Central European territory.
Plover
Of the plovers , the golden plover is one of the very rare breeding and summer birds; it only breeds in a small, isolated retreat in northern Germany. Central Europe, however, is of great importance as a transit area for this species. Up to 43,000 birds are counted on the autumn migration in the Wadden Sea off the Schleswig-Holstein coast. Numerous golden plovers overwinter in the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. Other important resting places in Germany are the fen area of Drömling which Fiener break , the Bay of Greifswald , Fehmarn , the Lewitz , the Oder and the Rheiderland . The lapwing is one of the species whose populations continue to decline sharply due to habitat changes, while the little ringed plover , on the other hand, benefits from the increasing supply of gravel pits, where it can find enough gravelly places to create its nests. The sand plover and the ringed plover are forecast to become rarer in Central Europe due to global warming. While the common European range of the ringed plover will decrease significantly according to these forecasts, the Kentish plover is one of the likely beneficiaries of global warming. Although it suffers loss of area in Central Europe, according to current estimates, its range in the Mediterranean, on the Atlantic coast of Europe and in the Black Sea area will expand significantly. A significant reduction in the area is also expected for the Mornell ringed plover, which is mainly found in Northern Eurasia and only breeds sporadically in Central Europe.
Snipe birds
The family of snipe birds are sparrow-sized to chicken-sized birds whose beak tips have organs of touch. Many of the snipe birds breeding or resting in Central Europe occur mainly in the coastal areas and adjacent lowlands of the Netherlands, Germany and Poland. Whimbrel and common woodcock , for example, migrate here and non-breeding birds occasionally spend the summer in this region. Knutt , sanderling and sickle sandpipers can be seen here in large numbers during migration. A number of species have their distribution focus further east or northeast, but are represented in Central Europe by a few breeding pairs. In Polish territory, for example, there are very few pairs of bluetooth , pond sandpipers and wood sandpipers breeding . The Turnstone occurs sporadically as a breeding bird in Germany and the Netherlands, and the Dunlin there are breeding birds in the coastal regions from Belgium to Poland. Some of the species of the snipe bird such as the dark water strider , greenshank , marsh sandpiper and Temminck sandpiper migrate across Central Europe and can also be observed inland in spring and autumn.
Snipe birds sometimes have very specific demands on their habitat. For many of these species, extensive habitat losses have occurred due to lowering of the groundwater, drainage, the destruction of floodplains and silting areas, peat removal, afforestation of moors and dikes. The double snipe was still widespread in the 19th century and today only breeds in the largely undestroyed river valleys of Biebrzas . When Ruff there is ongoing inventory losses and losses area for over 150 years. It is now limited to a few retreat areas in Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. Common snipe , black-tailed godwit and curlew have a somewhat larger distribution area in Central Europe, but for these three species, some drastic populations have also been recorded. When redshank especially single inland populations are extinct and the Sandpiper Central Europe are preserved only a few residual populations in many regions. Wood sandpipes and woodcock are among the few exceptions in terms of population development: milder winters have ensured that the wood sandpiper has resettled in a number of regions, and the woodcock breeding populations have been stable for decades. For all of the species mentioned, a significant reduction in the range of distribution is predicted by the end of the 21st century with a simultaneous shift of the area to the north. Some of them will disappear as central European breeding birds.
Subordination Lari
The suborder Lari includes cauliflowers , skuas , gulls and curlews . There are lark to eagle-sized waterfowl of the coastal and inland waters that often breed in colonies.
Of the curlew-like family, only very few black- winged and red-winged curlews breed in Hungary. Of the skuas are parasitic , Falcon and Pomarine and Skua only migrant, which are usually observed only on the coasts. The puffin from the alkenvogel family has not been part of the Central European breeding bird population since the 19th century. The only breeding site was Helgoland, where two to three breeding pairs brooded. There are currently more summer observations on Heligoland, but so far no breeding attempts. The island is also the only Central European breeding ground for razorbills and guillemots . Crab grebes and black guillemots are also regular guest birds and winter guests on central European coasts .
The kittiwake as a breeding bird in Central Europe was also restricted to Heligoland for a long time and had 8,600 breeding pairs on this island at the beginning of the 21st century. However, since the beginning of the 21st century it has also been breeding with a few breeding pairs in the Netherlands. The little gull also breeds with a few pairs in Germany, Poland and the Netherlands and winters in mild winters often with several thousand individuals in the coastal region of the Netherlands. The common and common breeding and annual birds belonging to the seagull family in Central Europe include the laughing , silver , herring and common gulls . The black-headed gull and the black-headed gull , on the other hand, are locally distributed, not very frequent breeding and summer birds that increasingly overwinter on the coasts of Central Europe. The Mediterranean seagull has been breeding on Lake Neuchâtel since 1968 . There has been an almost exponential increase since the 1980s, so that in 2003 649 pairs were breeding there. Meanwhile there are also settlements in other inland areas of Central Europe. The Mediterranean gull has been a breeding bird in Germany since 1991. For the steppe gull , which so far occurs with a few hundred breeding pairs in Poland and after the breeding season can also be observed further west on the East and North Sea coast, it is predicted that as a result of climate change it will expand its range significantly to the west and then also a breeding bird in the German, Belgian and Dutch landlocked.
