History of Tunisia
The history of Tunisia can be traced back around a million years using the oldest human traces, and artifacts almost 1.8 million years old were found just across the border into Algeria . The following Stone Age cultures are similar to those in Europe and around 6000 BC. Here, too, pastoral and agricultural societies prevailed against the previously dominant way of life of hunters and gatherers .
A continuity of today's Berbers is up to the time around 4000 BC. Assumed BC, whereby the desiccation of the previously fertile Sahara desert played a decisive role. The Phoenicians who lived around 1000 BC Founded the first settlements in the 3rd century BC, the Berber rulers were pushed out of the coast in a lengthy process. Around 600 BC The trading metropolis Carthage dominated the development and secured a spacious hinterland. At the latest by 580 BC it came to grief. Chr. With the Greek colonists in Sicily in conflicts that flared up again and again, which sparked off in the Carthaginian-Phoenician colonies in the west and in trade competition. From 264 BC. BC Rome and Carthage fought each other in three wars, at the end of which the African city in 146 BC Was completely destroyed.
A good century later, the city was rebuilt and soon became the capital of the Roman province of Africa . At the same time, the province became one of the most important suppliers of wheat and olive oil to Rome. Christian communities can be identified for the first time at the end of the 2nd century; the African Church produced important church fathers , including Augustine of Hippo . In late antiquity, in addition to slavery and the free peasants in the country, forms of attachment to the land appeared, such as the colonate , although a distinction was still made between free and unfree colonies around 500 ( Colon Edict of Anastasius ). The colonies and social conflicts that went along with church divisions intensified.
From 429 and 439, the Arian Vandals ruled North Africa for a century, until Ostrom recaptured the region from 533. At the end of the 6th century Carthage became the capital of an exarchate . The Muslim Arabs gained a foothold around 670 and established themselves throughout Tunisia by 701. Although the Berbers professed Islam after long struggles , they adopted a more egalitarian interpretation. In the year 800, under the Aghlabids , the region made itself independent of the Arab empire for the first time. The Berbers were nevertheless increasingly Arabized.
The Aghlabids followed, initially supported by Berber groups, by the Shiite Fatimids from 909, but in the course of the eastward expansion they shifted their focus of the empire to Egypt , so that the region of Tunisia again made itself independent under the Berber Zirids . Sicily, conquered by the Aghlabids from 827, also became largely independent. It was conquered by the Normans from 1061. In 1155 Tunisia came under the rule of the Berber empires of the Almohads and the Almoravids , but their rule was replaced in 1236 by that of the Berber Hafsids . From 1535 to 1574, Spain ruled the capital and the Hafsids were dependent on Madrid . In 1574 the dominant empire of the Ottomans took over the rule, but this gradually dissolved, so that the so-called rule of the Beys (1705 to 1957) was established, which was only replaced by France as a colonial power , albeit not formally, in 1881. France then established a protectorate in Tunisia .
France's colonial rule ended in 1956, that of the Beys in 1957, but the authoritarian ruling Bourguiba , followed by Ben Ali in 1987 , soon took power in Tunisia. When the latter was overthrown in 2011, free, democratic elections were held in Tunisia for the first time to form a constituent assembly. Since then, Tunisia has been one of the few parliamentary democracies in the region, but has been repeatedly shaken by terrorist attacks and suffers from a stagnating economy.
prehistory
With 2.2 million years, it was long assumed that the oldest finds come from Oued Boucherit (also called Ain Boucherit ), south of Ain el-Hanech (often Ain Hanech for short) in northeast Algeria, about 12 km north-northwest of El Eulma ( from 1862 to 1962 Saint-Arnaud). The first investigations took place there as early as 1931.
Artifacts in Aïn el-Hanech itself are dated around 1.75 million years ago. In addition to the remains of typical hunting prey such as rhinos and elephants, especially those of Equus tabeti , a species of horse, were found. There were striking stones (cobbles), whole splinters (flakes), various fragments and retouched workpieces.
In today's Tunisia, no remains from this early phase of human expansion have been discovered. The early fauna is documented in Ain Brimba. Some animal species have been found to migrate between southern Europe and North Africa, but they predate the earliest human traces. It is therefore not yet possible to decide whether early human forms that left Africa for Europe only migrated via West Asia or also across the Mediterranean.
Sidi Zin , the oldest site in Tunisia, is only dated to around a million years ago. There were two hand axes , a series of scrapers, and flints . Artifacts from this early phase were also found in the south of the country, such as in Sidi Mansur near Monastir .
The oldest remains of Homo erectus in North Africa, which were found around 20 km east of Muaskar in northwestern Algeria in 1954, are around 700,000 years old . The presence of Homo erectus at least 200,000 years ago is proven by the findings of Sidi Abd el-Rahmane.
100,000 years ago there was a lake with an area of 30,000 km² in the Schotts basin in southern Tunisia. The desert was at times much more humid, at times drier. A pyramidal heap of round stones and animal bones from the area of Aïn El Guettar , discovered in the 1950s near a long-dry spring, is dated to the period of the late Moustérien or des Atérien (approx. 40,000 years) ; Some researchers consider it the oldest cult site in the world.
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In North Africa, the late hand ax complexes were followed by the teeing technique , which is very similar to the southern European and Near Eastern. There are also leaf tips that belong to the later Atérien tradition. It is considered the culture of nomadic desert hunters and ended about 32,000 years ago. This Atérien, named after the Algerian site of Bi'r al-'Atir, was long considered part of the Moustérien, but is now recognized as an independent North African cultural epoch. The very high processing level of stone tools is characteristic of this time. The hunters developed a handle for tools, thus combining different materials into composite tools for the first time.
Between 15,000 and 10,000 BC The Ibéromaurusia (main site Mouilla near Oran ) spread from the west along the entire Maghrebian coast and into Cyrenaica.
It followed between 10,000 and 6000 BC. The Capsien , named after the site near Gafsa . In the south, the most important site is Jabal al-Maqta (El-Mekta) 20 km east of Gafsa in southern Tunisia. Between 9000 and 5000 BC The culture expanded northward at the expense of Ibéromaurusia. The carriers of these cultures are probably already the "Libyans" of the historical sources.
Peasants and Shepherds (from around 6000 BC)
In the 6th and 5th millennium BC The cultivation of the soil prevailed over the wild harvest. It is unclear whether the bearers of these cultures were immigrants or whether these are processes of cultural takeover. This Capsien Neolithic lasted into the first millennium BC.
There was no copper or bronze age in Tunisia due to the lack of copper deposits, so organic materials and stones were used for a longer time. The Iron Age managed without the otherwise widespread predecessor materials.
At the latest from about 4000 BC. Thereby cultures of considerable continuity can be proven, which today are addressed as Libyans or their ancestors and which have long been referred to as Berbers . However, this is not considered certain, which is why many authors prefer the old term "Libyan". Due to the adoption of the Latin word for those who did not speak Latin, namely barbari , which in turn was transferred to the non-Arabic-speaking population, the region was often referred to as "barbaric". The "Berbers" call themselves Amazigh (plural: Imazighen).
On the Djebel Gorra or in Makhtar in the central north of the country there were megalithic systems that arose between the beginning of the 3rd and the 1st millennium.
