History of the Dentist Profession

Dental treatment at the kuk military high school, (later Martinkaserne ), Eisenstadt , 1912

The modern history of the dental profession began in the mid-19th century with a non-academic training, competition from amateur dentist and dental attending physicians , a low social status and limited demand for dental services. By 1919, dentists were able to establish themselves as a profession against the existing competition.

Beginnings

→ Main article : History of dentistry

In the Chirurgia Magna , Guy de Chauliac coined the term dentiste , from which the term for the dentist can be traced back in many languages, for example the obsolete job title Dentist in German . France led the way when, from 1700, oral surgery and restorative dentistry exams were required there. Otherwise, up to the beginning of the 19th century, training was limited to an apprenticeship with a bath , barber or surgeon and could be completed without proof of previous school education. With the reorganization of the Prussian medical legislation, examination regulations for dentists were passed on December 1, 1825 , and their profession was classified as a medical profession . From 1835 onwards, two years of surgical training (as a surgeon, 2nd class with tertiary maturity ) was valid in Prussia before practicing the dental profession . In 1848 the medical and surgical schools for surgeons 1st and 2nd class were abolished and from 1869 the Dental Examination Regulations came into effect for the area of ​​the North German Confederation , and from 1871 also in all other states of the newly founded German Reich . Two years later, enrollment and access to university studies was ordered.

Education

Plaque for John Harris at Ohio Dental College, Harris Dental Museum

The medical faculties for a long time refused to allow dentists to work. It was not until 1771 that the medical faculty of the Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel gave the Mecklenburg dentist Benjamin Fritsche permission to practice the “ dental art”. In 1865, Carl-Wilhelm Fricke enrolled there as a student for dentistry . Later he founded the first dental institute in Kiel, which he headed from 1871 to 1901 as director. In this capacity he also chaired the first dental professional association, the predecessor of the German Society for Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine , the Central Association of German Dentists (CVdZ). In 1874 Fricke was accepted as a member of the faculty, together with the permission to hold lectures in his subject as a lector honoris causa for dentistry . The first four Fricke students who enrolled in the winter semester 1874/75 were Georg Bruhn from Segeberg, Richard Fricke from Itzehoe, H.-G. Hildebrandt from Flensburg and Georg Kirchner from Kiel.

Horace Henry Hayden, the first American dentist

In 1783 the dentist Philipp Frank was officially approved to work as a dentist in Würzburg on the basis of a certificate from the professor of surgery Carl Caspar Siebold . Since 1802 the surgeon Karl Joseph Ringelmann (1776-1854) was employed as a public teacher of dentistry at the Julius Maximilians University of Würzburg . In 1815 Ringelmann was appointed titular professor and in 1825 received both the title of royal personal dentist from Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and permission to hold lectures on oral and dental diseases as a full professor.

In Hungary, the medical faculty of the forerunner of Budapest's Semmelweis University awarded the diploma of a “Magister artis dentariae” for the first time in the school year 1799/1800. However, it took another 80 years before the first Budapest dental school was founded by József Iszlai and József Árkövy.

In the USA, Horace Henry Hayden (1769-1844) was the first to receive a license to practice the dental profession in 1810 through the Medical and Surgical Faculty of Maryland . University education was only introduced in the mid-19th century. Research into the cause and spread of fluorosis (enamel stains) on the one hand and the evidence of the caries-protective effect of fluorides with the resulting fluoridation of drinking water on the other hand played an important role in the development of dentistry into a scientifically oriented profession in the United States . The predominant claim of responsibilities by general practitioners was a problem for the young discipline until the 1930s. Here the reference to this discovery helped dentistry to find its way out of the crisis, which culminated in a discussion about the need for academic training for dentists, when even the abolition of dentistry as an independent profession was on the agenda.

In 1840, the world's first dental school was founded in Baltimore as the University of Maryland School of Dentistry , the birthplace of the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS). Training centers followed in 1859 in London ( London School of Dental Surgery ) and in 1879 in Paris ( École dentaire ). In 1884, a university-affiliated dental institute was first established throughout Germany in Berlin. The entire course lasted only two years, the admission required the primary level , which meant the transfer from the upper secondary to the lower primary . In 1879 a dentistry student was enrolled for the first time at the Justus Liebig University in Giessen .

From the dental artist to the dentist

Memorial plaque for Henriette Hirschfeld-Tiburtius in Behrenstrasse 9 in Berlin-Mitte

Lucy Hobbs Taylor

Although the German universities did not allow women to study in the 19th century, they had the opportunity to work as dental artists . In the “Royal Privileged Berlin Newspaper of State and Learned Things” from 1817 there was an advertisement by a Josephine Serre who, as a “licensed dentist from the University of Krakow, with the right of free practice throughout the Russian Empire and from the Upper Collegio Medici et sanitas zu Berlin ”advertised.

Henriette Hirschfeld-Tiburtius was not satisfied with this and wanted to study dentistry as early as 1866. She traveled to Philadelphia , USA, in 1867 , and was admitted there as the second woman to study at the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery . After graduating, she returned to Germany and opened her practice at Behrenstrasse 9 in Berlin . (The Berlin Representation of the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists has been based in Behrenstrasse since 2009. ) The Hirschfeld-Tiburtius Symposium , a conference of women dentists in Berlin, is held annually in her honor . Both Henriette Hirschfeld-Tiburtius and her sister-in-law, the doctor Franziska Tiburtius , pioneered women's studies .

Henriette followed Emilie Wiede-Foeking from Prussia, who graduated from the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery in 1873, as well as Marie Grubert, Valeska Wilcke and Louise Jakoby. By 1909 about 45 women had acquired the title of Doctor of dental surgery (DDS). However, due to numerous purchased DDS titles, it was not recognized.

The university education as a dentist was first introduced in 1900 in Baden at the universities of Freiburg and Karlsruhe. The other German universities followed suit over the next eight years. A high school diploma was required for the course . The first woman from the Grand Duchy of Hesse to enroll at the Justus Liebig University in Gießen was Greta Geil from Worms : She enrolled in dentistry in the summer semester of 1909. By the 1920s, the proportion of women studying dentistry rose to around 10–20 percent, but the proportion of women in the profession remained around 5 percent - most of them were unmarried. By 1936 the number of female dentists rose to 899.

In Sweden and the United States, dentistry was more advanced in the early 20th century. In Sweden, King Charles XV. Amalia Assur was initially given permission to practice dentistry via the Kongl. Sundhetskollegiets . After women were allowed to study dentistry in 1861, Rosalie Fougelberg became Sweden's first licensed dentist. This happened after Charles XV. had introduced equal rights in studies. At the same time had in the United States Lucy Hobbs Taylor became the first woman on the Ohio Dental College for Dentistry study enrolled. This first American dental school was founded by John M. Harris .

License to practice

Legal basis and development in Germany

Dental treatment room in the 19th century

Medical and dental license from the North German Confederation, 1869

Soon after the constitution of the North German Confederation (1861–1871) came into force on April 16, 1867, in accordance with Section 29 of the Trade Regulations for the North German Confederation in 1869, a first license to practice medicine called “Announcement concerning the examination of doctors, dentists, veterinarians and pharmacists” was issued. According to this, the "central authorities of those federal states which have one or more state universities were authorized to issue, thus currently the responsible ministries of the Kingdom of Prussia , the Kingdom of Saxony , the Grand Duchy of Hesse , the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the ministries of the Grand Duchy in community Saxe-Weimar and the Saxon Duchies ”. Württemberg and Baden joined in 1871 and Alsace-Lorraine in 1872 . The prerequisites for a license to practice medicine were a two-year university course and proof of practical experience in technical dental work . With the entry into force of these trade regulations , the developing dentistry suffered a decisive setback, since with the newly adopted freedom of trade , the (dentistry) medicine was also completely free of couriers . From 1871, courier freedom was in effect throughout the German Empire .

Protests of the dental profession

On the occasion of the 18th annual meeting of the Central Association of German Dentists (CVdZ) in Bremen in 1879, the Berlin dentist Karl Sauer reported on his survey of non-specialists who performed dental treatments. He named the following professions: barbers, hairdressers, innkeepers, china travelers, gold workers, barber's daughter, painter's assistant, bookseller, hospital administrator, district court clerk, actor, bowling alley, veterinary surgeon, journeyman turner, chimney sweep, surgeon, widow actor, opera singer and invalid . In doing so, he underlined the long-standing demand for exclusively academic professional training. However, the relevant petitions went unheard.

Soon non-licensed medical practitioners switched to changing the professional title “dental artist” to dentist . For the unapproved dentists, the dentists for their part suggested the - derogatory - job titles "dental worker" or "dentist worker". With regard to the professional title dentist, they indignantly referred to the Romance and Anglo-Saxon language usage, according to which the terms “dentiste” or “dentist” denote a licensed dentist. Lower prices helped dentists negotiate with health insurers. On the dental side, however, the consideration of dental technicians as health insurers was mainly due to the political proximity of the dental artists to the local health insurance funds . The latter have been largely under the influence of trade unions and social democrats since the 1890s . The number of unapproved dentists rose from 735 in 1878 to 20,000 in 1937. In 1909, only 31.4 percent of 1,060 unapproved dentists had completed an apprenticeship as a dental artist. 58.4 percent had previously worked as a barber, and another 10.2 percent had no prior professional training. The courier exemption remained in effect until the Dentistry Act (ZHG) came into force on March 31, 1952. Only then was the dualism of dentists and dentists ended by the Bonn Agreement (also: Allensbach Agreement ). By the end of 1953, more than 15,000 dentists in the Federal Republic of Germany had received dental appointments after attending a 60-hour advanced training course.

As a result, from the 1960s, first in Canada and later worldwide, a professional group of non-academic denturists and, in Switzerland, dental prosthetics . For the history of dentists and denturists see history of dentists .

In 1883, Friedrich Louis Hesse received the order from the Royal Saxon Ministry to set up a dental institute at the University of Leipzig , which was opened on October 16, 1884. Pastor Friedrich Adolph Huth donated 15,000 marks for this in his will. The patients were predominantly workers and tradespeople who were treated by students for low wages or even free of charge. For the first time in Germany from 1886 members of a local health insurance fund were paid for conservative treatments. In Saxony, Hesse tried to prevent tooth decay in schools and protect patients from excessive fee claims. In 1891, free dental examinations for elementary school students were introduced in Chemnitz . This social commitment led to disputes with the health insurances about the assumption of the costs and burdened the profitability of his dental clinic. Hesse was chairman of the Dental Association for the Kingdom of Saxony from 1890 to 1906 and first chairman of the Central Association of German Dentists from 1891 to 1900 . For years he fought to equate dentistry with the rest of medicine. In 1910 there were 7,214 dental artists and 2,667 dentists in the German Reich. The dental minority therefore had problems in asserting themselves when the Reich Insurance Code was passed in 1911.

Dental practitioners experienced a renaissance in the 21st century. The University of Witten / Herdecke has been running a development aid project since 1995 and trained ten new local dentists in the Gambia in 2008 . The dentists complete a five-month course on this. The Community Oral Health Workers are supposed to provide the population in rural areas with dental care, in particular through filling therapy, pain treatment and preventive measures. Comprehensive dental care is currently not available in the smallest country on the African continent.

Stomatology

The term stomatology was recommended in the 1880s by Émile Magitot (1833–1897) and decided at the International Berlin Dental Congress in 1890. In 1904 the Hungarian dentist Josef Arkövy (1851–1922) defined stomatology as "... a branch of medicine whose field of knowledge and activity includes the oral cavity ..." Árkövy's suggestion was recognized worldwide and has since been used as a designation by clinics, societies and specialist journals. His work, Diagnostics of Dental Diseases , appeared in 1885 and is considered one of the most important works of the 19th century. Dental clinical observations are evaluated from the pathologist's point of view . They are considered pioneering work in systematic dental diagnostics. This designation was common in the GDR.

promotion

Medical doctoral certificate from the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg , November 21, 1882

In the middle of the 19th century, the Abitur was not a prerequisite for studying dentistry in Europe. It was assigned to the Philological Faculty because these students were considered immatures - students without a high school diploma. There were high hurdles to overcome before the non-specialist Dr. phil. to attain, which then had a lower reputation than today. Around 10 percent of dentists therefore went to the United States in order to obtain an American doctorate there. Some bought such a title. It was not until 1909 that new examination regulations were issued, which required the Abitur and from 1919 made it possible to acquire the Doctor medicinae dentariae ( Dr. med. Dent. ). Baden was the first German state to introduce a doctorate in dentistry on June 8, 1919 - after some resistance from the medical profession, but as Dr. chir. dent. The dental profession saw this as an affront, because the doctors had deliberately replaced the “med.” With “chir.” (Ancient Greek for manual labor). For the practicing dental healers in Prussia, however, the title Dr. med. dent. , which the other countries subsequently joined. Finally, Baden had to join in too.