The terns are a family that includes small to medium-sized and slender seagulls. The very short runs are typical of this family. The little tern populations have declined in all of Central Europe due to large-scale habitat destruction and have died out on the Rhine , Danube , Weser , Elbe and Oder as well as on Lake Geneva and Lake Constance, for example . A similar trend exists for the Lachsee- , mourning , river and the Caspian tern . The populations of the whiskered and white-winged tern , whose Central European distribution centers are in Hungary and Poland, are relatively stable . The sandwich tern suffered a stock low in the 1960s, when the entire Central European population was only 3,900 breeding pairs. In addition to habitat loss, the main cause was a population collapse as a result of biocides such as telodrin and dieldrin . Protective measures have resulted in the species recovering significantly. At the beginning of the 21st century the population is between 25,000 and 27,000 breeding pairs and, despite this positive development, is still significantly smaller than the population size in the 19th century, when 50,000 pairs were breeding in Schleswig-Holstein alone. There is a comparable development for the arctic tern , which, however, was less affected by the contamination of coastal waters with biocides than the sandwich tern due to its lower specialization in fish food.
Order pigeons, order parrots and order cuckoos
The stock dove, which is widespread throughout Central Europe, is a cave breeder , unlike the city or rock dove . Ring , Turkish and turtledove , on the other hand, build their simple nests in the forks of trees or bushes. The turkish dove is a relatively young central European breeding bird. Starting in the Balkans, it has settled across Europe since the 1930s. Their well-documented immigration is considered a textbook example of the expansion of bird species. It has meanwhile reached its existing capacity in large parts of Central Europe. City pigeons, turtle pigeons and wood pigeons are seen as beneficiaries of global warming and are expected to expand their European range. Hollow pigeons and wood pigeons are expected to have more patchy Central European distribution in the future.
The parrots that breed in Central Europe are without exception neozoa, which can be traced back to escaped or deliberately released birds. The most common parrot species is the ring-necked parakeet , of which the first broods were recorded in 1968 in the Netherlands. In Central Europe there were at least 1,100 to 1,200 breeding pairs between 2002 and 2004. The Alexander Parakeet first brooded in Central Europe in 1987. The Central European breeding pair population was estimated at 30 breeding pairs for the year 2000. Free-breeding monk parakeets , for example, existed in Vienna and Munich as early as the 1920s, but these stocks have died out again. Successfully breeding monk parakeets were first observed again in Aschaffenburg in 1969; the population in Central Europe is now 35 to 60 breeding pairs. The Great Yellow-headed Amazon is with a height from 35 to 38 centimeters, the largest breeding in Central Europe parrot. The only successful settlement is in the Stuttgart area, where a free-flying bird was first observed in 1984 and between five and seven breeding pairs lived towards the end of the 20th century.
In Central Europe only the cuckoo breeds from the order of the cuckoo birds . It is the only species of Central European avifauna that, as a breeding parasite, is dependent on the help of other bird species to raise the young. Since the mid-1960s, population decreases and loss of area due to habitat loss have been recorded for this species. Large-scale regional declines, for example in Switzerland, are well documented. Basically, there is a risk that due to the sharp decline in the populations of some of the host bird species, the cuckoos that have adapted to these host bird species will disappear.
Okay owls
The owls are predominantly crepuscular and nocturnal hunters with forward-facing eyes. The barn owl , which occurs in many regions of the world, is the only representative of the barn owl family in Central Europe . Overall, there is a certain positive population trend for the barn owls for the period from 1988 to 2001, but the populations of the 1950s are no longer achieved. The rough owl population has also recovered in recent years. At the same time, they significantly expand their breeding area to the north and west. Not only the population of the little owl, but also that of the short-eared owl , a species that was once widespread in Central Europe, declined drastically in the second half of the 20th century. It is only absent as a breeding bird in Switzerland and Luxembourg, but in large parts of Central Europe it only breeds at three to four-year intervals when sufficient food is available due to a field mouse gradation . In such gradation years, migrants and winter guests from Scandinavia and Russia sometimes breed briefly. The Central European brood populations are therefore subject to extreme fluctuations. Stable breeding populations for this species only exist on the East and West Frisian Islands.