Phoenicians, Carthage (ca.1000 to 146 BC)
End of the 2nd millennium BC Chr. Were Phoenicians from Tire and Sidon to Tunisia. First they looked for bases for their trade in Spanish silver and tin. It was from here that the impulse to found a North African Phoenician empire , the Empire of Carthage, came from .
Possibly as early as 1100 BC. According to legendary tradition, the Phoenicians founded the first colony called Utica . In the year 814 BC According to this, settlers from Tire founded the city of Carthage . Queen Elyssa , sister of the King of Tire, Pygmalion , founded the city. In the middle of the 7th century there was the first news from Timaeus of Tauromenion that Carthage had occupied an island towards Spain; the oldest archaeological finds date from around 750 BC. During the Carthaginian expansion, the Numidians were pushed from the coastal areas. Sousse is thought to have been founded in the 7th or 6th century BC, as were Mogador and other cities.
Carthage succeeded in 580 BC. To defend the Phoenician colonies in western Sicily against the Greek colonies on the island. This made the city the reference point for all colonies in the western Mediterranean. Together with the Etruscans , the Greeks could also use it in 540 BC. BC off Corsica and thus largely exclude it from trade with the Iberian Peninsula. After Tire had also fallen into Persian hands, Carthage was the only Phoenician great power. Their sphere of influence was extended southward from Cape Bon to a line from Sicca Veneria (today El Kef ) to the coast to Thaenae . In the 3rd century, Theveste became Carthaginian.
Perhaps the original population was enslaved in the core area and had to pay tribute in the peripheral areas. A chain of bases reached as far as the Atlantic coast, some of them were founded by Carthage, such as Hippo Regius , and perhaps Tangier . Trade routes led south to the areas beyond the Sahara , which, presumably through intermediaries, brought goods to the coast. With the emergence of the Hellenistic states in the succession of Alexander the Great , Carthaginian trade also expanded eastward, and the merchants there were located in every major Greek city.
480 and 410 BC Carthage interfered in the conflicts between the Greeks in Sicily and suffered a heavy defeat at Himera in the former case , in the latter it won a victory which, however, conjured up decades of battles with Syracuse , such as 398–392, 382–375 or 368 BC However, the border remained the Halycus ( Platani ). In 310 the Syracusans even attacked Carthage's core area directly after the Greek army had been defeated in the Battle of Himeras . Ailymas, a Libyan king, joined the attackers under Agathocles of Syracuse , who first defeated a Carthaginian army in Africa. 309 BC The Carthaginian army also suffered a defeat in Sicily, but was still able to continue the siege of Syracuse until 307. An Etruscan fleet allied with Agathocles again defeated the Carthaginians, but Agathocles' army gradually disbanded until it surrendered. 306 BC The status quo was restored in a peace treaty.
With the Roman Empire it came from 264 BC. To three wars . During the first war, the Libyans had to give half of their harvest to Carthage, where they had to give a quarter in peacetime. Hence it came from 241 to 237 BC. A serious uprising and the rebels controlled the north of Tunisia. The Greek inscription Libyans appeared on their coins .
As early as the 6th century BC In the 4th century BC the Magonids ruled Carthage , but the kings, who were probably always elected from the same family, replaced the Sufet , who could be called judges, even if their rights went much further. Two sufets were elected each, who came from the wealthy classes. The civil and the military tasks were increasingly separated, the civil army became an army recruited on various occasions, which was released again after the end of the war. Spanish and Numidian troops served in the army, the former often as horsemen, the latter later as well.
The city walls of Carthage were 35 km long, in the most endangered section up to 12 m high and 9 m thick. Byrsa , the citadel above the city, was also heavily fortified. Strabo states that the city had 700,000 inhabitants, today it is believed to have around 400,000 inhabitants.
The supreme god was Baal Hammon , whom the Romans equated with Saturn and who was perhaps still in the 3rd century BC. Chr. Human sacrifices were brought. During the 5th century BC In BC the goddess Tanit became more and more respected. Melkart from Tire and Eschmun , who was identified with Asklepios , fell far from these two main gods .
Carthage closed in 508 BC. A first treaty with Rome, 348 and 279 others; there were no conflicts. However, when Messina died in 264 BC. Subordinate Rome to a war that lasted until 241 BC. Lasted. Carthage had to cede its colonies in Sicily, in 238 Sardinia and Corsica fell to Rome. Carthage in turn began to conquer the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula. It was able to bring the Roman Empire to the brink of defeat several times with its troops led by Hannibal , among others , during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC).
Rome committed Carthage after its final defeat in 201 BC. To restore everything to his ally Massinissa that was stolen from him or his ancestors. At the same time, the city was forbidden to wage war without the permission of the Romans. So Massinissa gradually seized her territory, Carthage's hands were tied. At the same time there were three parties in Carthage that were feuding. One was on the Roman side, one on the Numidian and the third was a people's party.
Again and again Rome decided against Carthage. But in 151 Massinissa's party was thrown out of the city and Carthage finally attacked in 150 BC. To arms. His army was defeated by Massinissa and slain by his son. Rome demanded the evacuation of the city, which the Carthaginians refused. In the Third Punic War (149–146 BC) the city was besieged and finally destroyed in a targeted manner.
Massinissa's son and successor Micipsa supported the Romans in their wars of conquest, for example in Spain. 116 BC The empire was divided between Jugurtha and Adherbal , but four years later Jugurtha had his half-brother executed. During the conquest of its capital, Cirta, Roman citizens were also killed. As a result, Rome declared in 111 BC. Jugurtha the war , in which finally 105 BC BC Rome won. This ended the founding of the first Berber state.
Roman province of Africa (146 BC to 439 AD)
After Carthage's dominion, a considerable part of Numidia was now added to the Roman province of Africa with the capital Utica .
After Gaius Julius Caesar's victory over the Pompeians and thus over Juba I , the Massylian empire was divided up and huge national estates arose. The eastern part of East Massylia became part of the Africa nova province newly created by Caesar . The western part of East Massylia, i.e. the area around Cirta , went to the adventurer Publius Sittius , who distributed the land to his soldiers and established a Roman colony , the Colonia Cirta Sittianorum . Bocchus II of Mauritania , a friend of Sittius and also an ally of Caesar in the war against Juba, received Western Massylia and Eastern Massylia, i.e. the area around Sitifis .
44 BC Caesar decided to found a Colonia in Carthage, but this was only done by Augustus from 29 BC. Was implemented. 27 BC BC Augustus united the provinces Africa vetus and Africa nova to the province Africa proconsularis . Carthage became the capital.
Africa became, along with Egypt , one of the most important suppliers of grain and olive oil to Rome, especially in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A dense network of settlements emerged, such as Thugga , Sufetula ( Sbeitla ), Bulla Regia , Thysdrus ( El Djem ) or Thuburbo Majus . The province, along with Numidia , was relatively prosperous. Jews also settled there in the wake of the Roman conquest of Jerusalem and the uprising of Bar Kochba (132–135). Many Berbers became followers of this religion. In the 2nd century Carthage was the fourth largest city in the empire after Rome, Alexandria and Antioch with over 300,000 inhabitants, and around 200 Thysdrus was the second largest city in Africa.