On 23 January 1923, followed by habilitation law for dentists.

Otto Walkhoff played a key role in the introduction of the right to award doctorates . The doctorate was sought in particular in order to distinguish oneself as academics from the "dental artists" and the later dentists - who were also allowed to call themselves dentists. The number of doctorates in Germany did not decrease significantly until the 1970s, when there were hardly any more dentists, and in 2000 it fell to less than 50 percent of the graduates.

Medical and dental doctorates have a special role compared to doctorates in other subjects. On the one hand, work on the dissertation can be started before the end of the course; on the other hand, doctorates are often more comparable to diploma theses in natural science subjects in terms of demands and scope . For this reason, the German Dr. med. ( doctor medicinae ) or Dr. med. dent ( doctor medicinae dentariae ) today in the Anglo-Saxon area not the Ph.D. considered equivalent, as the European Research Council (ERC) found in 2002. The German Science Council has taken a similar position since 2009.

The academic degrees awarded in Austria after completing studies in human medicine and dentistry are Dr. med. univ. and Dr. med. dent. correspond to diploma degrees (so-called professional doctorate ). Since then, this degree has not been counted as a doctorate, but only awarded as a degree certificate. The designation of a title acquired after completing the medical doctoral program is Doctor of All Medicine and Medical Science ( Dr. med. Univ. Et scient. Med. ).

Professional associations

In 1859, 26 dentists in Niagara Falls , New York founded the first American dental association called the American Dental Association (ADA). In 1897, the ADA merged with the Southern Dental Association (SDA) to form the National Dental Association (NDA) . In 1922 it was renamed ADA again. Since then, it has been one of the world's leading dental associations. In addition, the National Dental Association was founded, which represented the ethnic minorities in dentistry in the USA. It was founded in 1932 by African American dentists who prevented racial discrimination from becoming members of the ADA. In England, Lilian Lindsay became the first woman to study dentistry in 1895 . She was the first woman to be elected President of the British Dental Association in 1945 . Marcelle Dauphin (1893–1976) was the first female dentist in Luxembourg . She got her Luxembourg dentist license on October 12, 1922. The FDI World Dental Federation was founded in 1900 as Fédération Dentaire Internationale by Charles Godon from the École Dentaire de Paris and five other dentists in Paris . The FDI currently has more than 150 national member associations in more than 130 countries, which together represent nearly a million dentists. President of the company is Gerhard Seeberger from Italy (2019-2021).

The unapproved dental artists were united in the Association of German Dental Artists . In 1908 it was renamed the Association of Dentists in the German Empire .

German Confederation and German Empire

The first private dental clinic opened in 1855 by Eduard Albrecht (1823–1883) in Berlin. In 1883, under Otto von Bismarck, general compulsory insurance was introduced and doctors negotiated individual contracts with the health insurance companies , which were given a contractual monopoly. The health insurance companies concluded individual contracts with the doctors who were largely dependent on them and were able to determine the conditions. Compulsory health insurance was originally limited to workers in the lower income bracket with an annual income of less than 2000 marks and to certain government employees. In the course of time it was expanded more and more until a large part of the population was covered.

The number of unapproved dentists grew continuously. While it was still 735 in 1878, it grew to 20,000 by 1937. The ratio of dentists to dental artists in 1909 was 2,667 to 7,214.

While doctors and pharmacists received state-recognized professional representations in the form of their own chambers as early as 1887 and 1896, the same demands made by dentists went unheard for a long time. It was not until October 10, 1906, that the first dental chamber was established in Baden . In 1912 another dental association followed in Prussia.

In the period that followed, there was unrest among the medical profession, which led to a general strike in October 1913 . The government intervened to avert this strike. It conveyed the beginnings of joint self-administration by health insurance companies and statutory health insurance physicians . The fourth ordinance of the Reich President for the safeguarding of the economy and finances and for the protection of internal peace of December 8, 1931 (RGBl. 699) provided for the conclusion of general contracts between health insurers and associations of statutory health insurance physicians in § 1. The ordinance on statutory health care provision of January 14, 1932 (RGBl. I p. 19) adapted §§ 368–373 RVO ( Reich Insurance Code ) to the new legal status. This establishment of the Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians in 1931 and 1932 created a counterbalance to the health insurance companies. One of the reasons for the political rapprochement of a large part of the dentists to the fascist movement was their resolute rejection of the dental clinics. Before the First World War, the health insurance companies founded 22 dental clinics; In 1931 there were already 126 dental clinics with 528 permanent dentists. In the fight against the dental clinics, the economic interests of the dentists combined with political aspirations. After the emergency ordinance was directed against the dental clinic movement in the early 30s, all dental clinics were liquidated in the first months after the fascist seizure of power.

Dentistry under National Socialism

New regulations and laws

Reichsgesetzblatt: Ordinance on the participation of Jews in medical care from October 6, 1938.

After the National Socialists came to power, the regional statutory health insurance associations were abolished in the German Reich by ordinance of August 2, 1933 ( RGBl. Pp. 567–574) and a uniform German statutory health insurance association was formed under the control of the Nazi state. The statutory health insurance associations thus changed from representing the interests of doctors to an instrument of the state. At the same time, the new admission regulations denied a large number of dentists who were considered Jews the right to practice with the health insurance fund , thereby depriving them of their economic livelihood. On October 1, 1934, the Reichszahnärzteführer decreed that all dentists who are not yet established must complete eight-week ideological, military and professional training. This is an indispensable condition for cash register approval. Correspondingly, for example, the dentist and political scientist Hans Joachim Schmidt (1907-1981), later co-founder of the European Organization for Caries Research (ORCA), declared that he was the head of the DAF working group of the Würzburg Political Science Faculty on a four-week course at the NSDAP training castle in Berlin-Wannsee have participated. According to the dentist Wilhelm Kessler , the German Labor Front (DAF) maintained, among other things, an office for public health , which was also subordinate to the Reichsärzteführer.

"New German Medicine"

An important feature of National Socialist health policy was the demand to place alternative healing methods as equal forms of therapy alongside so-called conventional medicine . A radical National Socialist health reform should pave the way to an alternative, holistic, "biological" medicine. The term “new German medicine” was coined for this purpose. Their special "merits" were seen by the advocates of alternative medical procedures, among other things, in the fact that they helped the biological healing methods of German origin, which were neglected in the pre-National Socialist period as a result of "increasing Judaization", to achieve great state recognition. They also addressed the ideologically shaped evaluations of “signs of degeneration” and the “eradication” of pathological genetic makeup within dentistry. Extreme ideas went so far as to blame “Jewish influences” for diseases of the teeth. Well-known representatives of "biological" dentistry influenced by the Nazis were among others Hermann Euler (NSDAP member number: 4.660.341), Erich Heinrich (NSDAP member number: 1.963.981), Walther Klußmann (NSDAP member number: 3.188.996) , Otto Steiner (NSDAP membership number: 2.877.114) and Paul Neuhäußer (NSDAP membership number: 71.057), who added the following statement in 1938: “National Socialism is politically applied biology” and was committed to “biological dentistry” after the war. After 1945 they became respected personalities in the Federal Republic. Heinrich was the chief editor of the Zahnärztliche Rundschau from 1933 to 1945 and was made an honorary member of the DGZMK in 1937. In 1971 he received the Hermann Euler Medal. Klußmann was one of the most radical advocates of the "new German dentistry". His suggestions for improving the oral health of the German population ranged from the complete eradication of Jewish influence to war. In 1963 he was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit, 1st class. Among other things, Neuhäußer distinguished himself by describing the Nuremberg Laws , the Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseases , but also the settlement policy of the National Socialist state as essential foundations for the thinking and working of German dentists. He received many honors in the 1970s, including the Badge of Honor of the German Dental Association. Steiner was an ardent advocate of the National Socialist worldview and tried above all to combine metaphysical elements of alternative medicine with the blood-and-soil ideology of National Socialism. In the 1960s he was awarded the Hufeland Prize and the Federal Cross of Merit, 1st class, among other things .

Racial purity and ideology

Ewald Fabian 1885-1944

Memorial plaque for the Berlin dentists persecuted by the National Socialists, Kassenzahnärztliche Vereinigung Berlin 2008

Commemorative plaque for the 70th anniversary of the revocation of the license to practice medicine of Jewish Bavarian dentists persecuted by the National Socialists, Kassenzahnärztliche Vereinigung Bayerns 2009

Congratulations from the dental profession on choosing Adolf Hitler on November 12, 1933; Dental notices , November 19, 1933.

From 1933 the racial purity of the profession became the new ideological guideline of the unified professional association. The Aryan descent was now considered as a decisive criterion for admission as a dentist. In the years that followed, the new admission of Jewish dentists to medical practice was prohibited by law. At the end of 1937 there were a total of 16,319 dentists in Germany, 10,120 of whom were approved for health insurance, 2,337 were not approved, 290 only practicing privately, 251 civil servants and 3,321 were assistant dentists. On January 1, 1934, of a total of 11,332 dentists, 1,064 were Jews, most of whom were admitted to practice. Some excluded Jewish dentists managed to escape to Shanghai . In a statistic from 1941, which only recorded 3420 out of a total of 20,000 people, there were 180 displaced dentists in Japanese-occupied Shanghai . For January 31, 1939, all Jewish dentists lost the appointment (approval) by the eighth amendment to the Reich Citizenship Law . They were only allowed to take care of Jewish patients as "nurses". At the same time, the universities revoked the doctorates .

“The entire health care system has been cleaned of Jews” - that was the headline of a 1939 newspaper in Berlin with reference to Nazi Reichsärzteführer Gerhard Wagner (1888–1939), who announced in a party conference speech: “The medical profession and medical science are definitely of the Jewish spirit been liberated. ”The racial expulsion is described under medicine under National Socialism . The German doctors ran to the National Socialists in droves, more than in any other profession. 1,300 dentists alone were members of the NSDAP before 1933, at least 74 of them subsequently received the Golden Party Badge and at least 6 were blood medals. While the proportion of NSDAP members in the entire medical profession was around 7% before 1933, it was 12% among dentists. Later almost half of all doctors were members of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). 26% of the doctors were members of the SA (11% of the teachers), 8% were of the SS (0.4% of the teachers), says Norbert Frei's Careers in Twilight .

The German dentists were involved in the hereditary health ideology, also in the T4 campaign (euthanasia of the mentally and physically disabled). From 1936 onwards, the National Socialists tried to introduce the racial hygiene test into the curricula . They succeeded in doing this in 1939. The subject of racial hygiene became a compulsory subject at all universities. A portion of the Eugenik in which the dentists were particularly active, was that of the Begutachtens the patients who had a cleft lip have a jaw or palate incision. The licensed dentists, like all medical professionals, were obliged to report any person with hereditary malformations. The sterilization was approved in principle in this case. The maxillofacial surgeon Martin Waßmund , founder of the German Society for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (DGMKG) in 1951, uncompromisingly represented the racial hygiene goal of "extermination" during the time of National Socialism . Waßmund thus stood in opposition to other well-known experts of this time such as Rosenthal, Axhausen , Ernst, Uebermuth, who had an empathic understanding of their cleft patients and who rejected the Nazi race laws at that time. The Martin Waßmund Prize of the DGMKG was renamed the Science Prize of the DGMKG in 2011 because of the attitude of the formerly honored .

Proportion of NSDAP members among dental university teachers

According to the latest investigations, there were demonstrably 217 NSDAP members (60.3%) in a total collective n = 360, there was no indication of membership in 143 university professors (39.7%), with 11 persons being found to be members of other NS branches were. According to this, at least 60% of the dental professors in question in the “Third Reich” were partisans of the NSDAP. Most of the dentists joined the party in the first few weeks after Hitler came to power - before the temporary membership ban that came into force in May.

Honorary members of the dental professional societies and their role in the "Third Reich"

89 honorary members or honorary medalists were identified who experienced the “Third Reich” as adults and were honored by dental associations in post-war Germany (from approx. 1949 to 1980). The analysis showed that a good 50% of these honored persons (n ​​= 45) in the “Third Reich” were members of the National Socialist Party. In contrast, there are only two Jewish victims of National Socialism ( Alfred Kantorowicz and Erich Knoche ) among the winners - this corresponds to only 2 percent of the collective examined. For comparison: in 1933 approx. 10% of the dentists were of Jewish origin.