The pygmy owl , about the size of a starling, is the smallest European owl species. The populations of this owl species are considered to be very difficult to record due to their secret way of life, so that the spread and development of the population are insufficiently documented. Basically, it is assumed that the population will increase in Central Europe, whereby in addition to a sharply decreasing biocide load, the improvement of the habitat situation in the distribution centers, milder winters with a reduced mortality of young birds and an increased number of nesting holes due to the increase in many woodpecker species play a role. Similar to the pygmy owl, the inventory of the long-eared owl is difficult. But together with the tawny owl, it is one of the most common owl species in Central Europe. The eagle owl is the largest European owl species. After a considerable decline in the population, including through hunting, this species has been placed under strict protection and, thanks to resettlement programs, has become an annual bird again throughout Central Europe. The scops-sized scops owl , which is about the size of a blackbird, has its Central European distribution center in Hungary. Germany is part of the northernmost edge of the breeding area of this species and successfully breeding pairs are very rare, but have been documented for 2003 and 2004, among others. The Ural Owl is like the great gray owl actually a breeding bird of the boreal zone. While there is a very small population of the great gray owl in the Białowieża National Park , the Ural Owl still occurs in relic-like island occurrences in Central Europe. Among other things, it has also been reintroduced in the Bavarian Forest and brooded there successfully for the first time in 1989 since it died out in 1925/1926, mainly due to hunting in this area.
Order swallows and order sailors
The order of the swallow birds is represented in Central Europe only by the goat milker . This species, well camouflaged due to its bark-colored plumage, is a breeding bird in warm and dry areas and occurs, for example, in dry heaths. Its population is declining in large parts of Central Europe due to eutrophication and grassing of heather and dry grassland and the abandonment of extensive use of steppe and juniper heaths.
The order of the sailors includes species that are very fast long-term fliers and have, among other things, very long wings. In Central Europe only three species of this order are represented as breeding birds. The Alpine Swift is a breeding bird in rocky mountains in Switzerland and the Austrian Alps. In Germany it occurs only in the southwest as a breeding and summer bird. The pale swift breeds only in Switzerland . The common swift is significantly smaller than the alpine swift and is so extremely adapted to life in the air that outside of the breeding season it spends several months almost continuously in the air. Swifts avoid prolonged periods of bad weather by making large evasive movements. During such evasions , swifts can be found in large concentrations of swifts, for example over insect-rich waters or swamp meadows. Young birds left behind in bad weather areas can survive such evasions, as already feathered nestlings can fall into a kind of starvation sleep in which the body temperature and the respiratory rate are reduced. Nevertheless, this way of life causes a very low rate of reproduction, which is offset by the relatively high life expectancy of the common swift.
Order Rackenvögel and order Bucerotiformes
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The order of the whackebirds is species-rich, especially in the tropics. It includes the European roller and the bee-eater, two heat-loving species that can live in Central Europe in regions that meet their specific requirements for their habitat. However, they are rare breeding birds north of the Alps. The European roller was widespread as far as Denmark, Sweden and even Finland at the beginning of the 19th century as a result of an exceptionally warm summer climate and was also a regular breeding bird in Switzerland and southern Germany. The reason for their widespread disappearance in Central Europe is not only seen in the increasingly Atlantic-dominated summers, but also in a drastic decline in large insects. Its Central European distribution focus is currently Hungary. In Central Europe the bee eater is much more common than the European roller. At the beginning of the 21st century, the breeding population in Hungary alone was estimated at up to 40,000 pairs. Similar to the bee-eater and European roller, the hoopoe belonging to the order Bucerotiformes is also a heat-loving species. During the deterioration of the climate in the course of the 20th century, its range gradually shifted back from northwestern Europe. In the Netherlands and Belgium it is only limited to residual occurrences. The main area of distribution is in Poland and Hungary. Bee-eater and hoopoe are among the beneficiaries of global warming. It is predicted that towards the end of the 21st century its range will extend across Central Europe. In the case of the European roller, the distribution area shifts to the northwest, but the Central European distribution area increases only slightly.
The best-known Central European sable is the kingfisher , which was voted bird of the year in Germany in 1973 and 2009 . Extreme winters are believed to be the most influential depressant factor for this species, which prey on small fish by poking them out of the air into the water. For the construction of his nesting caves, however, he also needs near-natural riverbanks with a soft edge and nature conservation measures such as digging up steep banks and building artificial breeding walls have helped to resettle the kingfisher in suitable waters.
Order woodpecker birds
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The order of the woodpecker birds includes small to medium-sized birds, which are particularly adapted to the way of life on trees by a climbing foot with two toes pointing forwards and two backwards and a support tail. The wryneck is one of the few Central European woodpecker birds that does not build their own breeding cave, but uses caves of other woodpecker birds or rotten knotholes. He therefore benefits particularly from nesting boxes. The gray woodpecker is a somewhat less specialized ant hunter than the green woodpecker. In his nutritional strategy he forms an intermediate link between many species of the great spotted woodpecker ( Dendrocopos ) and the other species of the genus Picus, which are mostly specialized in ants . This less strict orientation of the gray woodpecker on ant food allows the two Picus species to appear sympatric in many areas and to breed very close to each other at distances of about 100 meters.