The province became an important source of support for emperors and counter-emperors and, in the 5th century, for dominant military leaders. In 238 in Thysdrus, where the largest amphitheater in North Africa was built, the imperial governor as Gordian I was proclaimed anti-emperor. He was followed by Gordian II and Gordian III until 244 . First, the Legio III Augusta, which had suppressed the rising of the Gordians under the Mauritanian governor Capelianus , was dissolved, which led to military problems in North Africa. 240 Sabinianus was proclaimed emperor in Carthage; his estates were near Thysdrus and his father had made his fortune by exporting olive oil to Italy. The usurpation was put down by the governor of Mauritania that same year.
Under Emperor Diocletian the province was divided, so that Byzacena in the north and Tripolitania in the east emerged. Hadrumetum became the capital of the Byzacena province and developed into the most important city in Roman Africa after Carthage.
The governor Romanus , who held the office of comes Africae from 364 to 373, was considered particularly corrupt. If one follows the late antique historian Ammianus Marcellinus , then he did not shy away from being paid by the population of his province for taking action against tribes who attacked Roman cities from the hinterland. 370 or 372 to 375, the Mauritanian prince's son Firmus , against whom Romanus had intrigued, rebelled . Against Romanus and the rebelling Firmus, Emperor Valentinian sent his general Flavius Theodosius , the father of the later Emperor Theodosius I. He refused the submission offered by Firmus. After the military defeat, Firmus took his own life. Romanus carried out the execution of Flavius Theodosius in Rome.
In 375, Gratian became Emperor of the West. When he was killed in a fight against the usurper Magnus Maximus in 383 , Italy and Africa fell to Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II. In 408, Emperor Honorius rejected an offer of peace by Alaric , whereupon the Visigoth king besieged Rome, received tribute and in 409 stood before Rome again. He urged the Senate to raise a counter-emperor who made Alaric army master. This demanded the province of Africa for itself, but after his death the Visigoths withdrew to the north.
In 423 Comes Africa Bonifatius sided with the 425 successful Valentinian III. when he had prevailed against a usurper. Although he was able to defeat Flavius Aëtius in the struggle for rule in the western empire , he died of the wounds he suffered. A few years later, Vandals and Alans began to conquer the African provinces.
In the first century, Africa covered two thirds of Rome's wheat needs. The grain came from state goods and was part of tax revenue, but significant amounts were obtained from the market. Annual production was estimated at one million tons, a quarter of which was exported. The main production areas were the Sharik peninsula, the valleys of Miliana and Majardah, and areas of a line north of Sitifis to Madauros (M'Daourouch in Algeria) were added. Figs and dates were also harvested there. In the 2nd century the production of olive oil was as important as the wheat production. This was especially true for the south of the province. In the 4th century, the region supplied oil to the entire empire, with irrigation being tightly regulated. In addition, there was cattle breeding, i.e. sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, but also horses, as well as fishing. The export of wild animals for circus performances in Rome also made use of mainly African stocks, such as leopards, lions, monkeys and elephants. Wood from the north and marble, especially from Simitthu (Shimtu), also played an important role.
Only ceramics were produced on a larger scale, which was related to oil production. In return, the wealth from export gave rise to a luxury goods industry, with mosaics in particular being very widespread. Well over 2,000 floors were discovered in North Africa that testify to this luxury.
Estimates of the population of Roman Africa vary between four and eight million, with perhaps two fifths in Tunisia. Two fifths of these two to three million people lived in cities. Carthage probably had 250,000 to 400,000 inhabitants, the next largest cities were Hadrumetum, Thysdrus, Hippo Regius and Cirta with around 20,000 to 30,000, but at times also considerably more; in the east Lepcis Magna had around 80,000 inhabitants. The cities were connected by a dense road network of around 20,000 km in length. The main export port was Carthage.
This system, which was geared towards Roman needs and was dominated by the Greco-Roman culture in the cities in particular, was opposed to a Berber system. The state development of the Berbers, which began in the 5th century BC. Had started, the Romans had ended in several wars. But there were always uprisings, such as around 45 AD, which ended mainly because Africans gained influence in the highest circles. Lucius Quitus, a Berber, was a member of the Senate, and Septimius Severus from Tripolitania even became emperor. When the Donatists emerged, especially in the 4th century, they often supported insurgent Berbers, such as 372 to 376 Firmus or 396 his brother Gildon.
Christianization (from the late 2nd century)
Carthage was the center of early Christianity in North Africa. There was already a community there at the end of the 2nd century, but it was subjected to persecution. In 180 the Scilitan martyrs were executed in Carthage , 203 more victims followed. Tertullian and Cyprian taught in the city , so that Carthage developed into a center of Christian learning; Due to its size, it was the most important bishopric in the western half of the empire alongside Rome. Cyprian was also a victim of persecution of Christians in 258. These attempts at repression ended with the Edict of Tolerance in Milan , and even those who had given in under the pressure of the persecutors often returned to the Church.
The Donatists , who go back to Donatus of Carthage , opposed this . He was primate of the group from 315 to 355. When the Roman Church took up those who had temporarily fallen away, the Donatists, who refused to take them up again, separated from the Church, which was close to Rome. A group of Donatists, the agonists , which Augustine of Hippo disparagingly referred to as "circumcellions", as "drifters", combined religious and social protest and tried to enforce their ideas of equality by force until the 7th century.
This escalation was triggered by a colonial uprising in 320. Due to the conflict with the Donatists, Augustine , who was Bishop of Hippo from 395 to 430 , became the leading figure in the African Church. He also used state violence to persecute and convert the Donatists. Ruins such as the former basilica of Carthage or the numerous churches that were built on pagan temples (such as in Sufetula ) bear witness to the importance of the African church .
Vandal Empire (439 to 535)
In the course of the Great Migration , 429 maybe 50,000 (Prokop) or 80,000 Vandals and Alans under the leadership of Geiseric crossed from southern Spain to Africa. This corresponded to a force of about 10,000 to 15,000 men. Some Berber tribes supported them, as did supporters of Donatism, who hoped for protection from persecution by the Roman state church. In 435 Rome concluded a treaty with the Vandals, in which they received the two provinces of Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, as well as Numidia .
On October 19, 439 they conquered Carthage in breach of the treaty, and the fleet stationed there fell into their hands. In 440 the first pirate voyage took place, in 441 a fleet of supposedly 1,100 transport ships assembled against the vandals. 442 had to Valentinian III. acknowledge the facts created. With the help of the fleet, the Vandals managed to conquer Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands . They sacked Rome in 455.
The Vandals hung the Arianism to, a faith that in the First Council of Nicaea to heresy had been declared. Property of the Catholic Church was confiscated in its sphere of influence. The relatively small group of conquerors sealed themselves off from the provincial Roman subjects. At the same time, the Vandal and Alan warriors received estates, for which part of the property of the provincial Roman population was divided. The colonies, which were tied to the ground, are only likely to have changed the gentlemen; the imperial goods were probably simply converted into royal goods and served the ruling dynasty. In order to create ideological brackets for the empire on the religious level, the Catholic Church was not only expropriated - at least in its core area - in favor of the Arian Church, but numerous provisions were also issued against the Catholic Church. It was not until October 454 that Deogratias, a Catholic bishop in Carthage, could be reintroduced into his office for the first time.