Dental Association presidents who were members of the NSDAP

• Herbert Frank (1923–2016) - 1972–1992 President of the State Dental Association of Rhineland-Palatinate; then Honorary President of the Rhineland-Palatinate Dental Association
• Raimund Gaertner (1888–1970) - 1955–1960 President of the Baden-Württemberg State Dental Association

Presidents of the DGZMK who were members of the NSDAP

Among the presidents of the German Society for Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine (DGZMK) in the period 1906–1981, the following presidents were members of the NSDAP:

• Otto Walkhoff (1860–1934) term of office 1906–1926; (Joined the NSDAP in 1929)
• Wilhelm Herrenknecht (1865–1941) term of office 1926–1928
• Hermann Euler (1878–1961) term of office 1928–1945 and 1949–1954; (Joined the NSDAP in 1933)
• Ewald Harndt (1901–1996) term of office 1957–1965
• Hermann Wolf (1889–1978) term of office 1954–1957; (Joined the NSDAP in 1938)
• Gerhard Steinhardt (1904–1995) term of office 1965–1969; (Joined the NSDAP in 1938)
• Eugen Fröhlich (1910–1971) term of office 1969–1971; (Joined the NSDAP in 1939)
• Werner Ketterl (1925–2010) term of office 1977–1981; (Joined the NSDAP in 1943)

Subsequent withdrawal of honors

The DGZMK and other dental institutions advocate the renaming or withdrawal of prizes, medals and institutions which, according to recent knowledge, are named after National Socialists. These include:

• Renaming of the "Walkhoff Prize" (after Otto Walkhoff ) to "DGZ Prize" by the German Society for Dental Preservation (DGZ)
• Renaming of the "Oskar Bock Medal" (after Oskar Bock ) to "DGFDT Merit Medal" by the German Society for Functional Science and Therapy (DGFDT)
• Renaming of the Martin Waßmund Prize (after Martin Waßmund ) to the Science Prize of the DGMKG in 2011 by the German Society for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (DGMKG)
• Renaming of the Hermann Euler Medal (after Hermann Euler ) to the DGZMK Medal by the DGZMK in 2005
• The award of the Otto Loos Medal (after Otto Loos ) and the Otto Loos Prize by the State Dental Association of Hesse ceased in 1989

Planned:

• Renaming of the Ewald Harndt Medal (after Ewald Harndt ) by the Berlin Dental Association

Chair of the FVDZ who were members of the NSDAP

Chair of the Free Association of German Dentists (FVDZ and predecessor organizations) who were members of the NSDAP:

• 1952-1957 - Eugen Flohr (1896-1958)
• 1958-1963 - Wolfgang Mzyk (1923-2015)
• 1963-1967 - Wilhelm Stengel (1901-1967)
• 1967-1969 - Willi Ostermann (* 1912)
• 1969-1971 - Erich Pillwein (1919-2018)
• 1971-1973 - Werner Wald (* 1913)
• 1981-1987 - Julius Herrmann (1919-1988)

SS dentists

Hermann Pook, SS-Obersturmbannführer, chief dentist and supervisor of around 100 dentists in concentration camps. Image taken in January 1947 during the Nuremberg Trials .

Dentists could be promoted to SS leader and SS dentist after completing their dental training with career IXc when they took over - usually up to the age of 32. After basic training, they were promoted to SS-Oberscharführer, after completing the medical leader candidate course for up to 3 years after the state examination to SS-Untersturmführer, from 3 to 5 years to SS-Obersturmführer and from 6 and more, depending on their dental training Years as SS-Hauptsturmführer. Further promotion was possible according to the length of service, vacant positions and "probation". By the end of 1938, around 1400 dentists were already registered as SS members, around 9 percent of all German dentists. 305 dentists were organized in the Waffen SS. At least 79 of the 305 dentists who can be shown to have been organized in the Waffen-SS were employed in concentration camps as concentration camp dentists or their administrative offices. In fact, in 247 cases the question of a concentration camp deployment could be answered with certainty.

The Starnberg dentist Friedrich Krohn designed the swastika flag of the NSDAP, while Adolf Hitler only admitted in Mein Kampf that this would have influenced "his" design. Dentists could also be found on the top floors of the National Socialists, such as the Regensburg SS Hauptsturmführer and concentration camp dentist Willy Frank , who was involved in the selection of over 6,000 prisoners. He was head of the SS dental station in Auschwitz concentration camp and was sentenced to seven years in prison for joint aiding and abetting in joint murder (in six cases of at least 6,000 people) as part of the Auschwitz trials.

The Freiburg Lüder Elimar Precht (1912–1969), chief dentist in Auschwitz, who in 1950 worked for a while in Stuttgart for his concentration camp colleague from Auschwitz, Willy Frank, as an assistant doctor before he became a school dentist in Offenburg. Likewise, the concentration camp dentists SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Abraham , camp dentist in the Stutthof concentration camp and head of the dental ward in the Buchenwald concentration camp , after 1945 dentist in Bad Hersfeld , SS-Hauptsturmführer Siegfried Bock , Kurt from the Bruch , camp dentist in the Mauthausen concentration camp , SS-Standartenführer Paul Dahm , dentist, SS-Obersturmführer Artur Götz SS-Untersturmführer Georg Greif , SS-Hauptsturmführer Martin Hellinger , Wilhelm Henkel , chief dentist in the Mauthausen concentration camp, Walter Höhler , Wilhelm Jäger , in the Dachau concentration camp , Auschwitz , Neuengamme . Josef Joest , dental technician and later a dentist and SS leader in the SS death's head associations, who took part in shootings. SS-Obersturmbannführer Helmut Johannsen , chief dentist in Buchenwald concentration camp; Other camp dentists in the Buchenwald concentration camp were Georg Coldewey (who, among other things, carried out tooth extractions from the gold teeth of the concentration camp inmates without anesthesia), Hans Fischer , Gerhard Palfer , Walter Pongs and Paul Reutter , the Wiesbaden SS Hauptsturmführer Wolfgang Klein , who carried out the Jewish "cleansing" carried out in the Berlin health system; SS-Hauptsturmführer Albert Kurth , Walter Mücke , Walter Pongs, Alexander Reiner , SS-Sturmbannführer Paul Reutter; SS camp dentist in the Dachau concentration camp and, as the “chief dentist” of the concentration camp dentists, predecessors of Hermann Pook, Werner Rohde , Erich Sautter , Willi Schatz , camp dentist in the Auschwitz and Neuengamme concentration camps ; Kurt Schäffer , SS-Untersturmführer Richard Schreiner , SS-Hauptsturmführer Walter Sonntag , who abused women in the Ravensbrück women's concentration camp; SS-Obersturmbannführer Gerhard Steinhardt (1904–1995), after his denazification became dean of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, received numerous honors as a university lecturer and was president of the DGZMK . His contemporaries at the time preferred to remain silent about his Nazi past. The concentration camp dentist Friedrich Weigel (1912–1995) took part in the execution of Soviet prisoners of war in the Groß-Rosen concentration camp and was awarded the War Merit Cross, Second Class. SS-Sturmbannführer Karl-Heinz Teuber (1907–1961), first camp dentist in the Auschwitz concentration camp, who was released in 1955 from prison in Krakow in the Federal Republic. He then ran a dental practice in Timmendorfer Strand until 1961 . The chief dentist of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp , Hans-Joachim Güssow , selected Soviet prisoners of war for killing according to an eyewitness report, in order to be able to deliver their complete skeletons including the jaws and teeth to the "SS-Ahnenerbe" - an SS research facility. Dentist Christian Franz Weck , SS-Unterscharführer in the Waffen-SS in the Flossenbürg concentration camp , who was involved in killings in the neck and set up his own practice in Nidda ( Upper Hesse ) in 1950 before he was convicted in 1956, or SS-Obersturmführer Ernst Weitkamp , head of the Dental station in Mauthausen concentration camp, practiced in Lübbecke from 1945 to 1967 . SS-Obersturmbannführer Hermann Pook was the chief dentist of around 100 dentists in concentration camps and practiced as a resident dentist in Hemmingstedt after the end of the war . SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Friedrich Schmidhuber was appointed to the Ordinariate for Oral, Dentistry and Maxillofacial Medicine at the University of Cologne in 1951, where he worked until his retirement in 1965. From 1955 to 1957 he was dean of the medical faculty and in 1957 rector of the University of Cologne. Within the SS, Hans Fliege , who held lectures in SS uniform, achieved the rank of SS Obersturmbannführer in early September 1944 . Heinrich Theodor Müller (1901–1985), member of the SS, Waffen-SS and SD, head of the Bonn branch of the security service. Dentist in the medical department of the " SS and Police Division Langemarck ", was involved in the execution of Polish foreign workers for alleged sexual intercourse with German women as well as in the deportation of so-called "Jewish relatives"; worked as a dentist in Gelsenkirchen from 1951 to 1982. Otto-Heinrich Drechsler (1895-1945) was a doctor of the German dentist, mayor of Lübeck and during the Second World War between 1941 and 1944 at the same time general commissioner of Latvia in the Reichskommissariat Ostland in Riga and responsible for the concentration camps in Latvia, such as the concentration camp Riga-Kaiserwald . The Waffen-SS dentist Helmut Kunz (1910-1976) was an accomplice in the murder of the Goebbels children in the Führerbunker and practiced in Freudenstadt until his death . The dentist Lothar Fendler was an SS-Sturmbannführer who was involved in the special command 4b of Einsatzgruppe C in the murder of the Jews in occupied Ukraine. Fendler was sentenced to ten years imprisonment in the Einsatzgruppen trial in 1948 , but was released in 1951. The mood at the trial and also in the German public during the first Auschwitz trial from 1963 to 1965 is clear from the fact that some police officers saluted as the accused former SS members left the courtroom.

The dental station was set up in Flossenbürg concentration camp in 1939. With SS-Obersturmführer Gustav Ochsenbrügge (1939-40), SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinrich Pütz (1940-41 and 1943-44), SS-Obersturmführer Heinrich Jäger (1941), SS-Hauptsturmführer Martin Hellinger (1941-43) and SS-Hauptsturmführer Walter Bremmer (1944–45) can be found to have five SS dentists who had an average working time of between one and two years there.

Dental professors who were members of the SS

The following are dentists who as a high school teacher during the 3rd Reich members of the Schutzstaffel were (SS) and at that time or in the adjacent periods ( Weimar Republic , post-war Germany) are technically, politically active or unable politically or were listed. The SS was the most important organ of terror and repression in the Nazi state. The SS was instrumental in the planning and implementation of war crimes and crimes against humanity such as the Holocaust . Some of the listed dental professors were also members of the SA, the Sturmabteilung , the paramilitary fighting organization of the NSDAP during the Weimar Republic, which, as a police force, played a decisive role in the rise of the National Socialists . Some of them were also party members of the NSDAP.

• Friedrich EJ Brammer (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Fritz Brosch (SS, SA)
• Hans Ludwig Rudolf Brückl (SS, SA)
• Fritz Faber (SS, SA)
• Heinrich Fabian (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Hans Fliege (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Carl August Fritsch (SS, SA)
• Carlos Fernando Geyer (SS, SA)
• Richard Grohs (SS, SA)
• Wilhelm Gröschel (SS, SA)
• Werner Gustav Emmo Hahn (SS, SA)
• Edwin Gerhard Hauberisser (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Karl Johann Wilhelm Hauenstein (SS, SA)
• Hans W. Herrmann (SS, SA)
• Adolf Flamin Klughardt (SS, SA)
• Fritz Josef August Lejeune (SS, SA)
• Rudolf Müller (SS, SA)
• Hans Pflüger (SS, SA)
• Joachim Friedrich von Reckow (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Johannes Albert Reinmöller (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Wolfgang Rosenthal (SS, SA)
• Curt Fridolin Oskar Scheidt (SS, SA)
• Hans Schlampp (SS, SA, NSDAP)
• Gerhard Steinhardt (SS, SA)
• Eugen Viktor Wannenmacher (SS, SA)

Nazi dentists who were sentenced to death

Subsequent dentists or dentists were sentenced to death for their (war) crimes during the Third Reich. Most of the judgments were passed between 1946 and 1948 by the various Allied courts.