By far the largest species of woodpecker found in Central Europe is the almost crow-sized black woodpecker , which is unmistakable due to its predominantly black plumage and bright red head. Three-toed and white-backed woodpeckers were still among the breeding birds in the Black Forest and Allgäu in the 19th century. However, more intensive forest use has meant that both species have disappeared there. They are only found in the Alps and wooded, high mountain ranges. Colorful , small and medium- sized woodpeckers , on the other hand, are widespread and sometimes frequent breeding and resident birds in large parts of Central Europe. The blood woodpecker has only been one of the breeding birds in Central Europe since the 20th century. Starting from Turkey, it expanded its breeding area to the northwest. Hungary in particular has a large population of this species.
Okay passerine birds
The passerines are equipped with more than 6,000 species, the richest by far order of birds. Most of the Central European species also belong to this order. It includes the common raven , which can be up to 60 centimeters in size, as well as the golden cockerel, which weighs between four and seven grams .
Orioles, shrike and corvids
The golden oriole is the only Central European breeding bird of the Oriolidae family and is a poorly distributed breeding and summer bird that is nowhere very common. The Strangler , a family stronger Lark to dohle great song birds with hooked beak, occur with several species in Central Europe. Red-headed and black- fronted shrike are rare and only locally distributed breeding birds that are completely absent in large parts of Central Europe. The northern gray shrike, which is the largest Central European shrike species with a body length of up to 25 centimeters, is a widespread, but everywhere rare breeding bird. The most common Central European shrike species is the red- backed shrike , which is only slightly larger than a sparrow. In Central Europe, it is primarily found in extensively used cultural landscapes such as orchards and pastures.
Corvids are throttling to buzzard large songbirds that are versatile and adaptable in their foraging. The rarest central European corvids include the alpine chough and chough , both of which only occur in the alpine region. The alpine chough is a character species of the European Ice Age fauna and only finds its special habitat requirements in parts of the continental high mountains, the Mediterranean mountain and hill countries and rocky coasts that are strongly influenced by the Atlantic. Their central European breeding area is limited to Switzerland. Magpie , Jackdaw and Jay are against frequent in Central Europe breeding birds, while the Nutcracker occurs only regionally. Rooks , carrows and hooded crows are absent as breeding birds in parts of Central Europe, but are common in some areas. As a supposed hunting pest, the common raven was persecuted for a long time and exterminated in large parts of Europe. Due to an improved protection status, the populations have increased again since the 1940s, but in Luxembourg, for example, successful repopulation through the shooting down and destruction of nests and clutches has so far been prevented. Bright crows have been observed in the Netherlands since the early 1990s and have been breeding successfully there since at least 1997. These birds, which are native to southwest Asia, are presumably refugees from captivity, but glossy crows have spread in coastal regions of the Red Sea through a ship-assisted dispersion. The development of the population in Central Europe is closely monitored, as the golden crow is considered to be an intensive nest predator and in other regions of the world where it has successfully established itself, it had a negative effect on the domestic breeding bird population.
Bag tits, tits, larks and swallows
The bag tit was originally only native to Eastern Central Europe. Since 1930, this species has expanded its breeding area to western and south-western Europe in several, sometimes erratic, waves. Several factors have led to an sometimes exponential increase in herds. Favorable climatic conditions led to an increased reproduction rate and lower winter mortality. Increasing eutrophication of the landscape improved the food supply and anthropogenically influenced biotopes often offer it suitable habitats.
Birds well known to most Central Europeans are the great tit and blue tit . The great crested tit , marsh tit , willow tit and coal tit are common and common species. The stock situation for the lark family is different . The short-toed lark is a breeding bird of the dry area in the south of the Palearctic, whose breeding area extends from northwest Africa to Central Asia. It breeds in small numbers in Hungary and Slovakia. It is forecast for this species that its Central European range will increase by the end of the 21st century. The stocks of the crested lark , on the other hand, are declining drastically in some cases and some Central European populations are now completely extinct. Unfavorable climatic causes play a role, but obviously also lack of food and habitat loss. It is dependent on open, dry, warm areas with low and patchy vegetation, which it finds less and less in the cultural landscape of Central Europe. Also field and Woodlark find due to increasing sealing of the landscape and extensive through the extensive task pastures of skimmed surfaces increasingly less suitable breeding areas.
The swallow family includes small to medium-sized aerial insect hunters, which are characterized by a streamlined body with a short neck and long, pointed wings. Shore , flour and barn swallows are common in Central Europe and spread breeding and summer birds. While the sand martin populations are stable, the barn swallow populations are declining due to the increasing loss of nesting sites and food as a result of the intensification of agriculture. The up to the northwest of Africa Inner Mongolia occurring Crag Martin breeds in Central Europe only in subalpine and alpine regions and has its center of distribution in Switzerland. It is also expected to occur more widely in Central Europe towards the end of the 21st century.