Nevertheless, King Geiseric behaved neutrally when Attila moved to Gaul in 451, and did not join his alliance against Rome. It was not until the murder of Emperor Valentinian in 455 that Geiseric's dynastic plans to marry his son Hunerich to Eudocia, a princess from an imperial family, were destroyed. Geiseric's understanding that he had signed the treaty of 442 with the emperor personally, not with the empire, ended his contractual relationship, and he was able to conquer and plunder Rome on June 2, 455 without breaking the treaty in his eyes. For the first time he resorted to Moors, i.e. Berbers. On his return to Carthage, Bishop Deogratias bought many prisoners free to save them from enslavement. Eudocia was married to Hunerich. Now Cirta also became part of the Vandal Empire, but at the same time the Roman territories, which had to a certain extent become ownerless, became small states of their own, which opposed the Vandal Empire in changing coalitions. In the area of Tunisia, this mainly happened around Thala in the west and Capsa in the south. Many Berbers, in turn, were recruited for the naval ventures in the western Mediterranean.
From 456 Rome struck back. Under Ricimer's leadership , his armies defeated vandal units near Agrigento and later on Corsica. Vandal-Moorish contingents were repulsed in Campania . Emperor Majorian tried to raise a Danube-Germanic army against the Vandals, possibly led by the later Saint Severinus , but treason prevented the exit from the Iberian Carthago Nova . The emperor was overthrown. Probably after this failure, the Vandals finally settled on the large islands, in 462, 463 and 465 they sacked Sicily, where they suffered a defeat in 465. The victor Marcellinus succeeded in 466 in snatching Sardinia from the Vandals, but was sidelined. Another large-scale attempt, this time by Western and Eastern Roman troops to recapture Africa, failed in 468, and another in 470 - possibly by land via Tripolitania. In 472 the imperial crown went to Hunerich's brother-in-law Olybrius for a few months , so that Sicily fell to the Vandal Empire. In 474, Constantinople King Geiseric guaranteed the possession of Africa and the islands after the eventful battles over some of the western Greek islands and an attack on Nicopolis in Epirus .
After Geiserich's death in 477 he was succeeded by his eldest son Hunerich; he fought the Catholic Church more intensely and resorted to forced baptism. Apparently the Alans and Vandals opposed his succession, so that he tried to win the provincial Romans on his side. But the Catholic Church rejected a church that was independent of Rome and was forbidden from communicating with the Roman headquarters, so Hunerich turned against them. First, Hunerich struck down the inner-Germanic opposition, including the Patriarch of Carthage Iucundus . The king put pressure on the clergy , expropriated his opponents and banished them to Sardinia. Probably at the beginning of 483 he had around 5,000 Catholic clerics arrested and deported to the south of the Byzacena , then further south to Moorish territory. At a council on February 1, 484 in Carthage, Arians and Catholics could not agree. In two edicts , Hunerich closed all Catholic churches and called for a conversion to Arianism, similar to what earlier imperial edicts against heretics had done. He forced the bishops to take an oath on his son Hilderich as heir to the throne, but then made them colonists for violating the biblical ban on oaths. Those who refused to take the oath were exiled to Corsica and subjected to heavy physical labor.
But 484 - there was an unexpected famine - Hunerich died suddenly towards the end of the year. His successor Thrasamund continued church politics, but allowed the establishment of monasteries. In 500 he married Amalafrida , the widowed sister of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric , who meanwhile ruled Italy. She brought 6,000 armed men with her, so that the Goths rose to become a kind of third Reich people. Nevertheless, the vandals lost their reputation, on the one hand because they did not support the Ostrogoths, on the other hand because they could not find any means against the Berbers, who were occupying Vandal territory piece by piece. The Albertini tablets document the unsafe situation in northwestern Tunisia around the Djebel Mrata as early as 493 to 496.
With Masuna, a "Rex Maurorum et Romanorum" appears in the sources for the first time, whose territory perhaps extended as far as the Aurès Mountains in southern Numidia. The title is an indication that the Moors in no way have to be understood as an ethnic term, but that numerous Romans can also be subsumed under it. When the Vandal king gave up the alliance with the Ostrogoth king, Theoderic planned a campaign of revenge, but he died in 526. At the same time, King Hilderic distanced himself from Arianism. The Moors, led by a certain Antalas, defeated a vandal army in eastern Tunisia. On June 15, 530 a conspiracy overturned in which a great-grandson of Geiseric named Gelimer played a central role, King Hilderic.
Soon the vandals found it difficult to defend themselves against attacks by the Moors and Berbers. Masties made themselves completely independent and ruled the hinterland. He fought the Arians and possibly had himself proclaimed emperor. When Gelimer sat on the throne, Ostrom regarded him as a usurper . In 533 16,000 men landed in Africa under the leadership of the Eastern Roman general Belisarius . The realm of the Vandals went under after the Battle of Tricamarum . But the conquest could not be finally completed until 546.
Eastern Byzantium (533 to 697)
Carthage became the seat of an Eastern Roman governor, a Praetorian prefect who was responsible for civil affairs and to whom six governors were subordinate. For the military sector, a Magister militum was appointed for imperial North Africa, to which four generals were subordinate. Although the Vandal empire collapsed within a year, there was a twelve-year resistance in Mauritania. Belisar's successor Solomon had the fortresses expanded, and he managed to recapture long-lost areas, for example south of the Aurès. Many city walls were reinforced, such as those of Thugga and Vaga (now Béja). The Louata, nomads who came from Libya and repeatedly pushed far into Tunisia, represented a particular danger. The North African Church also achieved the renewal of its old privileges around 535 and at the same time resisted the increasing influence of the Church of Constantinople. The bishop of Carthage received the dignity of a metropolitan from the emperor in 535.
The status of the peasants, who had achieved limited freedom under the Vandals, increasingly approached bondage. The attachment of the peasants to the soil, which was already legal practice in Eastern Roman times, has now been transferred to Africa. For example, Emperor Justin II transferred a corresponding novella from Emperor Justinian from 540, which was valid for Illyricum , to Africa in 570 . 582 this transfer was confirmed. This amendment, which established the status of the children of colons and free, was transferred to the province on the initiative of the Bishop of Carthage Publianus and the landowners of the Proconsularis .
The province was reorganized under Emperor Maurikios around 590 as the exarchate of Carthage , which, similar to Italy, combined military and civil powers, which was otherwise unusual in late antiquity . Carthage's urban area was shrinking, although the city was still of considerable importance, as were the urban centers as a whole. This was connected with the neglect of the province by the capital, especially since the emperors faced much closer problems in the Balkans and in Asia Minor.
The further hinterland of the provincial capital also increasingly escaped control. Initially, Berber uprisings contributed to this, such as 545-547 in Byzacena, the southern province in what is now Tunisia, 563 in Numidia, the southern and western province of Numidia Zeugitana . Under Emperor Justin II a Byzantine army suffered a defeat, 587 insurgent Berbers stood before Carthage. In 590, the Carthage Exarchate was created to pool military and civilian powers . The first exarch Gennadios (591-598) defeated the Moors. Around 600 Herakleios the Elder , the father of the emperor of the same name, became Exarch of Carthage, probably he was the successor of Gennadios. In 610 Herakleios overthrew the usurper Phocas from Carthage by traveling with the Carthaginian fleet to Constantinople. When the Persians conquered large parts of the Eastern Roman Empire from 603, like Egypt in 619, Emperor Herakleios had plans to move the capital to Carthage. It didn't come to that because he was able to defeat the Persians in 627.