• Kurt from the Bruch - French Court of Justice
• Fritz Geiler - French Court of Justice
• Otto Hellmuth - American Court of Justice
• Wilhelm Henkel - American Court of Justice
• Walter Höhler - American Court of Justice
• Elisabeth Johst - Soviet Military Court
• Fritz Lorenz - Soviet military court
• Ferdinand Benjamin Poupet - French Court of Justice
• Elimar Precht - French Court of Justice
• Werner Rohde - British Court of Justice
• Willy Rost - French Court of Justice
• Kurt Schäfer - French Court of Justice
• Walter Sonntag - British Court of Justice
• Ernst Weinmann - Belgrade Military Court
• Hermann Wenzel - French Court of Justice

Rating

In 1973 Walter Hoffmann-Axthelm published his two-part book The History of Dentistry , which was considered a standard work. The era of National Socialism was not mentioned in it (not even in the new edition published in 1985). In his post-war articles in the Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen (ZM) and in his autobiography there is a lack of clear text regarding the time of National Socialism. Systematic research into the medical crimes committed under National Socialism did not begin until the end of the 20th century. At first, the students felt obliged to their teachers or role models - a silence that also corresponded to the needs of the German post-war society. While some Nazi doctors evaded their responsibility by suicide at the end of the war and only a few were convicted by Allied courts, astonishingly many managed to survive the post-war period lightly, to be exonerated as followers in denazification proceedings and to continue working in their old profession. The reason why the denazification was not carried out rigidly and consistently after the war was that in this case proper teaching would not have been ensured and the health care of the population (infection protection etc.) and thus also the health of the occupiers was highest Had priority. In addition, many of those affected issued each other so-called Persilscheine . In the ranks of the professional representatives of the post-war decades there were also quite a few people who liked to hide their own troubled past or that of their troubled ancestors, which is why the Nazi past was not dealt with for a long time. A whole series of historical documents, which were initially stored under lock and key at the German Dental Association , could no longer be found “in an inexplicable way”, especially after moving from Cologne to Berlin in 2001.

Dental gold recovery

Gold teeth from prisoners, Buchenwald concentration camp after liberation, May 1945

Special units in the concentration camps were forced to prepare for the murder of the deportees , to plunder them and then to burn their bodies in the crematoria . The “recovery” consisted, among other things, of having to pull out the gold teeth of the victims, sometimes even before they were murdered. The camp dentists did not get their hands dirty and assigned prisoner dentists rounded up for this purpose, mainly from the Eastern European-Slavic area, who were called "cremation dentists". In the Treblinka extermination camp , the winner in waiting "Dentistenkommando" whose members who held down the road from the gas chambers to the pits in which the bodies were thrown, Kiefer broke up the dead and the oral cavity and other body cavities for Arts, especially gold teeth and hidden Ransacked valuables and removed artificial teeth with pliers. The prisoners had to clean the teeth extracted in this way and hand them over to the camp administration. Georg Coldewey , a camp dentist at Buchenwald concentration camp, distinguished himself by extracting gold teeth from living concentration camp inmates without anesthesia . A French study speaks of 17 tons of dental gold . It is based on the testimony before the international military court in Nuremberg by Sigismond Bendel, a deported French doctor who escaped a special detachment in Auschwitz , and on his testimony before the English military court in Hamburg (No. 11953): "The National Socialist government has declared, she is not interested in gold, but she has succeeded in extracting 17 tons from the teeth of four million corpses. ” Hermann Pook , former chief dentist in the SS headquarters, found the instruction to remove the gold teeth of the dead inmates and hand them over , nothing objectionable. Until then, around four million marks had been lost annually by leaving the gold to the dead. SS-Hauptsturmführer Bruno Melmer headed the so-called office treasury at the SS-Hauptamt, Dept. A II, and was responsible for the transfers of valuables and gold from the Nazi concentration and extermination camps, the Melmer Gold named after him, to an account of SS responsible at the Reichsbank. He worked at the interface between the murder and the exploitation of the victims' last gold remains. In 1940 the dentist Wiktor Scholz wrote his dissertation with the title: "On the possibilities of using the gold in the mouth of the dead". His work, prepared under doctoral supervisor Hermann Euler (1878–1961), was rewarded with distinction . From 1949 to 2006, the German Society for Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine (DGZMK) honored particularly deserving and outstanding personalities with the Hermann Euler Medal - in memory of his presidency in the DGZMK since 1928. Because of Euler's proven "involvement in the National Socialist purges" at the University of Breslau - he reported 16 Jewish colleagues to their persecutors and thus made himself complicit in their murder - this award has not been underlaid with his name since 2007 and has since been called the DGZMK Medal of Honor . The former Hermann-Euler-Gesellschaft , an association for dental training, also changed its name to the Dental Training Society Bochum / Recklinghausen / Dortmund .

Driving school of the German medical profession

Eugen Wannenmacher (1897–1974), editor of a commemorative publication for the 60th birthday of Hermann Euler (1938), after the Second World War long-time editor-in-chief of the magazine “Das Deutsche Zahnärzteblatt”, since 1971 honorary member of the DGZMK and from 1955 to 1966 director of the university clinic for Tooth, mouth and jaw diseases at the Westphalian Wilhelms University in Münster , was SS-Sturmbannführer , lecturer at the driving school of the German Medical Association , an institution of the National Socialist German Medical Association (NSDÄB) in the village of Alt Rehse near Neubrandenburg . The NSDÄB was the third fighting organization of the NSDAP alongside the SA and SS. The double-approved Bernhard Hörmann was a founding member of the NSDÄB in 1929 and its managing director from 1929 to 1931. In 1932 he became the first head of the public health department in the Reich leadership of the NSDAP. After the Reichstag election in March 1933 he was elected to the Reichstag as a member of the NSDAP . In 1933 he also became Reich Commissioner in the Reich Ministry of the Interior for all healing.

Member of the Reichsarzt SS office and on the Scientific Advisory Board of the General Commissioner for Sanitary and Health Care, Lieutenant General of the Waffen SS , Karl Brandt . Other dental lecturers at the “Doctors' School” were Hermann Euler, Hermann Mathis and Ernst Stuck (1893–1974), the “Reichszahnärzteführer”, head of the Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists Germany (KZVD) and responsible for the founding of the German Society for Dental, Oral and Dental Medicine Kieferheilkunde (DGfZ) involved. The main training topics were genetics , eugenics and racial studies , Nazi politics and propaganda as well as “ Jews and Freemasons ”. About 10,000 health care professionals were taught the basics of National Socialist health policy over a period of eight years in order to train them to become “leaders in the preservation, reproduction and performance enhancement of German people”.

At the beginning of the war, Stuck appealed to dentists and their patriotism : “There is not one of us who is not prepared to follow the Führer with unshakable trust and blind obedience, no matter what! ... No matter where the German dentist is ... he will do everything possible to help the Führer gain victory. Sacrifice and all kinds of privations are inevitable. They are of course accepted as a duty to be fulfilled. ” Ernst Weinmann (“ Executioner of Belgrade ”) was SS-Obersturmbannführer. Hugo Blaschke was an SS leader at the time of National Socialism and made it up to brigade leader and major general of the Waffen SS. He was Adolf Hitler's personal dentist and during the Second World War he was “Supreme Dentist” with the Reichsarzt SS Ernst-Robert Grawitz , with the rank of SS Brigade Leader . He also became Major General of the Waffen SS in 1944 . After his three-year imprisonment, Blaschke reopened his own practice in Nuremberg, where he continued to hold the doctorate and professor title awarded by Hitler. Without ever having critically questioned his own responsibility in the SS, he died in 1960 as a respected member of society.

National Socialist School Dental Care

The school dental service has "demonstrated that it has always been the philosophy of National Socialism has complied with the issues of health management." Specifically, here reference is made to Wilhelm Kessler (1898-1987), Lieutenant Colonel in the department Reichsarzt SS, in 1937, among others explains: “... A German boy, a German girl must have a clean, fresh mouth and clean teeth! When they laugh, when they speak, and when they sing, those fresh, clean, and healthy teeth must please everyone who sees them. Our leader Adolf Hitler wants a healthy youth and a healthy people. We want to help him. His will should be our will. ”And:“ The Reichsärzteführer founded a department 'Additional School Dental Care' in the Main Office for Public Health. The youth in the emergency areas of the empire are to receive dental care based on official guidelines. The NSDAP is responsible for this youth dental care. ... Everywhere in the Third Reich there is fighting for the health of our people. To be in the forefront here is the most beautiful and most satisfying task, even for the German dentist. He is fully committed to thanking his Führer Adolf Hitler and actively helping him to build the Third Reich of the Germans! "

Late commemoration

After the end of the war and the Nazi regime, the persecuted and murdered were commemorated in memorial events organized by dental corporations, for example in the Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists in Berlin and the Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists in Bavaria . In Bavaria - where memorials were also erected - the associations honored, among others, the Munich dentist and medical officer Fritz Baron , whose daughter Charlotte Stein-Pick was the wife of the Sulzbach-Rosenberg dentist Herbert Stein, the last practicing Jewish dentist in Munich.

Alfred Kantorowicz 1935

A large number of the victims can be called up in a list of names, for example Curt Bejach (city doctor in Berlin-Kreuzberg), Konrad Cohn (school dentist in Berlin and lecturer at the University of Berlin), Engelhard Decker (accusation of violating § 175 - death in police prison on March 30, 1941), Ewald Fabian (1885–1944 secretary of the Association of Socialist Doctors ), Helmut Himpel (celebrity dentist in Berlin and active in the Red Chapel ), Alfred Kantorowicz (1918–1933 full professor in Bonn and founder of the “Bonn System "Der Schulzahnpflege), Hans Mamlok (head of the Dental Training Institute and editor of the correspondence sheet for dentists), Hans Moral (professor at the University of Rostock and pioneer of local anesthesia in dentistry), Curt Proskauer (head of the Institute for the History of Dentistry in Berlin ), Paul Rentsch (member of the European Union resistance group ), Wolfgang Rosenthal (head of the surgical department of Dental University Clinic Hamburg), Hans Türkheim (Head of the Prosthetic Department of the University Clinic Hamburg).

As part of the joint research project "Dentistry and Dentists under National Socialism" by the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists (KZBV), the Federal Dental Association (BZÄK) and the German Society for Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine (DGZMK) in cooperation with the Institute for History, Theory and Ethics of Medicine at RWTH Aachen University and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, the role of dentistry in the Nazi regime has been systematically processed since September 2016. The results were presented to the public on November 28, 2019.

Development on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1945

After the end of World War II, American influences in Europe also made themselves felt in dentistry. The picture of American dentistry had changed since the 1926 Gies Report . In the 1940s, American dentistry felt at the forefront of the world, as stated in a hearing on an application for the establishment of a national dental research center ("American dentistry is second to none in the world"). Research into the use of fluoride for caries prophylaxis played a key role in this self-assessment. On the other hand, the obvious American disdain for European colleagues led to downright inferiority complexes that continued to have an effect for a long time - also in Germany.

A new beginning with the help of the occupying powers

Dental treatment room 1950

At the end of the war, German dentistry was in a pitiful state from the point of view of the Americans: “The presence of dentists in the military was far removed from the potential that had been mobilized in the USA; Dental training, whatever it was before the war, had been mercilessly sacrificed to the aims of the war; Dental techniques, sometimes born of improvisation and scarcity, don't even begin to conform to American standards; knowledge of dental disease prevention and control has not even reached what the US had a decade or more ago. As a result, the dental profession in Germany is confronted with an enormous need for rehabilitation and reconstruction that will occupy at least a generation. ”This was the conclusion in an editorial from 1946, which is accompanied by a detailed report on dentistry in war-torn Germany. This report also mentions that directors of dental university institutes in Germany had heard almost nothing of the American fluorine research. Isolation was exacerbated when the FDI (Fédération Dentaire Internationale) removed Germany (and Japan) from the list of members in 1947. On June 17, 1948, the Dental Society was founded at the University of Berlin . Georg Axhausen (1st chairman), Walter Drum (deputy chairman) and Hans Joachim Schmidt (then senior physician of the dental clinic, secretary) belonged to its board of directors . The aim of the company was to create a forum for the dissemination and discussion of scientific knowledge, while eliminating economic and political objectives. Then “Visit from America” brought a spirit of optimism to Berlin with information about American fluorine research. In view of their past ( see above ), it is remarkable, but perhaps owed to their organizational talent, that the dentists Kessler, Schmidt, Euler and Wannenmacher soon appeared as leading members of the German Fluorine Commission , which was founded in 1950 in the German Committee for Youth Dental Care (DAJ) . Corresponding members include the former NSDAP members Hans Heuser (also SA, NS Lecturers and Teachers Association) and Friedrich Proell . The fluoridation propaganda of the Americans offered the German dentists the opportunity to free themselves from isolation and to find international "scientific connection". As early as 1952, the FDI agreed to Germany's resumption and BDZ President Erich Müller promised unreserved cooperation for German dentistry. One year later, Walter Drum, founder of the specialist dental publisher Quintessenz and developer of the drum splint named after him, enthusiastically announced the victory over dental caries with fluorine .