Bearded tit, tailed tit, bush warbler and leaf warbler
The bearded tit , a small passerine bird in which the male has a conspicuously wide, black stripe of beard, is usually placed in a monotypical family because of their insecure relationships . It is only sparsely distributed in Central Europe. This species is characterized by extreme population changes with sudden increases and population collapses during very severe winters. The families of the tail tit and the bush warbler are only represented by one species in Central Europe. Thanks to its low body weight and long tail, which the tail tit uses as a balancing aid, it is able to find food at the outermost branch tips, a tree region that is largely closed to other bird species. With this species, too, due to unfavorable climatic conditions, there can be significant populations, which it can compensate for in the following years. The silk warbler, which belongs to the bush singers, is, unlike the tailed tit, a very local breeding and annual bird. In the cold winters of 1984/85 and 1986/87, the existing Central European deposits extinguished completely, and since then there has been a repopulation of Belgium. Isolated pairs also breed in Switzerland, Hungary and the Netherlands.
The warbler family includes very small, mostly greenish, short-beaked insectivores. Wood warbler , fitis and chiffchaff are widespread and frequent breeding and summer birds in Central Europe. The mountain warbler has a closed distribution area only in the Alps, the Jura and the south of the Black Forest. Further north there are only irregular individual occurrences. The green warbler is a breeding bird of the taiga zone from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Baltic Sea. The species has expanded its range further west in recent years. In the early 1990s, green warblers first brooded on Heligoland and in the Giant Mountains . In Poland, too, where at least 20 singing males were found in 1997, the green warbler is now an established breeding bird.
Warbler and stalk warbler
Schwirle are small, reed- dwelling insectivores, which are characterized by a broad and clearly rounded tail and very long under-tail coverts. In many of the species the song resembles the utterances of insects. The long, monotonous buzzing of the field swirl, which is widespread in Europe, is reminiscent of grasshoppers. The slightly more widespread Rohrschwirl has a similar whirring song , while the Schlagschwirl , which occurs predominantly in Eastern Central Europe, lets you hear a continuous whistling dzedzedze .
The swamp warbler and pond warbler populations are largely stable. However, several other reed warbler species are increasingly unable to find suitable habitats and their populations are falling accordingly. This development can be observed in the reed warbler and the great reed warbler . The reed warbler is even one of the world's endangered birds and is classified by the IUCN as endangered ( vulnerable ). He specializes in weakly eutrophic brown moss sedge bogs and sedge meadows. 90 percent of the world's population only occurs in Polesia , a lowland landscape that stretches from the east of Poland through the south of Belarus to the north-west of the Ukraine. The reed warbler occurs with numerous island-like occurrences in an area that stretches from the Mediterranean to the northwest of India. The distribution area of this species, which is dependent on large stocks of reed beds, also includes south-east Central Europe, and at Lake Neusiedl it has a higher breeding pair density than the Rohrschwirl.
The yellow mocker is a widespread, if only moderately frequent, breeding and summer bird in Central Europe. Two other species of mocker , the pale mocker and the orpheus mocker , are only locally widespread breeding and summer birds. Also the Cistensänger , which belongs to the Halmsänger family, has only small, mostly inconsistent occurrences in Central Europe, which are mainly limited to Belgium and the Netherlands.
Among the represented in Central Europe warblers that applies Blackcap as the breeding bird that is most adaptable in its habitat requirements on. The stocks are therefore considered stable and are increasing slightly in Belgium, the Netherlands and the Czech Republic. Stable populations also have gardens and rattling and the widespread mainly in East Central Europe Sperbergrasmücke on. When Dorngrasmücke regional, short-term stock fluctuations are normal. In large parts of Europe, however, stocks fell by more than 50 percent towards the end of the 1960s. The reasons for this population trend are both years of drought in the wintering areas and habitat loss in the breeding areas. Since the 1980s, the breeding population has stabilized at a low level in many places, and in regions that still offer suitable habitats for this species, there have been significant increases in some places. Two other warbler species, namely the Orpheus and the Whitebeard warbler, only breed with very few breeding pairs in Switzerland.
Golden chickens, waxwings, nuthatches, wall and treecreepers and wrens
The golden chickens are a small, very homogeneous group of insectivore passerine birds, which are represented in Central Europe with two almost identical looking species, namely the winter and summer golden chickens . Together with the widespread and common wren , they are the smallest European birds. The territories of the two golden chickens, which have a variety of similar behaviors, occasionally overlap. However, they are not in direct competition with one another for food, since the golden cockerel specializes in the smallest prey and, unlike the golden cockerel, prefers to look for them on the underside of branches. The waxwing is not a breeding bird in Central Europe. If mountain ash bear only a few berries in their breeding areas further north, the entire population evasions to the south and they then appear in large flocks as winter guests. Between 1900 and 1990 there were 22 major invasions in Central Europe . The wallcreeper is the only representative of his family. It breeds in rugged and crevice-rich montane to high alpine rocky areas. Accordingly, its Central European distribution focus is in Austria and Switzerland. More common is the nuthatch, a stocky songbird with a long awl-shaped beak and a short tail, which, unlike the woodpeckers, has no supporting function. It is a common breeding and annual bird in Central Europe. The treecreeper are represented in Central Europe with the woodcreeper and the horticultural treecreeper as common and quite frequent breeding and annual birds.