From 645 onwards, a sectarian survey prepared for Islamization. In that year the Catholic patrician Gregorius rose to be emperor against the monotheletic emperor in Byzantium, against Constans II. Although he suffered a defeat against the Arab invaders under ʿAbd Allaah ibn Saʿd ibn Abī Sarh , the invaders withdrew in exchange for a high payment of tribute. According to Arab sources, he was able to muster 120,000 men, most of whom were already Berbers. Gennadios II took over the official business. The capital was relocated from Sufetula to Carthage, especially since Gregorius had arranged this relocation to protect against attacks from Constantinople, which were no longer to be feared. Maximus Confessor had been polemic against monotheletism, which was often brought with them by refugees from the eastern Roman territories conquered by the Arabs, from around 640 AD . In 645 he was able to convince the former patriarch of Constantinople Pyrrhus of his dyotheletic teaching in a public disputation . The two doctrines agreed that Jesus Christ had two natures, namely a divine and a human, but in Constantinople at that time the belief in only one will or goal prevailed, while Carthage and Rome also believed in two separate wills represented.
Under Muʿāwiya I , the Arabs resumed their expansion from 661 onwards. From 664 new Arab attacks followed. The province was recaptured when the exarch, together with the Berber prince Kusaila ibn Lemzem, defeated Uqba ibn Nafi near Biskra in 683 .
In 695 the Arabs attacked again. In 698 the general Hassan ibn an-Numan besieged Carthage with 40,000 men. Emperor Leontios sent a fleet under the later Emperor Tiberios II. They fought with varying success, but when they moved to Crete to pick up reinforcements, the besiegers succeeded in capturing and destroying the city. The Christianity of Africa disappeared in the course of the following generations, but it can still be proven in the 11th century in Kairuan.
Arab expansion, Islamization, Kharijites (from around 670)
The first Arab advances began in 647, but it was not until 661 that Bizerta was conquered in a second offensive ; the decision was made after the third offensive led by Uqba ibn Nafi in 670 and the establishment of Kairuan . This city later became the starting point for expeditions to the northern and western Maghreb. Eastern Byzantium suffered another heavy defeat in the Battle of Carthage in 689, and in 695 Carthage was conquered by the Ghassanid General Hassan Ibn Numan. The Byzantines, whose naval forces were still superior to the Arabs, attacked Carthage the next year and captured it. In 698 the Arabs conquered Carthage again and in 701 they also defeated al-Kahina . They began attacking Sicily as early as 704. Uqba's successor Abu al-Muhajir Dinar was able to win over the "Berber king" Kusaylah in Tlemcen for Islam, who dominated the Awrāba clans in the Aurès as far as the area around the Moroccan Fez . When Uqba returned to office, he insisted on direct Arab rule and moved as far as the Atlantic. On the way back he was attacked on the orders of Kusaylah and with Byzantine support and killed in a battle. Against Kusaylah, Damascus dispatched Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawī , who recaptured Kairuan and defeated Kusaylah (before 688). A second Arab army under Hassān ibn an-Nuʿmān encountered heavy resistance from the Jawāra in the Aurès from 693 onwards. They were led by Damja, who was briefly called al-Kahina, the priestess, and defeated the Arabs in a battle in 698.
In 705 the Byzantine province was converted into an Arab one, the Wilāyah Ifrīqiyyah, and thus at the same time separated from Egypt. From then on, the city of Tunis near Carthage took on the role of an administrative center. Ibn al-Nuʿmān had the construction of Tunis begin after the conquest of Carthage. About a thousand Coptic families were resettled from Egypt to expand the port there ; From 732 to 734 the Zaytuna Mosque was built over an oratory of St. Oliva from the Vandal times. For centuries the ruins of Carthage served as a quarry for buildings in Tunis, Kairuan , Sousse and other cities.
After stubborn resistance, most of the Berbers converted to Islam, mainly by joining the armed forces of the Arabs; culturally, however, they found no recognition, because the new masters viewed them with as much contempt as the Greeks and Romans once had of their neighbors, and they also adopted the Greek word barbaric for those who had not learned their language. Therefore the Imazighen (singular: Amazigh) are still called Berbers today . They were paid less in the army and their wives were sometimes enslaved, as with subjugated peoples. Only Umar II (717–720) forbade this practice and sent Muslim scholars to convert the Imazighen. In the Ribats Although religious schools have been set up, but there are numerous Berber joined the denomination of the Kharijites , which proclaimed the equality of all Muslims regardless of their race or social class. Resentment against the Umayyad rule increased. As early as 740, a first uprising of the Kharijites began near Tangier under the Berber Maysara . In 742 they controlled all of Algeria and threatened Kairuan. At the same time, a moderate branch of the Kharijites came to power in Tripolitania.
747 began the end of the Umayyad rule in Tunisia. The descendants of Uqbah ibn Nāfi, who in the meantime had become a legendary hero, the Fihrids , used the uprising of the Abbasids in the core kingdom to make Ifrīqiyyah independent. They ruled the north of the country, but the south was ruled by the Warfajūma Berbers in league with moderate Kharijites. They succeeded in conquering the north in 756. But another moderate Kharijite group, the Ibāḍiyyah from Tripolitania, proclaimed an imam who saw himself on the same level as the caliph and conquered Tunisia in 758. But the Abbasids succeeded in conquering large parts of the rebellious territory in 761, if they only succeeded in this in Tripolitania, Tunisia and Eastern Algeria.
In addition, the reign that was painstakingly restored was very fragile. Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, who commanded the army in eastern Algeria and founded the Aghlabid dynasty , gradually made the country independent, but still formally recognized the rule of the Abbasids.
Unlike the Eastern Churches (Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Greeks), which survived under Islamic rule, North African Christianity disappeared completely.
Aghlabiden (800 to 909), Kotama (approx. 900 to 911)
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In the year 800 the Abasid caliph Hārūn ar-Raschīd handed over his power over Ifrīqiya to the Emir Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab and gave him the right to inherit his function. With this the Aghlabid dynasty was founded, which ruled eastern Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania. Ifriqiya and especially Kairuan and its Great Mosque became a center of Islamic art and culture. In 876 the Aghlabids moved their capital to Raqqada , around 10 km south of Kairuan, where their summer residence was. Around 896 they moved their court to Tunis .
Most of the land belonged to large Arab landowners, while the ethnically mixed cities were burdened with high taxes. They and the Berbers invoked Islamic norms to protest against Arab dominance. Two of the four Sunni schools, the Hanafis and the Malikites , ruled the country; the former came to Tunisia with the Abbasids, but most of them were attached to the latter. They appeared from the 820s as the people's defenders against the claims of the state and made high moral demands on a just government. In order to involve them more closely, many of their leaders were employed as kadis . To prove their orthodoxy, the Aghlabids erected numerous sacred buildings, including the Ez-Zitouna Mosque of Tunis in 856 .