Association foundations

Dental treatment room 2014

On March 27, 1953, the Federal Association of German Dentists (BDZ) was founded in Rothenburg ob der Tauber . With the assumption of the chairmanship of the board of directors of the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists, founded in 1954, Erich Müller became a pioneer in statutory health insurance law and dental self-administration. Müller was involved in the abolition of non-university training as a dentist (1952) and the merger of the Association of German Dentists with the VDZB to form the Federal Association of German Dentists (1953), of which he remained President until 1966. From 1990 the association was called the Federal Dental Association . Since 1993 the chamber has been called Bundeszahnärztekammer, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Deutschen Zahnärztekammern e. V. (BZÄK) , and is the professional representation of all dentists in Germany. Members of the German Dental Association are the dental associations of the federal states. The German Dental Association is not a chamber or corporation under public law , but a registered association . Dental associations are the dental self-administration of the dentists and organized as a corporation under public law. They are professional corporations and take responsibility for the tasks assigned to them on the basis of regional health professions chamber laws. The responsible state ministry in each case exercises legal supervision (but not technical supervision ). Membership is compulsory for all dentists in Germany.

Dental associations

In 1955, the system of the statutory health insurance associations (KV) was confirmed with the creation of statutory health insurance as part of the Reich Insurance Code. Doctors and dentists received the monopoly on the outpatient care of statutory insured persons with the statutory health insurance associations and the statutory health insurance associations (KZVen) and waived their right to strike. The KZVs became corporations under public law and were given the security order with which a comprehensive, local dental care of the population must be guaranteed. There is one KZV in each federal state (two in North Rhine-Westphalia). The 17 state KZVs are united in the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists (KZBV), which, unlike the German Dental Association , is also a public corporation.

In the same year, the Notgemeinschaft Deutscher Zahnärzte ( Emergency Association of German Dentists) was founded, which advocated adequate remuneration for the dental profession. The Free Association of German Dentists (FVDZ) emerged from the emergency community in 1957 , with Wolfgang Mzyk (1923–2015) being its founding father . The FVDZ campaigned for all dentists to have the right to be licensed as contract dentists and to take part in the care of those with statutory health insurance . After the reunification of Germany in 1990, the FVDZ agreed to cooperate with the newly founded East German Independent German Dental Association (UDZ). In the same year both associations merged. In the period that followed, numerous other national professional associations were founded, some of which are only active regionally.

further education

Through at least four years of further training , the field designations of specialist dentist for orthodontics , since 1975 specialist dentist for oral surgery or dentist for public health and from 1983 in the Westphalia-Lippe chamber area the specialist dentist for periodontology and since 2008 the specialist dentist for general dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine can be acquired within the scope of the State Dental Association.

The term numerus clausus in relation to maximum admission numbers was already in use before the Second World War and was also used at that time for maximum numbers for female or Jewish students. From 1965, the first admission restrictions for the degree in dentistry took place.

Tooth loss as a disease

A ruling by the Federal Social Court in 1974 assessed tooth loss as a disease in the sense of social law. The dentists and health insurances were imposed to include the supply of crowns and bridges as dental / dental technical services in the statutory health insurance . From January 1, 1975, those with statutory health insurance received dentures for the first time as part of statutory dental care. The costs for dentures were fully covered by the health insurance companies. In 1988 statutory health insurance physicians were redesigned with the introduction of Book V of the Social Security Code (SGB V). SGB ​​V replaced the previous provisions of the Reich Insurance Code (RVO). Since then, dentistry has been integrated and regulated more and more in SGB V and the subsidy from the health insurance companies has been continuously reduced through numerous health reforms . The aim was regularly to contain the cost development in statutory health insurance by stabilizing the contribution rate and thus also the ancillary wage costs , by restricting or excluding services, increasing co-payments by patients or by limiting the remuneration of dentists. Since 2005, health insurances have been reimbursing diagnosis-oriented fixed subsidies for basic dental prostheses.

Dentist at the treatment microscope

EDP ​​gradually found its way into dental practices in Germany, accelerated by the entry into force of the official, private fee schedule for dentists (GOZ) on the basis of Section 15 of the Dentistry Act (ZHG) on January 1, 1988, which included the federal fee schedule for dentists (Bugo-Z) in 1965. This in turn was preceded by the Prussian Fee Regulations (Preugo) of September 1, 1924. While the Preugo provided for different fee ranges, for example from one to twenty times the rate for consulting services , from one to ten times the rate for tooth extraction and from one to eight times the rate for the manufacture of a post crown , the Bugo-Z saw a uniform range from simple to six times the rate and the GOZ one from one to three and a half times the rate. In the GDR, the Preugo was valid until the end of 1990. The GOZ 1988 complicated invoicing so profoundly that dental accounting was hardly possible without practice management software . The GOZ was amended in 2012.

Both the admission and the authorization or the activity as a salaried dentist ended from 1992 according to § 95 Abs. 7 u. 9 SGB V when the dentist reaches the age of 68. The law for the further development of organizational structures (GKV-OrgWG) abolished the statutory 68 age limit for contract (dental) doctors on January 1, 2009. A softening of this age limit for contract doctors already took place with the Contract Doctor Law Amendment Act (VÄndG), which came into force on January 1, 2007, for underserved planning areas.

Dentists

Until 1910, the proportion of women among dentistry students was 0.4 percent, which was the average proportion of women in all subjects. By 1970 the proportion in the FRG rose to 17.3 percent. Of the around 70,000 dentists working in 2013, around 30,000 were women (43%). The future of dentistry in Germany seems to be feminine. In 2011 the proportion of female students of all dentistry students was around 61 percent. Ascending trend.

In 1999, a change in the license to practice medicine came into force, according to which the Abitur is no longer a prerequisite for admission to study dentistry. Since then, only a university entrance qualification is required.

Bundeswehr dentists

Rank badges for dentists

army

air force

marine

Dental treatment by a senior officer of the Luftwaffe on board the frigate Sachsen (F 219) .

The first approaches to specific military dental care emerged towards the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. In the First World War , dentists with the status of senior military officials were used for the first time, but their structures were overall inconsistent. The same was true in World War II , when the positions and ranks in the armed forces of the Wehrmacht did not result in a uniform picture with unclear responsibilities. Only in the Air Force were dentists integrated into the medical officer corps and treated on an equal footing with doctors.

After a dentistry department was established in the Federal Ministry of Defense in 1957 , the first dental stations were set up in March 1958. The "dental service" at that time was not yet uniformly structured in the armed forces of the army. In the meantime, the dentist groups became sub-units of the medical facilities of the Central Medical Service and worked under the professional supervision of command dentists who were subordinate to Department VI in the Medical Office of the Bundeswehr (SanABw) under the direction of the stage manager dentistry . Dental treatment units became an integral part of the field hospitals.

• 

  Chief Physician Dentistry (Air Force)

• 

  Fleet doctor dentistry

The Medical Office of the Bundeswehr was the second pillar of the Central Medical Service of the Bundeswehr (ZSanDstBw) alongside the Medical Command Command . It was dissolved as part of the Bundeswehr reform with effect from December 31, 2013. The Bundeswehr Medical Service Command (Kdo SanDstBw) is the higher command authority directly subordinate to the Federal Ministry of Defense with troop, specialist and technical management responsibility for the Central Medical Service of the Bundeswehr. The command is also the staff of the inspector of the Bundeswehr medical service . The installation took place as part of the realignment of the Bundeswehr on October 1, 2012 in Koblenz .

The stage manager for dentistry of the Bundeswehr (InspizZahnMedBw) carries out the technical supervision of the dental area of ​​the medical service of the Bundeswehr on behalf of the inspector of the medical service. As the highest-ranking dentist in the Bundeswehr, he represents his specialist area and is responsible for dental care in the Bundeswehr. The stage manager function was defined in 1965. From the introduction of the post until March 2015, the incumbent was general or admiral doctor . Since then, the function has been carried out by a dentist in the rank of senior physician or fleet physician . In the current structure, he is also the sub-department head III in the medical service command of the Bundeswehr.

The dental service is used in humanitarian missions, such as earthquake relief in the 1980 Irpinia earthquake in Italy. Since the 1990s there has been an increasing focus on UN missions, such as deployments in Cambodia from 1992 to 1993. Around 150 medical soldiers were deployed there alongside around 70 German civilians in Phnom Penh . The same applies to other UN involvement of the Bundeswehr.

Throughout Germany around 430 dentists, supported by more than 800 civil and military assistants and around 330 trainees, provide dentistry to soldiers of the Bundeswehr in around 220 locations (as of 2010). In addition, there are four foreign locations as well as the embarked dentists on the frigates , task force supplies and tenders of the Navy .

Development in the GDR

overview

Dentists in the German Democratic Republic carried the professional title of stomatologists . The course was usually concluded with a diploma thesis (Dipl.-Stom. = Diplom-Stomatologist). The study of stomatology was temporarily followed by further training as a specialist dentist for general stomatology . In addition, there was the Specialist in Kinderstomatologie , the Specialist in orthopedic stomatology , the Specialist in Social Hygiene and Dentistry surgery . (After reunification , these titles were abolished again, but may be continued.) Between 1971 and 1988, the proportion of women averaged 50.1 percent. The peak value of 77.2 percent in 1977 was reduced to 55.8 percent in 1988 through quotation by the state.

1949 to 1990

With the ordinance on the licensing of dentists of March 2, 1949, dentist training was abolished and trained dentists were transferred to the profession of dentists. Dentists had to take advanced training courses in order to obtain a license to practice medicine. The increasing nationalization of medical and dental care for the population unsettled the (still) established dentists, who were increasingly thinking of fleeing. This led to changes in 1960 by the Weimar Health Conference , which tried to prevent the resident doctors and dentists from fleeing the GDR . It was said to them, their freedom not to be restricted to improve the physical conditions and to raise the fees. Despite these promises, the flight continued, especially as more and more state dental practices were opening. According to estimates, 20,000 doctors and dentists emigrated in the 41 years of the GDR. Dentists almost exclusively had outdated equipment and dry drills, the heat of which caused severe pain.

Until 1964, only regional dental associations existed in the GDR. As part of the 1st stomatologists' congress, the German Society for Stomatology was founded on April 7, 1964. It represented the professional and professional interests of dentists until the reunification.

The Ministry for State Security (MfS) tried to recruit doctors as unofficial employees (IM) . The proportion of IM among physicians was around 3–5 percent, which is higher than in the general population. The SED and state leadership observed this professional group particularly critically. The range of activities performed by doctors offered the MfS considerable advantages, as the medical profession, like hardly any other professional group, gained deep insights into the private lives of many citizens. Slightly more than a quarter of the IM doctors violated medical confidentiality in the course of this . Others were set to spy on their colleagues. Many IM doctors were able to evade the consequences of their political actions in the GDR after reunification .

Austria

Viennese industrial coat of arms dental technician, circa 1900

Education and professional law

The training to become a dentist in Austria traditionally included studying medicine and a subsequent three-year course to become a specialist in dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine . Accordingly, the specialists for dentistry, oral medicine and maxillofacial medicine were subject to the Doctors Act and were members of the medical associations .

In the course of harmonization with EU law, a separate course in dentistry was created from 1997 (when the University Studies Act came into force ). Accordingly, only those who began studying medicine before January 1, 1994 (when Austria joined the EEA ) could complete training as a specialist in dentistry, oral medicine and maxillofacial medicine . The courses were closed by Federal Law in Federal Law Gazette I No. 91/2002 , which meant that new participants were no longer accepted.

The specialists for dentistry, oral medicine and maxillofacial medicine are on an equal footing with dentists with a degree in dentistry. In particular, you are also entitled to use the professional title “dentist”. However, you can also continue to use your previous job title.