Starlings, dippers and thrushes
Starlings are arthropod- and fruit-eating songbirds with an upright posture that, unlike thrushes, do not hop but rather tremble. The star is one of the most common birds in the cultural landscape, the population of which is estimated at up to 4.3 million breeding pairs in Germany alone. The rose star, on the other hand, only breeds in Hungary, but occasionally flies in like an invasion in other Central European regions.
The dipper is the only Central European songbird that regularly swims and even dives. It exhibits several adaptations to aquatic life. Their plumage is denser than that of other songbirds, the rump gland is noticeably large and the nostril on the beak can be closed by skin. A development of new habitats can be observed with several thrush species . The best-known example is the blackbird , which is found in large numbers in human settlement today. The field thrush first colonized Central Europe in several waves in the 19th century; it is now a widespread and frequent breeding bird. The mistletoe is actually a species that breeds in thin, tall, old wood stocks, but is increasingly opening up semi-open landscapes in northwest Germany. While the song thrush is a common and widespread bird species throughout Central Europe, the ring thrush occurs only in higher altitudes. It breeds in Austria and Switzerland in the Alps as well as in the East in the Carpathians, the Ore and Giant Mountains. On the other hand, the red thrush , the smallest breeding thrush species in Central Europe , is mainly limited to Poland .
Flycatcher
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The flycatchers are a fairly large group of insectivorous passerine birds that occur exclusively in the Old World . They are usually small in stature with a fine beak that is flat at the base. This family includes such well-known species such as robins , garden and redstart . In large parts of Central Europe breeding birds of this family are gray , collar and pied flycatchers , whinchat and wheatear .
The main distribution center of the miniature flycatcher is in the southern boreal zone of Europe to the Urals . Its Central European distribution center is Poland, but around 4,500 pairs of this species were also breeding in Germany at the beginning of the 21st century. The sprout is the sister species of the nightingale , which it replaces in northern and eastern Europe. The distribution limits of the two species run diagonally through Central Europe. In the narrow strip in which both species occur, the nightingale prefers the drier locations. Occasionally they reproduce together, but only the male offspring of such compounds are capable of reproduction. The bluethroat is divided into two groups based on the throat and breast color of the adult males, namely the white-starred and the red-starred bluethroat. However, these features are probably subject to a simple genetic control mechanism, are accordingly quickly changeable and do not represent any extensive genetic differentiation. The red star bluethroat are mainly found in Northern Europe and occur in individual settlements in the highlands of the Carpathians and the Alps. The white-starred bluethroat is particularly widespread in the lowlands of Central and Eastern Europe.
Brown Flies and Sparrows
Brown ella are ground dwellers the size of sparrows to starlings. Most of the species occur in higher altitudes, only the dunnock also colonizes the lowlands. In this species, significant increases and area expansions can be recorded, as it benefits from the planting of spruce cultures. The Alpine Brownelle is a breeding bird in the mountains and only spreads like an island in the western Palearctic. In Central Europe it occurs in the Alps, the Tatra Mountains and in the Carpathian Arch. Mountain and Black-throated Brown Flies only rarely appear as an errant in Central Europe.
House sparrows and tree sparrows are very common and widespread breeding and annual birds from the sparrow family in Central Europe. The taxonomic position of the Italian sparrow , whose Central European distribution is limited to Switzerland and, to a much lesser extent, to Austria, is controversial. Some authors believe it is a hybrid form between willow and house sparrows. The stone sparrow is now extinct in Central Europe and its current distribution is limited to southern Europe. The last Central European breeding occurrences became extinct in the first half of the 20th century, an attempt at reintroduction in Rhineland-Palatinate in 1959 and 1960 failed. However, random visitors still occasionally reach Poland. In addition to human stalking and increasing nesting competition with starlings and house sparrows, cooler, more humid summers are also the cause of the disappearance of the stone sparrow. The snow sparrow is a breeding bird of the high mountains and steppes of the southern Palearctic. In Central Europe it occurs only in the Alps.
Stilt relatives
Stilts and pipiters are small to medium-sized, elongated, long-legged insectivores that usually have a long tail. The most common of this family is the tree pipit , which uses open to semi-open terrain as a biotope, which has a well-developed, richly structured herb layer and tall trees or shrubs that serve as singing points. The meadow pipit is a wet meadow dweller who only looks for food in areas with a maximum of nine centimeters high plant cover. Accordingly, it needs waterlogged meadows, heather and moor areas, poor grassland and permanent grassland that is used as extensively as possible. The habitat requirements of the fallow pipit are even more specific, requiring large areas with a mosaic-like structure, where vegetation-free areas alternate with higher vegetation and sparse tree vegetation with singing rooms. The mountain pipit only breeds on alpine meadows and in higher low mountain ranges. However, low mountain ranges offer this species only a very limited range of habitats, natural and anthropogenic changes in habitats have drastic effects on the often small populations. For example, the holdings of the mountain pipit in the Rhön and Allgäu died out in the course of the 20th century. Its central European distribution center is Switzerland. The red-throated pipit is a breeding bird in the Eurasian tundra, but it can be seen as a regular, if seldom migrant at both migration times. The beach pipit can also be seen mostly as migrants in Central Europe. The first brood settlements occurred in Germany towards the end of the 20th century.