However, the Aghlabids were not only involved in religious and associated social resistance, but also in the resistance of the Arab warriors. This happened by steering their forces into a new phase of the expansion policy. In 827 the conquest of Byzantine Sicily began, in 831 Palermo fell and became the capital of the island. Agrigento fell in 872, Malta in 870 and Taormina in 902 .
Already in Byzantine times, Berber associations had come together to form larger domains; their leaders were called kings. Above all, the Kotama or Kutāma managed to bind the neighboring tribes to themselves. They conquered Mila in 902 , Sétif in 905, Tobna and Bélezma followed in 905, and in 909 their leader Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī (893–911) finally succeeded in conquering Kairuan and Raqqada. Finally they reached far to the west in the direction of Sidschilmasa and freed their captive Abdallah al-Mahdi , who later became the first caliph of the Fatimid dynasty. Both leaders, however, strove for secular rule, while the Berber leader only intended spiritual leadership for his ally. In a bloody revolution, the Berber rule was overturned on February 18, 911 and its leaders murdered. As a result, Arabization intensified. The Aghlabid emirate disappeared within 15 years (893–909) due to the activity of the proselytic Ismailite Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī. The new rulers took over large parts of the Aghlabid ruling apparatus.
Fatimids (909 to about 972)
In December 909, Abdallah al-Mahdi proclaimed himself caliph and thus founded the Fatimid dynasty (until 1171). He regarded the Sunni Umayyads on the Iberian Peninsula and the Sunni Abbasids as usurpers . He himself was a representative of the Ismailis , a radical wing of the Shiites . Since the middle of the 9th century, the Ismailis initially operated from their center of Salamya in northern Syria. They sent daʿis , missionaries who made contact with opposition groups in the Abbasid Empire, from 901 also with the Kutama of eastern Algeria. These eliminated the power of the Aghlabids. The Fatimid state spread its influence over all of North Africa by bringing the caravanserais and thus the trade routes with Trans-Saharan Africa under its control. In 911 they eliminated the Berbers, especially the Kutama, as rivals for supremacy in Ifriqiya. As a symbol of the new rule was the capital to al-Mahdiya on the east coast of Tunisia laid, but the dynasty failed in the introduction of Sharia ..
Under al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah , the son and successor of the founder of the dynasty, attempts to expand towards Egypt began, but failed in 914–915 and 919–921 in the battle against the Abbasids. The conquest of the western Maghreb began in 917. The capture of Fez was successful, but the Berbers of the West successfully resisted. In return, the Umayyads in Spain conquered Melilla and Ceuta in 927 and 931 . In contrast, the Takalata branch of the Sanhajah Confederation, to which the Kutama belonged, stood on the side of the Fatimids. But there could only be talk of real rule in Ifriqiya.
Ismail al-Mansur (946-953) was the successor to the second Fatimid ruler, who died in 946 . With the help of the Berber Zirids he was able to subdue the Banu Ifran: The last great revolt of the Kharijite Banu Ifran tribe under Abu Yazid was put down after four years in 947. The Banu Ifran had conquered large parts of the empire, but their coalition broke up during the siege of al-Mahdiya. Then the third Fatimid caliph took the nickname "al-Mansur". Once again a new residence was built near Kairuan with al-Mansuriya . Al-Mansur also had the remaining areas of Sicily conquered; however, the ruling Kalbites there became increasingly independent, especially after the Fatimids had conquered Egypt.
The fourth Fatimid caliph was Abu Tamim al-Muizz (953-975). From 955 he fought the Berbers and the Iberian Umayyads in the west. The conquest of North West Africa was completed in 968, and as early as 967 an armistice was agreed with Byzantium. So, relieved by internal crises in Egypt and on the Arabian Peninsula, the Fatimids succeeded in conquering the empire of the Ichschidids and territories of the Abbasids from 969 onwards. After temporary conquests in Syria, the Fatimids moved their residence to the newly founded Cairo . Tunisia again belonged to an empire that stretched from the Atlantic to Mecca and Medina .
Fatimid subsidiary center, Ziriden (972 to 1057)
In 972, three years after the region was completely conquered, the Fatimid dynasty moved its base to the east. The focus of the vastly grown empire was now Egypt, Tunisia was on the extreme western edge. In order to secure the rule there, Caliph Abu Tamim al-Muizz placed rule over Ifriqiya in the hands of Buluggin ibn Ziri , who founded the Zirid dynasty. He was the son of Ziri ibn Manad , the main Fatimid ally in Algeria and namesake of the dynasty.
The Zirids gradually gained independence from the Fatimid caliph, which ended in a complete break with the Fatimids. These took revenge for the betrayal by providing Bedouin tribes (the Banū Hilāl and Banū Sulaim ) from Egypt with property titles on land in Ifriqiya and allowing them to go against the Zirids. Kairuan, the capital of the Zirids, was subsequently conquered and sacked after five years of resistance. In 1057 the Zirids fled to Mahdia while the conquerors moved on towards what is now Algeria. There they ended the rule of the Banu Hammad, a dynasty that had made itself independent in eastern Algeria in 1015. The Zirids then tried unsuccessfully for 90 years to recapture Sicily , which had now been occupied by the Normans , and to regain parts of their former territory. In order to get rich in maritime trade, they then switched to piracy.
This extensive migration destroyed the traditional balance between nomadic and sedentary Berbers and resulted in a mix of populations. The Arab , hitherto spoken only of the urban elite and the court began, the Berber dialects influence. Conversely, the Malikites converted the dynasty largely according to Tunisian standards. This was mainly due to the scholar Ibn Abi Zayd (922–996), the author of the Risalah , a standard work of Maliki jurisprudence. Unrest broke out between October 1016 and March 1017, in which 20,000 Shiites are said to have been killed.
At the same time there were first attacks by the up-and-coming municipalities of northern Italy, above all Pisas . He managed to gain a foothold in Corsica in 1016 and in Sardinia in 1020. In 1034 there was a first attack on Ziridian territory, followed by attacks on Sicily and Mahdia (1063). In addition, the Byzantines tried to recapture Sicily from 1038 to 1043, which the Normans succeeded in 1061 to 1091.
Almohads (1155 to 1235)
Around 1035 a new religious movement arose in Mauritania within the Sanhajah Confederation under the leadership of Ibn Yasin . It was a response to the simultaneous threat from the Soninke of Ghana in the south and from Berber tribes from the north, and was influenced by Kairuan ideas. They were strict followers of the prevailing Maliki school of law, the Sanhajah of Mauritania, especially the veiled Lamtunah , formed a kind of aristocracy with numerous privileges. Above all, they held all the important state positions. Under Yusuf ibn Tashfin they conquered Morocco and from 1086 large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, their capital was Marrakech, founded in 1070 . The Malkite legal scholars often gave instructions to civil servants, so that they gained considerable power. Mystical movements from Spain and the Islamic East turned against them, which the scholars fought with the support of the dynasty.