In addition to the dentists, dental treatments can also be carried out by dentists who, after completing an apprenticeship as a dental technician, completed additional special training, which consisted of practical and theoretical content, by 1975 . The practice of the profession of dentist was regulated by the Dentists Act. There was a separate Chamber of Dentists for the dentists, independent of the Medical Association. Since 1999, dentists have been entitled to use the title “dentist”. Since the ECJ declared this regulation to be in breach of Union law, this regulation was abolished on January 1, 2006. Since then, dentists have only been allowed to use the professional title “Dentist”.

On January 1, 2006, the Dentists Act came into force, completing the separation of the professions of doctor and dentist. The Dentists Act applies to dentists, specialists in dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine and to the remaining dentists .

Dental Association

The Austrian Dental Association was established by law with effect from January 1, 2006. Up until this point in time, dentists and specialists in dentistry, oral medicine and maxillofacial medicine were members of the respective medical chambers at state level and in the various organs of the Austrian Medical Association and the medical associations in the federal states, as well as the increasingly smaller professional group of dentists in the Austrian Chamber of Dentists . With the Austrian Chamber of Dentists, a separate professional representation was established from the medical associations, in which the dentists, the specialists for dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine and the dentists are organized.

Dental association

In 1954 the Dental Association was founded, the aim of which was to bring together specialists in dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine on a voluntary basis (as opposed to mandatory membership in the medical association). In 1991 the General Assembly decided to allow dentists to join the association.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, on the one hand, an alliance was formed between human medical doctors who wanted to specialize in dental diseases, and on the other hand, advancement-oriented artisanal dentists. It organized itself for the first time in 1886 in the Association of Swiss Dentists , from which the Swiss Dental Society SSO later emerged. He successfully lobbyed the federal authorities for the legal equality of dentists with human medicine doctors, veterinarians and pharmacists. In 1888 the Federal Council and Parliament revised the Federal Act on the Free Movement of Medical Persons from 1877 and put dentists on an equal footing with other scientific medical professions. This laid the foundation for the professionalization of dentistry. After Geneva (1881), Zurich (1895) and Bern (1921), the fourth university dental institute was established in Basel in 1924 . Health insurance was conceived in Switzerland in the 1880s. It was originally intended as a compulsory basic insurance, but the compulsory insurance failed due to a referendum, so that in 1912 a much weaker form without compulsory insurance came into force. In the second half of the 20th century there were several attempts to reform this system. It was planned to introduce mandatory insurance, which was originally intended to regulate access to the health care system regardless of the ability to pay, which varies according to gender and income class. While a small revision in 1964 succeeded without being made compulsory, others failed in 1974 and 1987 in referenda. A nationwide compulsory health insurance could only be put into effect in 1996. According to Schär, the dental profession is still the only medical professional group in Switzerland whose services are not covered by compulsory health insurance. In an editorial under the title prophylaxis is the keyword , it was stated that they do not want to sacrifice the remarkable status of dentistry in Switzerland and avoid external interventions in the choice and costs of treatment. Patients' personal responsibility should not be reduced.

Specialist in oral and maxillofacial surgery

Dental treatment chair with Doriot frame and foot drive, around 1940

After the First World War, the "specialist for dental, oral and jaw diseases" was created. From 1924, the double-licensed specialists in oral and maxillofacial surgery had to complete a three-year specialist training following the two courses, which was later extended to a four-year and currently a five-year specialist training . Previously, a medical and dental license was sufficient for the title of specialist. In 1935 the first specialist regulations were issued. In April 1935, by order of the Reichszahnärzteführer, the designation “specialist dentist for maxillofacial surgery” was created and granted on the basis of several years of purely specialist activity. In 1944 the title was renamed “Specialist for jaw diseases”, but was no longer awarded after the Second World War. The professional group of specialists for dental, oral and jaw diseases was founded on 25/26. March 1950 under its chairman, Wilhelm Schwisow (1901–1980), in Göttingen the association of specialists for dental, oral and jaw diseases . In order to be represented on the scientific advisory board of the Doctors' Association, however, it was necessary to found a scientific society. The German Society for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery was founded on April 29, 1951 by Martin Waßmund, which was also named "Waßmund Society" and later "Schuchardt Society" after their respective presidents. At the time of its establishment on the occasion of a scientific conference in Bad Nauheim , the society consisted of 52 members and was initially called the German Society for Maxillofacial Surgery . In 1972 the name was expanded to include "mouth". In 2000 the German Society for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery merged with the professional association of oral and maxillofacial surgeons to bundle scientific and political interests . The association is a member of the Working Group of Scientific Medical Societies (AWMF). In addition to the oral surgical treatments, such as the operational extractions, periodontal surgery and implantology, were special surgical techniques for the treatment of jaw deformities , facial malformations , cancers , the trauma , especially the jaw and midface fractures and aesthetic facial surgery , including reconstructive surgery developed.

Specialist dentist for oral surgery

The Federal Dental Association failed in 1955 and 1956 to introduce the specialist dentist for maxillofacial surgery in Germany, which was due to the resistance of the German Society of Ear, Nose and Throat Doctors . They demanded that the oral surgeon's field of work should only be limited to the alveolar process , the tooth-bearing part of the jawbone. Twenty years later it came about on the occasion of the Federal Assembly of the Federal Dental Association on May 5th – 7th. November 1975 for the adoption of further training regulations, among other things, for the field of dental surgery - oral surgery . The reason for this was that the lack of specialists in oral and maxillofacial surgery that existed at the time should be compensated for. In 1982, a professional association of dentists for oral surgery was founded in Rhineland-Palatinate . It was from there that the initiative came to found the Federal Association of German Oral Surgeons on February 28, 1983 in Frankfurt . Honorary chairman was the mentor of oral surgery in Germany, Werner Hahn , (1912–2011, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel ). At the request of the German Dental Association, the name of the association was changed to the Professional Association of German Oral Surgeons (BDO) in 1986 . The further training to become a dentist for oral surgery lasts four years. In contrast to specialists, oral surgeons are not subject to any specialty restrictions.

literature

• Walter Artelt : The dentist in the 18th century. In: German medical journal. Volume 5, 1954, pp. 269-271.
• George Bion Denton: The Relationship Between the German and the American Dentistry. In: German dental journal. Volume 14, 1959, pp. 1196-1207.
• Ali Vicdani Doyum: Alfred Kantorowicz with special consideration of his work in İstanbul (A contribution to the history of modern dentistry). Medical dissertation, Würzburg 1985.
• Werner E. Gerabek , Gundolf Keil : Cultural History of Dentistry, I – III: A tough fight between dentists for respect and recognition. In: Dental communications. Volume 79, 1989, pp. 1872-1876, 2064-2069 and 2914-2197.
• Dominik Groß : The Difficult Professionalization of the German Dental Profession (1867-1919). In: Europäische Hochschulschriften , Series 3, History and its auxiliary sciences . Vol. 609, Verlag Peter Lang, 1994, ISBN 978-3-631-47577-5 .
• Kurt Maretzky, Robert Venter: History of the German dentist state. Cologne 1974.
• Mary Otto, Teeth - The Story of Beauty, Inequality, and the Struggle for Oral Health in America , The New Press, New York, March 14, 2017 ISBN 1-62097-144-5
• Hans Ludigs: Fluoride and the history of US dentistry, approx. 1900 to 1950 , University of Konstanz 2013. Online (pdf) . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
• Dominik Groß : The history of the dental profession in Germany . Quintessenz, Berlin 2019, ISBN 978-3-86867-411-8 .

See also

Portal: Dentistry  - Overview of Wikipedia content on dentistry

Web links

Commons : History of Dentistry  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