The gray wagtail prefers to look for food in rapidly flowing waters. This is compared to Bach and Wagtail able to find relatively independent of frost and snow or cold weather adequately insects. It therefore starts laying eggs very early and in many parts of Central Europe is only a partial migrant. The lemon wagtail was originally only an exceptional guest in Central Europe. 95 percent of the European population breed in the European part of Russia, a clear western expansion of this species has also led to a breeding settlement in Central Europe in the middle. Up to 50 breeding pairs were breeding in Poland at the beginning of the 21st century. The first breeding pairs of this species have also been observed in Switzerland, Germany and Slovakia.
Finches and bunting
Finches are small to medium-sized seed-eaters with conical, often large beaks. The common and widespread Central European breeding birds from this family include the chaffinch , grosbeak , bullfinch , giraffe , greenfinch , goldfinch, and linnet . Very unsteady Central European breeding and annual birds with an annually changing distribution and locally different frequencies are siskins and crossbills . The supply of spruce cones, which changes every year, plays a decisive role in both species, even if the siskin eats seeds from alder , birch , larch , willow , poplar and various perennials in addition to spruce seeds . Mountain finches and mountain hawks are frequent migrants and winter guests in Central Europe. Typical for the mountain finch, with which there are occasionally limited breeding settlements in Central Europe, are changing overwintering focuses and large gatherings in regions with beech mast . In Switzerland, the abundance of beech nuts on offer in 1946/47 and 1951/52 resulted in sleeping place concentrations of eleven and 70 million mountain finches, respectively. Invasive behavior also occurs in other finch species that breed mainly in Northern Europe. In the winter of 1990/91, for example, there was an invasion of arctic siskins , pine and crossbills in northwest Central Europe . Invasion-like ingresses are also known from the European siskin , which in Central Europe is at the same time a poorly distributed and locally frequent breeding and annual bird. Since the 1970s it has spread strongly in some regions of Central Europe, whereby several factors play a role. It does not place high demands on its breeding habitats and finds suitable locations on areas that are heavily influenced by anthropogenic influences such as park landscapes and afforestation areas. Its evasive migration behavior also promotes the settlement of newly created suitable habitats. It also has a high reproductive potential and milder winter temperatures result in a higher survival rate. Only in the east of Central Europe common breeding bird is the carminer . The lemon girlitz breeds in the southwest of the Palearctic, preferentially in montan and subalpine levels. It occurs as a breeding bird in the Alps, but also in the Black Forest and the Vosges.
Ammern differ from finches, among other things, by the almost S-shaped cutting edges of the beak. The common Central European representatives include gold and reed hammer . Ortolan and gray bunting , which have their distribution focus in Eastern Central Europe, are rarer . Central Europe represents the northern limit of distribution for both the fence and the Zippammer . Both species are predominantly found in Switzerland. Spur and snow bunting are regular migrants and winter guests in the central European coastal area.
literature
- Hans-Günther Bauer, Einhard Bezzel , Wolfgang Fiedler (eds.): The compendium of birds in Central Europe: Everything about biology, endangerment and protection. Volume 1: Nonpasseriformes - non-sparrow birds. Aula-Verlag Wiebelsheim, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-89104-647-2 .
- Hans-Günther Bauer, Einhard Bezzel, Wolfgang Fiedler (eds.): The compendium of birds in Central Europe: Everything about biology, endangerment and protection. Volume 2: Passeriformes - passerine birds. Aula-Verlag Wiebelsheim, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-89104-648-0 .
- Einhard Bezzel: birds. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-405-14736-0 .
- Simon Delany, Derek Scott, Tim Dodman, David Stroud (Eds.): An Atlas of Wader Populations in Africa and Western Eurasia. Wetlands International , Wageningen 2009, ISBN 978-90-5882-047-1 .
- Martin Flade: The breeding bird communities of Central and Northern Germany - Basics for the use of ornithological data in landscape planning . IHW-Verlag, Berlin 1994, ISBN 3-930167-00-X .
- Olaf Geiter, Susanne Homma, Ragnar Kinzelbach: Inventory and evaluation of neozoa in Germany (PDF; 3.3 MB) . Research report by the Institute for Biodiversity Research (Chair for General and Special Zoology) at the University of Rostock on behalf of the Federal Environment Agency, texts 25/02. Berlin 2002, ISSN 0722-186X .
- Jacques Gilliéron, Claude Morerod: Animals of the Alps: The vertebrates. SAC Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-85902-238-5 .
- Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim (Hrsg.): Handbook of the birds of Central Europe . Edited by Kurt M. Bauer and Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, among others. 17 volumes in 23 parts. Academ. Verlagsges., Frankfurt am Main 1966ff., Aula-Verlag , Wiesbaden 1985ff. (2nd ed.)