In 1121 Ibn Tūmart , a Masmudah Berber from the High Atlas, founded a corresponding, theologically founded movement, the Almohads , for which he won the Masmuda Berber. He demanded a return to the Koran and tradition (Hadith) and against the dominance of the four schools of law; at the same time he opposed the literal interpretation of the Koran. His successor, the Qumiya Berber Abd al-Mumin (1130-1163), succeeded in conquering al-Andalus , the Muslim dominion on the Iberian Peninsula, in 1148 after conquering Fez in 1146 and Marrakech in 1147. In 1149 he overthrew the Almoravid dynasty in Morocco . The Almohads conquered the Hammadid Empire in Algeria in 1152, and finally that of the Zirids from 1155 to 1160. The Arabization of the Berbers was accelerated further by the resettlement of Arab Bedouin tribes from Ifrīqiya and Tripolitania to Morocco . The Masmudah Berbers ruled the empire, but, unlike their predecessors, they had a less clearly defined religious goal. At the same time, Sufism spread , the most important representative of which was Shubayb Abu Madyan al-Ghawth († 1197). At court, however, the sciences were cultivated. Ibn Ruschd ( Averroes ) wrote his work on Aristotle here .
When Abd al-Muʾmin made his son his successor in 1154, he also disempowered the Masmudah and had their leaders executed. In contrast, the family of Abū Hafs Umar, the later Hafsids, received some key positions. The Masmudah were initially deprived of power, but their resistance continued.
Since the first third of the 12th century, Tunisia has faced frequent attacks by the Normans from Sicily and southern Italy . In Ifriqiya, the Almohads initially waged a protracted guerrilla war against the Almoravid supporters, which ruined the economy in the eastern and central Maghreb. The economic recovery meant that the Almohad century went down in history as the Golden Age of the Maghreb , in which large cities with magnificent mosques developed and scientists like Ibn Chaldūn worked.
The last phase of Almohad rule began when the Banu Ghaniyah, who ruled Muslim Spain for the Almoravids and occupied the Balearic Islands in 1148 , conquered Algeria in 1184 and Tunisia in 1203. Although the Almohads succeeded in reconquering them from 1205 to 1207, Muhammad ibn Abi Yusuf Yaqub left a Hafsid in the eastern Maghreb before his return to Marrakech . When the minor Yusuf II. Al-Mustansir (1213-1224) came to power, new conflicts broke out and the decline of the empire continued. In the widening anarchy, the Arab Bedouins gained in importance. Until 1235, the Almohads lost control of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, Algeria to the Abdalwadids and Ifriqiya to the Hafsids . The latter also made themselves formally independent in 1229. In Algeria, too, the Almohads could no longer prevent the Banu Marin, a group of the Zanatah, from moving through northern Algeria towards Morocco and occupying Fez in 1248 . In 1269 they also took Marrakech into their hands. As early as the 1230s, another Zanatah group had conquered Tlemcen , where they ruled until the early 16th century.
Hafsiden (1236 to 1574)
As has already happened several times, the replacement from the respective large empire was based on the assignment of offices to a locally powerful family, which made itself independent and founded a dynasty. The Almohads placed the administration of Ifriqiyas in the hands of Abu Muhammad Abdalwahid . His son Abu Zakariya Yahya I released his area from the Almohad Empire in 1228 and founded the Berber or Amazigh dynasty of the Hafsids . This dynasty ruled from 1236 to 1574, but after the ruler's death abandoned the plan to subdue the entire Maghreb. The capital was relocated to Tunis, which developed rapidly due to increasing sea trade. In 1270 the city was the target of a crusade. This of Louis IX. The crusade led by France had no consequences, however, as the king died in Tunisia on August 25th.
In contrast to the Almohads and Almoravids, the Hafsids were much less involved in religious issues. They equipped their cities with madrasas , “places of learning”, or Islamic universities. The Malekite teachers were adequately equipped, but were no longer allowed to interfere in political processes and decisions. In the countryside, it was the Sufi who controlled the public forms of worship and who exercised and moderated influence on the basis of their moral authority. The tribes, on the other hand, gradually lost their influence if they could not maintain it in open military conflicts or over the court.
From the second half of the 14th century, the Hafsids slowly lost control of their territory and, especially after the lost battle of Kairuan (1348), came under the influence of the Moroccan Merinids of Abu Inan Faris . The Merinide Abu l-Hasan had conquered the kingdom of the Abdalwadids after a marriage alliance with the Hafsids and subjugated the east of the Maghreb and Tripolitania from 1346 to 1347. For their part, after the conquest of Algeciras on the Spanish mainland (across from Morocco), the Merinids were under pressure from the Reconquista states of the Iberian Peninsula from 1344 onwards . In 1348 the Merinid ruler had to flee Tunis after a severe defeat. His son Abu Inan attempted the conquest again from 1356 to 1357, but he too was subject to Arab tribal confederations in Tunisia and had to leave the country just as hastily as his father. At the same time, it was these tribes whose rivalries tore the country in two between 1348 and 1370. As a result, one ruling house resided in Bejaia in Algeria and the other in Tunis. In 1370 Abu l-Abbas Ahmad II succeeded in uniting the two domains. Despite the frequent power struggles, the stability of the dynasty allowed a constant cultural development, the most important representative of which was Ibn Chaldūn , a historian and politician born and trained in Tunis.
In 1384 the plague hit Ifriqiya with full force and contributed to the decline in population that has already been evident since the invasions by the Banū Hilāl . In 1390 a coalition of Christian powers, mainly French, English and Genoese, occupied the arsenal of Mahdia. But the branch of the Hafsiden residing in Constantine was able to secure the rule of the dynasty. In 1424 and 1432 they were able to defend themselves under Abu Faris from the threat of the Iberian kingdom of Aragon . Between 1450 and 1494 the capital was shaken by family feuds and the country by plague epidemics and famine. Nevertheless, the country achieved a supremacy in Western Islam and dominated economically and culturally. The expansion of the capital's residence was extended to the suburb of Bardo from 1410. In 1361 Tunis had about 7,000 properties, in 1516 there were about 10,000. At the same time, Moors and Jews began to immigrate from Andalusia , whose last Muslim rule had been conquered by the Spanish in 1492. Under Ferdinand II and Isabella I, the latter conquered the cities of Mers-el-Kébir , Oran , Bejaia and the island off the coast of Algiers , but also the Libyan Tripoli .
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This marked the beginning of a dependency on Spain, which was at its height from 1535 to 1574. Muley Hasan (Al-Hasan ben Muhammad), the vassal of Charles V , whom the Habsburg had reinstated, took revenge on his opponents for his deposition. This drove his son Mulay Ahmad allies into the arms so that he could disempower and blind Mulay Hassan in 1542. Mulay Ahmad was portrayed by Rubens . 27 years later he was also overthrown and had to flee to Spain.
This long period of political dependence on its opponents and the dynastic struggles sparked a cultural backlash in the Maghreb that eventually led to the rule of the sheriffs , who were actively supported by Sufis. The Moroccan Saʿdi succeeded in driving out the Portuguese until around 1550 (Agadir 1541). At the same time, the Ottoman armies advanced towards Tripolitania via Egypt, which they conquered in 1517.