• History of Dentistry Timeline , American Dental Association . Retrieved November 9, 2014.
• Histoire de l'art dentaire (French), Société française d'histoire de l'art dentaire. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
• List of famous dentists , Ranker; List of famous dentists. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
• Dominik Groß: The history of the dental profession , dental communications , 12 episodes, issue 21/2015 – issue 15/2016, Deutscher Ärzteverlag Cologne. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
• Matthis Krischel, Dominik Groß: Dentists as perpetrators and persecuted persons in the "Third Reich" , continuation series in: Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, from issue 01_02 / 2020, p. 24 ff. Accessed on January 18, 2020.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Dominik Groß : The Difficult Professionalization of the German Dentistry (1867-1919). In: Europäische Hochschulschriften , Series 3, History and its auxiliary sciences . Vol. 609, Verlag Peter Lang, 1994, ISBN 978-3-631-47577-5 .
2. ↑ Terry Wilwerding: History of Dentistry 2001 ; PDF . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
3. ↑ Ralf Bröer, Medical Legislation / Medical Law. In: Werner E. Gerabek, Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil, Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. Vol. 1: A-G. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-097694-6 , p. 943, limited preview in Google Books . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
4. ↑ Axel Bauer , Karin Langsch: The establishment of dentistry at the University of Heidelberg 1895-1945. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 9, 1991, pp. 377-392; here: p. 377.
5. ↑ H.-K. Albers: Historischer Rückblick 1871–1947 ( Memento of the original from February 16, 2018 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The  archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , In: History of the University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
6. ↑ Awarding of the title . In: Government and Intelligence Journal for the Kingdom of Baiern , Nro. 55, December 28, 1825, Limited Preview in Google Books , p. 1168. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
7. ^ History of the Dental Clinic, University of Würzburg. Online . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
8. ↑ ^{a b} György Huszár, The International Significance of the Budapest Dental School ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF), lecture text on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the medical faculty in Tyrnau by the Hungarian Medical History Society at the Budapest Semmelweis Medical University, Comm. Hist. Artis Med. 57-59. P. 313. Retrieved February 2, 2017. 
9. ^ Horace Henry Hayden, Pierre Fauchard Academy, Hall of Fame. Online . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
10. ↑ Hans Ludigs: Fluoride and the history of US dentistry, approx. 1900 to 1950 , University of Konstanz 2013. Online . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
11. ^ History of studies, Justus Liebig University, Giessen. Online ( Memento of the original from March 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved January 28, 2017. 
12. ↑ ^{a b c d} Dominik Groß, Contributions to the history and ethics of dentistry , Königshausen & Neumann January 2006, ISBN 978-3-8260-3314-8 , restricted preview in Google Books , p. 192 ff. Accessed on January 28, 2017 .
13. ^ Hirschfeld-Tiburtius Symposium, Dentista. Online ( Memento of the original from August 14, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved January 28, 2017. 
14. ↑ The struggle of women for admission to studies , University Archives Gießen, Allg. No. 1283. Plate 2. Digitized version (PDF). Retrieved January 28, 2017.
15. ^ Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare (Swedish women: predecessors, successors). Lund: Signum 1990. ( ISBN 91-87896-03-6 )
16. ↑ EN King: http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/mowihsp/health/womenindentistry.htm Women in Dentistry ]} (digitized), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
17. ↑ Announcement, regarding the examination of doctors, dentists, veterinarians and pharmacists , Wikisource, Federal Law Gazette of the North German Federation Volume 1869, No. 34, pages 635–658.
18. ↑ Steffi Kubiak, Dentistry in the first half of the 19th century . In: On the development of dentistry in Halberstadt in the first half of the 19th century. Dissertation, FU Berlin, p. 32. (PDF). Retrieved January 28, 2017.
19. ↑ Karl Sauer: German Viertaljahresschrift of Dentistry , 1879
20. ↑ ^{a b c d} Dominik Groß, The solution to the dentist question ( Memento of the original from January 24, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, No. 22, 2015. Accessed January 28, 2017. 
21. ↑ Denturism in Canada , (English). The Denturist Association of Canada. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
22. ↑ The Swiss Dental Prosthetic Association ( Memento of the original from February 25, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Swiss Dental Prosthetic Association. Retrieved January 28, 2017. 
23. ↑ Frank Fiedler : Friedrich Hesse ( Memento from May 18, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) in the Upper Lusatia Biographical Lexicon . Retrieved January 28, 2017.
24. ↑ Ten new dental practitioners trained , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, Issue 23, 2008. Retrieved on February 2, 2017.
25. ^ Dominik Groß: Contributions to the history and ethics of dentistry , January 2006, Königshausen & Neumann ISBN 978-3-8260-3314-8 . Pp. 77-92. Limited preview in Google Book search .
26. ↑ Dominik Groß: Title without value? On the debate about the status of the 'Doctor medicinae dentariae' from its beginnings to the present. In: Dominik Groß and Monika Reininger (eds.): Medicine in history, philology and ethnology: Festschrift for Gundolf Keil. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2003, pp. 69–88.
27. ↑ U. Beisiegel: Doctorate in Medicine. The position of the Science Council. In: Research & Teaching 7/09, 2009, p. 491. Accessed March 3, 2017.
28. ^ Tilmann Warnecke, Anja Kühne, Doctor med.ioker . ( tagesspiegel.de [accessed January 30, 2017]).
29. ↑ Science Council criticizes the quality of the "Dr. med." In: Press release from June 30, 2009, German University Association (DHV) In: bildungsklick.de. Retrieved January 30, 2017 . 
30. ↑ Management of academic degrees and titles in Austria, European Education Group. ( Memento of the original from November 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved March 3, 2017. 
31. ^ ADA Timeline in English , American Dental Association . Retrieved March 3, 2017.
32. ↑ I Am Woman… Hear Us Roar… and See Us Do Teeth! ( Memento of the original of December 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: thesmilecenterusa.com, 2013. Retrieved March 3, 2017. 
33. ↑ 1920–1930: Les femmes luttent pour l'égalité complète . International Women's Day. (French). Retrieved March 3, 2017.
34. ^ Mémorial du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg / Memorial of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg . No. 73, October 2, 1920 (PDF) Announcement of the examination jury. P. 1163 f. (French / German). Retrieved March 3, 2017.
35. ↑ Luxemburger Wort : A short history of women's rights & achievements in Luxembourg , accessed on March 3, 2017.
36. ^ FDI Council , FDI World Dental Federation . Retrieved March 3, 2017.
37. ↑ Dominik Groß, The Difficult Professionalization of the German Dentistry (1867-1919), European University Writings, Series 3, Volume 609, Frankfurt a. M. (1994) pp. 180-198.
38. ↑ Dominik Groß: Between aspiration and reality: The importance of dental treatment measures in the early days of statutory health insurance (1883-1919). In: Würzburger medical history reports 17, 1998, pp. 31–46; here: p. 35.
39. ↑ Axel Bauer , Karin Langsch: The establishment of dentistry at the University of Heidelberg 1895-1945. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 9, 1991, pp. 377-392; here: p. 377.
40. ↑ Dominik Groß : Between aspiration and reality: The importance of dental treatment measures in the early days of statutory health insurance (1883-1919). In: Würzburger medical history reports 17, 1998, pp. 31–46; here: p. 31.
41. ↑ Germany: Development of the Health Care System . The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook. Retrieved March 3, 2017.
42. ^ On the history of the KV system , Hamburg Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians (KVH). Retrieved March 3, 2017.
43. ↑ L. Hoffmann: Dentist and dental clinics . In: The German Local Health Insurance Fund . - (1933) Vol. 28 - p. 950
44. ↑ Reinhold Schramm, Germany's dentist status in fascism , In: Achim Thom, Genadij Ivanovic Caregorodcev (ed.), Medicine under the swastika . VEB Verlag Volk und Gesundheit, Berlin / GDR, 1989, ISBN 3-333-00400-3 .
45. ^ Reichsgesetzblatt 1933 No. 90 , pp. 567-574, subject to a charge.
46. ↑ G. Tascher, Medical Profession and State Power Politics in the Period before, during and after the Nazi dictatorship (PDF) DGZMK, Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag, German Dental Journal (2011) 66 (2). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
47. ^ HJ Schmidt: Statistical studies on dental caries. Inaugural Diss. Wuerzburg 1937.
48. ^ Wilhelm Kessler: Children's dentistry. Lehmanns Verlag, Munich / Berlin 1937, p. 218.
49. ↑ Paul Neuhäußer: Holistic consideration in dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine , p. 176, in A cross section of German scientific dentistry , Festschrift Hermann Euler, Verlag Meusser, Leipzig 1938.
50. ↑ KM Hartlmaier: Restless task surrendered. Paul Neuhäusser 60 years. ZM 57 (1967) 399
51. ↑ Paul Neuhäußer: Can oral acupuncture relieve pain? ZM 72 (1982) 150
52. ↑ Bettina Wündrich: "Biological" Dentistry in National Socialism - Design and Development of a "New German Dentistry" between 1933 and 1945 and its relationship to alternative holistic dentistry today (PDF) Dissertation, summary, University of Heidelberg, October 26, 2000.
53. ↑ Alternative Dentistry in National Socialism, Part 1 , New German Dentistry , Dental Communications , Issue 18 (2004). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
54. ↑ Alternative Dentistry in National Socialism, Part 2 , New German Dentistry , Dental Information , Issue 19 (2004). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
55. ↑ -Peter Husemann, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists Berlin , The rule of the rabble has become truth, haGalil. Retrieved on January 24, 2017.
56. ^ Ordinance on the admission of dentists and dental technicians to work with the health insurance companies of July 27, 1933. - In: RGBl. I. - 1933. - pp. 541-548.
57. ↑ E. Stuck: The elimination of Jews from German dentistry . In: Zahnärztl. Mitt. 29 (1938) 47. p. 935.
58. ^ Robert Barnett: Economic Shanghai, Hostage to Politics, 1937–1941 , Institute of Pacific Relations, 1941, Shanghai, China.
59. ↑ J. Rat , 70 years later: Withdrawal of license to practice medicine 1938 , HaGalil. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
60. ↑ Eighth ordinance on the Reich Citizenship Act of January 17, 1939. - In: RGBl. I. - No. 9 of January 18, 1939. - P. 47 f.
61. ↑ Thomas Beddies, Susanne Doetz, Christoph Kopke (eds.): Jüdische, Ärztinnen und Ärzte under National Socialism; Disenfranchisement, expulsion, murder . De Gruyter Oldenburg, European-Jewish Studies, Articles Vol. 12, ISBN 3-11-030605-0 , ISBN 978-3-11-030605-7 , p. 53.
62. ↑ Enno Schwanke, dentists before, during and after the Nazi era , Institute for the History, Theory and Ethics of Medicine, Medical Faculty of RWTH Aachen University. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
63. ↑ Norbert Frei: Careers in the Twilight. Hitler's elites after 1945. Campus, 2001, ISBN 3-593-36790-4 , p. 14 ( limited preview in Google book search)
64. ^ Heidrun Graupner: The entire health care of Jews cleaned. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , July 29, 1998, in HaGalil. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
65. ↑ Xavier Riaud, study of dental practice and its degeneration in the concentration camps of Nazi Germany , Center François Viète of the Department of Science and Technology in Nantes. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
66. ↑ V. Thieme: Humiliated, degraded, mutilated - the “racial hygienic elimination” of the cleft lip and palate in the Third Reich. Study on the situation of those affected and the position of doctors in the Third Reich. In: The maxillofacial surgeon. 5, 2012, p. 62, doi: 10.1007 / s12285-011-0271-x .
67. ↑ Dominik Groß, Jens Westemeier, Lisa Bitterich: Dossier 1: The proportion of NSDAP members among dental university teachers . Retrieved December 19, 2019.
68. ↑ ^{a b} Dominik Groß, Karl Frederick Wilms Dossier 2: The presidents of the DGZMK, the honorary members of the dental professional societies and their role in the “Third Reich” . Retrieved December 19, 2019.
69. ↑ Statement by Prof. Dr. Roland Frankenberger, President of the DGZMK, on ​​the occasion of the PK “Dentistry and Dentists under National Socialism” , DGZMK press release, November 28, 2019. Accessed on February 2, 2020.
70. ↑ Dominik Groß, Otto Loos - "Reichsdozentenführer" , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, February 1, 2020, issue 03/2020. Retrieved February 2, 2020.
71. ↑ Dominik Groß, Dossier 5: The proportion of NSDAP members among the leading dental professional politicians of the post-war period . Retrieved December 19, 2019
72. ↑ "Dich ruft die SS" , editor in charge: Der Reichsführer SS, SS-Hauptamt Berlin, Hermann Hillger Verlag, Berlin 1942, web archive
73. ^ The Rubonia in Munich 1918–1923 . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
74. ↑ Peter Diem, The Development of the Swastika as the Deadly Symbol of National Socialism . Austria Forum. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
75. ↑ Summary of Barbara Huber's dissertation ( Memento of the original from March 3, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF) in Dental Notices . Vol. 99, No. 17, September 1, 2009, pp. 122-128. Retrieved January 24, 2017. 
76. ^ The perpetrators next door Badische Zeitung, May 18, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
77. ↑ Museum Stutthof (PDF) 1976, p. 23. Accessed January 24, 2017.
78. ↑ ^{a b c d e} SS cavalry brigade D . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
79. ↑ Persecuted Students - Human Rights, State, Churches, Media (PDF). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
80. ↑ Other personal injuries - known test locations . April 2004. ( Memento of March 12, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Foundation Remembrance, Responsibility and Future
81. ↑ Michael Wildt, Christoph Kreutzmüller: Berlin 1933-1945: City and Society in National Socialism . Siedler Verlag, 24 January 2013, ISBN 978-3-641-08903-0 , p. 26.
82. ^ State Museum of Auschwitz-Birkenau (ed.): Auschwitz death books . KG Saur Verlag GmbH & Company; Walter De Gruyter Incorporated, 1995, ISBN 978-3-11-096315-1 , pp. 295 ( books.google.com ).
83. ^ SS dentist Kurt Schäffer , search for traces. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
84. ↑ Wencke Fischer, the dentist Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerhard Steinhardt (1904-1995) life and work, dissertation 2004, Julius-Maximilians-Universität zu Würzburg . Retrieved February 24, 2017.
85. ↑ W. Schulz, On the organization and implementation of dental care by the Waffen-SS in the concentration camps during the time of National Socialism , dissertation, Bonn 1989, p. 107.