- Felix Heintzenberg: Birds of Prey and Owls - All Species in Europe . Kosmos nature guide. Franckh, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-440-10695-0 .
- Brian Huntley, Rhys E. Green, Yvonne C. Collingham, Stephen G. Willis: A Climatic Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Durham University, The RSPB and Lynx Editions, Barcelona 2007, ISBN 978-84-96553-14-9 .
- Theodor Mebs : Birds of prey in Europe. Biology, population conditions, endangerment . Kosmos nature guide. Franckh, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-440-06838-2 .
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- Josef H. Reichholf: A Brief Natural History of the Last Millennium . Book Guild Gutenberg, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-7632-5865-9 .
- Erich Rutschke: The wild ducks of Europe. Biology, ecology, behavior. Aula, Wiesbaden 1988, ISBN 3-89104-449-6 .
- Colin Tudge: The Secret Life of Birds - Who they are and what they do . Penguin Books, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-14-103476-8 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Jacques Gilliéron, Claude Morerod: Animals of the Alps: The vertebrates. SAC Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-85902-238-5 , p. 17.
- ↑ a b c d Werner Härdtle, Jörg Ewald, Nordbert Hölzel: Forests of the lowlands and the low mountain ranges . Eugen Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8001-3285-0 , p. 9.
- ^ Brian Huntley, Rhys E. Green, Yvonne C. Collingham, Stephen G. Willis: A Climatic Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Durham University, The RSPB and Lynx Editions, Barcelona 2007, ISBN 978-84-96553-14-9 , pp. 14 and 15.
- ^ Rüdiger Glaser : Climate History of Central Europe: 1000 Years of Weather, Climate, Disasters. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2001, ISBN 3-89678-405-6 .
- ↑ Hans-Günther Bauer, Einhard Bezzel, Wolfgang Fiedler (Ed.) (Volume 1): The Compendium of Birds in Central Europe: Everything about biology, endangerment and protection. Volume 1: Nonpasseriformes - non-sparrow birds. Aula-Verlag Wiebelsheim, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-89104-647-2 , Volume 1, p. 751.
- ^ Reichholf, p. 98 and p. 99.
- ^ A b Dries van Nieuwenhuyse, Jean-Claude Génot, David H. Johnson: The Little Owl - Conservation, Ecology and Behavior of Athene noctua, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-88678-9 , pp. 298 and p. 299.
- ^ A b Josef H. Reichholf: A Brief Natural History of the Last Millennium . Book Guild Gutenberg, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-7632-5865-9 , p. 192.
- ↑ Werner Härdtle, Jörg Ewald, Nordbert Hölzel: Forests of the lowlands and the low mountain ranges . Eugen Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8001-3285-0 , p. 11.
- ↑ Bauer et al., Volume 1, p. 175.
- ↑ Einhard Bezzel: Birds. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-405-14736-0 , p. 50 and p. 51.
- ^ Gerhard Henkel: The rural area - the present and processes of change since the 19th century in Germany. Teubner, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-519-23430-0 , p. 102.
- ^ Gerhard Henkel: The rural area - the present and processes of change since the 19th century in Germany. Teubner, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-519-23430-0 , p. 240.
- ^ Siegfried Schönn, Wolfgang Scherzinger, Klaus-Michael Exo, Rottraud Ille: Der Steinkauz. Athene noctua. Neue Brehm Bücherei: Volume 606, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt 1991, ISBN 3-7403-0240-2 , p. 67.
- ↑ Dries van Nieuwenhuyse, Jean-Claude Génot, David H. Johnson: The Little Owl - Conservation, Ecology and Behavior of Athene noctua, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-88678-9 , pp. 107 bis P. 132.
- ↑ Bezzel, p. 204 and p. 205.
- ↑ Johannes Müller : Landscape elements made by human hands - biotopes and structures as a result of extensive use. Spektrum, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-8274-1554-3 , p. 121.
- ↑ Heinz Düttmann, Rainer Ehrnsberger, Remmer Ackermann (eds.): Ecology and protection of meadow birds in Central Europe . Vechta University of Applied Sciences, 2006, ISSN 1438-1559 , p. 55.
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- ↑ Annette Rösener, The city pigeon problem: causes, developments, solutions. Shaker Verlag, Aachen 1999, ISBN 3-8265-6577-0 .
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- ^ Colin Tudge: The Secret Life of Birds - Who they are and what they do . Penguin Books, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-14-103476-8 , p. 136.
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- ^ E. Rutschke: Kormoran - Phalacrocorax carbo. In: E. Rutschke (Ed.): The bird world of Brandenburg. 2nd Edition. Aula Verlag, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-89104-426-7 , pp. 99-100.
- ^ RK Berndt, B. Koop, B. Struwe-Juhl: Vogelwelt Schleswig-Holstein. Volume 5: Breeding Birds Atlas. 2nd Edition. Karl Wachholtz, Neumünster 2003, ISBN 3-529-07305-9 , pp. 66-67.
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