86. ^ Kerstin Freudiger: The legal processing of Nazi crimes . Mohr Siebeck, 2002, ISBN 978-3-16-147687-7 , pp. 256–.
87. ↑ Stefan Klemp: Concentration camp doctor Aribert Heim: the story of a manhunt . MV-Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-941688-09-4 , p. 175.
88. ↑ ^{a b} Xavier Riaud, study of dental practice and its degeneration in the concentration camps of Nazi Germany . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
89. ↑ [Wolfgang Eckart; Volker Sellin, Eike Wolgast (Ed.): The University of Heidelberg in National Socialism. Springer, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 3-540-21442-9 .]
90. ↑ Andreas Zellhuber: "Our administration is heading for a catastrophe ..." The Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories and German occupation in the Soviet Union 1941–1945. Vögel, Munich 2006, p. 132 f.
91. ↑ Child murder in the Führerbunker . ISBN 3-9810580-1-1 . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
92. ^ Records of the United States Nuremberg War Crimes Trials, Vol. 4, US Government Printing Office, District of Columbia 1950, pp. 570-573.
93. ↑ Dominik Groß, Mathias Schmidt and Jens Westemeier Dossier 4: Dentists in the Waffen-SS and in the concentration camps. Accessed on December 19, 2019.
94. ↑ Dominik Groß : Dentists in the “Third Reich” and in post-war Germany. A dictionary of persons. Stuttgart 2020.
95. ↑ See for example David Haunfelder : In memoriam Hans Schlampp (February 22, 1900 to July 21, 1962). In: German Dentist Journal - Das deutsche Zahnärzteblatt. Volume 16, 1962, p. 631.
96. ↑ Dominik Groß, Christiane Elisabeth Rinnen, Jens Westemeier, "Nazi dentists" as defendants in court , Dossier 2020.
97. ↑ Dentists as perpetrators and persecuted persons in the “Third Reich” , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen , Issue 1-2 / 2002, January 16, 2020. Accessed on January 29, 2020.
98. ↑ Stefan Paprotka, Walter Hoffmann Axthelm - Helpers of Power He knew what he was doing. , ZM, issue 07/2017, April 1, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2020.
99. ^ Walter Hoffmann-Axthelm : History of dentistry. Berlin 1973, 2nd edition 1985, Walter Hoffmann-Axthelm: The history of dentistry . Quintessence, 1985, ISBN 978-3-87652-160-2 .
100. ↑ Stefan Paprotka: Walter Hoffmann Axthelm: From NSKK standard dentist to medical historian . LIT Verlag Münster, 2019, ISBN 978-3-643-14107-1 , p. 89.
101. ^ Jens Westemeier, Mathias Schmidt, Hugo Johannes Blaschke, Hitler's dentist , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, January 1, 2017. Accessed January 24, 2017.
102. ^ Yvonne Gerz: The situation of the medical faculty in Marburg in the post-war period: 1945–1950 . Inaug. Dissertation, Marburg 2008
103. ^ Dentists: Relocation to Berlin , Deutsches Ärzteblatt, 2001; 98 (8): A-428 / B-364 / C-338. Retrieved January 28, 2020.
104. ↑ Dominik Groß, Dentists and Dentistry in the “Third Reich” - The View of the Perpetrators , RWTH Aachen University Hospital. Retrieved January 28, 2020.
105. ↑ Wolfgang Kirchhoff, Dentistry and Fascism , Mabuse-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1987, pp. 9–42. ISBN 3-925499-73-3 .
106. ^ E. Hauswand, dentists in the concentration camp: Work makes you free! , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, Zahnärzte between 1933 and 1945, Volume 8, p. 40.
107. ^ Justice and Nazi Crimes - Third Treblinka Trial: Volume 34, serial. No. 746, p. 766.
108. ^ Yves Obadia, Pratique dentaire dans les camps de concentration, Dissertation, Lyon, 1975, p. 27.
109. ↑ History of the day. Nuremberg. A dentist in Nuremberg charged. German Dental Journal 2: No. 19/20 (1947) 723
110. ↑ Gabriele Anderl, The Secret of the "Melmer" Gold. In: Berliner Zeitung , December 2, 1997. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
111. ↑ Ekkhard Häussermann, Graves Without Names, German Dentists 1933–1945 ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF) Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen zm 100, No. 6 A, March 16, 2010, (796), p. 124. Retrieved January 24, 2017. 
112. ↑ DGZMK Medal of Honor . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
113. ↑ Barbara Bruziewicz-MIkłaszewska, Odkłamywanie historii (Polish), puls 2004/09, No. 5 (166). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
114. ^ E. Wannenmacher, A Cross Section of German Scientific Dentistry , Meusser Collection, Leipzig 1938.
115. ↑ Gisela Tascher, driving school of the German medical profession in Alt Rehse near Neubrandenburg , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen , zm, issue 05/2011. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
116. ↑ Wolfgang Kirchhoff, Caris-Petra Heidel (ed.): "... totally finished with National Socialism?". The never-ending story of dentistry under National Socialism . Mabuse-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2016, ISBN 978-3-938304-21-1 , p. 49 .
117. ↑ Alfons Labisch, Florian Tennstedt: The way to the "Law on the Unification of the Health System" of July 3, 1934. Development lines and moments of the state and municipal health system in Germany, part 2. Academy for Public Health in Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf 1985, p 431.
118. ↑ Ernst Klee, Von deutschem Ruhm , Die Zeit , 40/2003, p. 4. Retrieved on January 24, 2017.
119. ^ CP Heidel: ["... primarily only for welfare and not for dentists" - "Reichszahnärzteführer" Ernst Stuck (1893–1974)]. In: NTM. Volume 15, Number 3, 2007, ISSN  0036-6978 , pp. 198-219, PMID 18348504 .
120. ↑ Caris-Petra Heidel: The contribution of the dental profession and their representatives to the implementation of National Socialist ideology and politics in dentistry . In: Wolfgang Kirchhoff, Caris-Petra Heidel (ed.): "... totally finished with National Socialism?". The never-ending story of dentistry under National Socialism . Mabuse-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2016, ISBN 978-3-938304-21-1 , p. 60 .
121. ^ V. Bienengräber, processing the history of the dental profession under National Socialism (PDF) German Dental Journal, Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag, 2011; 66 (7), p. 521. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
122. ↑ Achim Thom, Genadij Ivanovic Caregorodcev (ed.), Medicine under the swastika. VEB Verlag Volk und Gesundheit, Berlin / GDR, 1989, pp. 326–327, ISBN 3-333-00400-3 .
123. ↑ M. Deprem Hens, Hitler's personal dentist Hugo Blaschke John - a life between politics and Dentistry , German doctors-Verlag, German Dental Journal (2010) 65 (9). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
124. ^ B. Kanther, school dentist Hans Joachim Tholuck (1888–1972) and the Frankfurt system of school dental care , Matthiesen Verlag, Husum 1998, p. 159. ISBN 978-3-7868-4083-1 .
125. ^ E. Klee, Auschwitz, Nazi Medicine and its Victims , Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt 2001, pp. 140–141, footnote 5. ISBN 3-596-14906-1 .
126. ^ W. Kessler, Pediatric Dentistry , Lehmanns Verlag, Munich-Berlin 1937, pp. 178–179.
127. ^ W. Kessler, Pediatric Dentistry , Lehmanns Verlag, Munich-Berlin 1937, p. 219.
128. ↑ Short biography in: Max Kreutzberger: Leo Baeck Institute of Jews from Germany , New York 1970, page 467.
129. ↑ 70th anniversary of the withdrawal of a license to practice medicine for Jewish dentists . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
130. ↑ Biography ( Memento from January 4, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 91 kB)
131. ^ Victims of National Socialist persecution in dental professions - a provisional list of names , Association of Democratic Dental Medicine. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
132. ↑ Ekkhard Häussermann: Deutsche Zahnärzte 1933–1945 (PDF) Newsletter of the AKFOS, organ of the interdisciplinary working group for forensic odonto-stomatology of the German Society for Dental, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine and the German Society for Forensic Medicine, (2009) year 16, no 3, pp. 42-53. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
133. ^ Wolfgang Kirchhoff: Alfred Kantorowicz and Gustav Korkhaus - One topic, two world views. (PDF) (No longer available online.) Zm online, October 1, 2009, archived from the original on March 4, 2016 ; accessed on January 24, 2017 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
134. ↑ Research project “Dentistry and Dentists under National Socialism” , National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists , November 28, 2019. Accessed December 21, 2019.
135. ↑ News. Bill to aid dental research and to establish a National Institute of Dental Research introduced by Sen. James E. Murray, January 10. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 32 (1945) p. 231
136. ↑ Further testimony from hearings on dental research and grants-in-aid bills. II. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 32 (1945) 1142
137. ^ Ruth Roy Harris: Dental Science in a New Age. A history of the National Institute of Dental Research. Montrose Press. Rockville, Maryland. 1989.
138. ^ C. Bonsack: USA et Europe - Complexes d´Infériorité. Switzerland. Monthly f. Dentistry 58 (1948) p. 952
139. ↑ H. Lepp: XXIV. Italian Stomatologist Congress. German. Dental Magazine 4 (Oct. 1949) p. 1280
140. ^ Ernesto Cohn: Scientific research in Europe and in the USA. Deutsche Stomatologie 5 (1955) p. 378
141. ^ Dentistry in wartime Germany. In: Journal of the American Dental Association Volume 33, April 1946, ISSN  0002-8177 , pp. 409-445, PMID 20995991 .
142. ↑ Daily news, Fédération Dentaire Internationale (FDI) , Zahnärztl. Rundschau 56:15 (1947) 239.
143. ^ Walter Drum, visit from America , Zahnärztliche Rundschau No. 16 (August 20, 1948) p. 245 and caries prophylaxis through fluorine compounds , p. 246.
144. ↑ Walter Drum: The scientific principles of tooth protection hardening , Berlinische Verlagsanstalt, Berlin 1949, p. 22.
145. ^ DAJ: From the work of youth dental care since 1949 , German Committee for Youth Dental Care, 1974, p. 21.
146. ^ Ernst Klee: The dictionary of persons on the Third Reich . Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt 2003, ISBN 978-3-9811483-4-3 .
147. ^ John Ennis, The Story of the Federation Dentaire Internationale , FDI, London 1967, p. 144 and P. 153, ISBN 0-9503687-0-9 .
148. ↑ Walter Drum: Victory over dental caries by fluorine . Verlag die Quintessenz, Berlin 1953.
149. ↑ Christoph Benz, Müller, Erich in: Neue Deutsche Biographie 18 (1997), pp. 361–362. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
150. ↑ Medical professions chamber laws of the states
151. ↑ HKaG Art. 4
152. ↑ Annual reports of the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
153. ↑ FVDZ founding father Dr. Wolfgang Mzyk, Der Freie Zahnarzt, February 2015, Volume 59, Issue 2, p 37, doi: 10.1007 / s12614-015-5499-9 .
154. ↑ Sample further training regulations of the (PDF) German Dental Association . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
155. ^ ^{A b} H. J. Staehle: The history of specialist dentists in Germany (PDF) Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag, German Dental Journal, 2010; 65 (4). P. 208. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
156. ↑ z. B. Edith Fliess, The struggle for numerus clausus in the legal profession, Verlag Gatzer & Hahn 1933
157. ^ Joseph Lazarus, The Numerus clausus in world history, P. Reinhold Verlag, 1924
158. ↑ Jonas Kreppel, Jews and Judaism of Today, clearly presented, Amalthea-Verlag, 1925
159. ↑ 6 RKa 6/72 , Juris, BSG 6th Senate, judgment of January 24, 1974. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
160. ^ Database of the AOK Federal Association with the contents of all health reforms since 1989 with links to the laws and the justifications of laws. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
161. ↑ § 15 Dentistry Act
162. ↑ GOZ 2012 (PDF) German Dental Association . Retrieved January 24, 2017.
163. ↑ Marion Di Lorenzo, PhD dentists in the FRG and the GDR 1949–1990 (PDF) Dissertation, 2008, p. 41. Free University of Berlin. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
164. ↑ Federal Dental Association, Statistics , as of December 31, 2013. Accessed on January 24, 2017.
165. ↑ Graphic from the dental students Statista at Chance-Praxis. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
166. ↑ 50 years of dental service in the German Armed Forces , Zahnärztliche Mitteilungen, issue 13/2007. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
167. ↑ Wolfgang Barth: 60 years of dentistry in the Bundeswehr. The last 10 years - standstill or further development? In: Military Medicine. 2, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2020.
168. ↑ German participation in peace missions ( Memento of the original from March 7, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Federal Agency for Civic Education. Retrieved January 25, 2017. 
169. ↑ The Dental Service of the German Armed Forces from 1990 to the present day military medicine and military pharmacy 1/2010. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
170. ↑ Marion Di Lorenzo, Doctoral Dentists in the FRG and GDR 1949–1990 (PDF) Dissertation 2008, pp. 24–37, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
171. ↑ Monika Deutz-Schroeder, Klaus Schroeder: Social paradise or Stasi state? The GDR image of schoolchildren - an East-West comparison , Stamsried 2008, p. 203.
172. ↑ F. Weil: Doctors as unofficial employees of the State Security Service of the GDR (PDF) , in: Deutsche Zahnärztliche Zeitschrift , Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag, 2010; 65 (11). Retrieved January 24, 2017.
173. ^ Eva A. Richter-Kuhlmann: Doctors as unofficial employees: Most IM doctors spied on colleagues , Dtsch Arztebl 2007; 104 (48): A-3304 / B-2906 / C-2806, p. 22. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
174. ↑ Case C ‑ 437/03 Commission of the European Communities v Republic of Austria
175. ^ History of the Austrian Chamber of Dentists , Austrian Chamber of Dentists. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
176. ↑ History of the Dental Association ( Memento of the original from April 28, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Dental Association. Retrieved November 9, 2014. 
177. ↑ Message from the Federal Council to the Federal Assembly regarding the extension of the Federal Act on the Free Movement of Medical Staff of December 19, 1877 to include dentists, November 26, 1886, Federal Gazette of the Swiss Confederation 1886, Vol. 3, 915-920.
178. ^ History of dentistry at the University of Basel since 1888 . University of Basel. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
179. ^ Bernhard C. Schär, Karies, Kulturpessimismus und KVG: on the history of dentistry in Switzerland , Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte = Revue d'histoire, Volume 15 (2008) Issue 2, ETH library. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
180. ↑ B. Fillettaz: Prophylaxis is the watchword , Switzerland. Monthly for Dentistry, No. 5 (2011)
181. ↑ ^{a b} Walter Hoffmann-Axthelm, The History of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery , Quintessenz Verlag 1995, ISBN 978-3-87652-077-3 .
182. ↑ Wolfgang Busch, 50 years of the Federal Association of German Doctors for Maxillofacial Surgery ( Memento of the original from February 2, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , DGMKG. Retrieved January 24, 2017. 
183. ↑ Aesthetic facial surgery , DGMKG. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
184. ↑ History of Oral Surgeons , Professional Association of German Oral Surgeons. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
185. ↑ Sample training regulations (MBWO) - Orthodontics and Oral Surgery (PDF) German Dental Association . Retrieved January 24, 2017.