The Hafsid rulers felt compelled to enlist the help of the corsair brothers Khair ad-Din Barbarossa and Arudsch . In their distress, the Hafsids allowed the corsairs to use the port of La Goulette and the island of Djerba as a base. After the death of Arudsch, his brother Khair ad-Din Barbarossa made himself a vassal of the Ottoman Sultan and was appointed by him as admiral of the Ottoman Empire . He conquered Tunis in 1534, but had to withdraw from the city in 1535 after it had been conquered by a fleet of Emperor Charles V after the Tunis campaign . Tunis was looted for three days. The Hafsids ruled Tunisia for four decades, but they were dependent on Spain before the Ottomans conquered Tunis in 1574.
Ottomans (1574 to 1790 or 1881)
In 1574 Tunis was conquered again by the Ottomans. Tunisia thus became a province of the Ottoman Empire. But the new rulers had little interest in Tunisia and their importance steadily decreased at the expense of local rulers; there were only 4,000 janissaries stationed in Tunis.
In 1591 there was a Janissary uprising, as a result of which a Dey was placed at the head of the provincial administration. A Bey was subordinate to him, who was responsible for the administration of the land and tax collection. The pasha , who was equal to the Bey, had only the task of representing the sultan. In 1612 Murad Bey founded the Muradite dynasty , but there were repeated battles for supremacy between corsairs and janissaries.
The activity of the Moriscos , who came to Tunisia from southern Spain, ensured that the influence of both groups was suppressed and that a certain economic prosperity was achieved. Nevertheless, the sums of money that European states had to pay in ransom to free prisoners remained of considerable importance.
Rule of the Beys or Husainids (1705 to 1957)
On July 15, 1705, Husain I ibn Ali made himself the Bey of Tunis and founded the Husainid dynasty . Among them, Tunisia achieved a high degree of independence, although officially it was still an Ottoman province. The Beys, who rose under the Dey and overthrew him, formally ruled until 1957. Although they recognized the religious authority of the Sultan as caliph, Tunisia was politically independent from the Ottoman Empire. They officially recognized the Hanafis as a religious authority and one of the four Islamic schools of law, but the Malikites continued to dominate in the places . The rulers had a monopoly on numerous goods in the country, but they often leased the income from them to Jews. Ottoman pressure on Tunisia finally eased when Tripolitania became independent under the Qaramanlids in 1711 .
In 1756 Ali I al-Husain was overthrown by the sons of his predecessor. They conquered Tunis with Algerian help. The new Bey was Muhammad I. ar-Rashid (1756–1759). Under Hammuda al-Husain (1782-1814) there were battles with Venice , then from 1807 to 1812 there was war with Algeria; it was ended under Ottoman mediation (ratified in 1821). The French colonization of Algeria began in 1830, and the Ottomans occupied Tunis in 1835.
Ahmad I al-Husain , who ruled from 1837 to 1855, initiated a push for modernization. This was characterized by reforms such as the abolition of slavery and the adoption of a constitution. In 1856, Christians, Jews and Muslims were legally equated. In 1860 the first constitution in the Arab world, albeit short-lived. The representative of the Beys in Paris was the former Abkhazian slave Hayreddin Pasha , who received an excellent education, was released and rose to be President of the Tunis High Council. In 1871 he returned the country to the sultan's suzerainty and began a series of reforms. However, he was dismissed in 1877 and failed as Grand Vizier of the Sultan in Constantinople-Istanbul due to internal resistance as well as in Tunis.
France took advantage of the fact that Tunisia was consolidated internally, but weak externally to expand its rule. From 1881 to 1883 it forced the country onto the status of a protectorate, which amounted to indirect rule while retaining the Beys.
National bankruptcy, French protectorate (1881 to 1956)
Economic difficulties forced the government to declare bankruptcy in 1869 and to set up an international British-French-Italian finance commission. France relied on the neutrality of Great Britain, which wanted to prevent Italy from taking control of the sea route via the Suez Canal , and also on the German Chancellor Bismarck trying to divert France's attention from the Alsace-Lorraine issue.
In mid-1878 representatives of the major European powers, namely the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy and Russia as well as the Ottoman Empire met in Berlin. At this meeting, the Berlin Congress , Great Britain declared its readiness to accept a French takeover of Tunisia in order to be able to take over Cyprus without French interference. This, in turn, was accepted by the Ottomans in order to prevent the great powers from intervening in favor of Russian expansion claims and possible further territorial losses.
Raids by looters from Kroumirie into Algeria, which had been French since 1830, provided the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry with the pretext to annex Tunisia. In April 1881, French troops entered Tunisia and captured the country within three weeks. On May 12, 1881, Bey Muhammad III. al-Husain forced to sign the Bardo Treaty . Mansour Houch uprisings around Kairuan and Sfax a few months later were suppressed. The Treaty of La Marsa of June 8, 1883 gave France far-reaching powers in Tunisia's foreign, war and domestic policy. France incorporated the country into its colonial empire and subsequently also represented Tunisia in foreign policy. The Bey had to surrender almost all of its power to the President General . Banks and companies emerged, the agricultural area was expanded, and in 1885 considerable phosphate deposits were discovered in the Seldja region . After the construction of some railway lines (see History of the Railway in Tunisia ), phosphate and iron ore mining began. A bilingual education system was introduced.
In 1907 French educated Jeunes Tunisiens turned against French colonial rule. There were four uprisings, the first of which began in 1915 under the leadership of Mohamed Daghbaji (he was executed in 1924). In 1920 the Destour or Constitutional Party came into being, and in 1934 the Neo Destour Party under Habib Bourguiba .
1930 Tahar Haddad (1899-1935) defended himself in his work on women and the Sharia (al-Tahir Haddad: Imra'atunā fī al-sharī'a wa-al-mujtama , 1930) against what he believed to be the wrong interpretation of the Koran that forbids the oppression of women. He called for a ban on the whole-body veil, offense and polygyny and all the customs that were the cause of the country's backwardness at the time. He also called for education and training for girls and protection against forced marriage.
Holocaust and World War II
France was preparing for war in Tunisia by building fortresses. So from 1936 to 1939 the Mareth Line against the Italian Libya was created. Initially, however, after the rest of France had been occupied by Germany, Tunisia was subject to the Vichy regime , which on October 3, 1940 subjected the Jews there to a new statute. From November 30th, they were gradually excluded from public life. Jewish doctors were banned from treating non-Jewish patients, their organizations dissolved, their press suppressed - only Le Petit Matin was allowed to continue, labeled as a Jewish newspaper. This was followed by the confiscation of their property and property, but the local administration delayed implementation. 123 of the 425 registered doctors in the country were Jews. Their number was limited to a maximum of 5%, so that about 100 of them lost their license to practice medicine; later, after protests, they were only allowed to treat Jews.
On October 22, 1942, Rome demanded that the Italian Jews, often merchants from Livorno , called Grana , be spared , in contrast to the Twansa . Since the 19th century a distinction has been made between the two main groups of the Twansa, who were considered natives and used Hebrew as the language of the liturgy, and who recorded their strongly Arabic language in Hebrew script. The Grana, on the other hand, were divided into two groups, the "old Livornese" and the "young". The former originally kept their account books in Portuguese, but were heavily Arabicized and Italianized. The young Livornese also learned French and brought strong Italian cultural impulses to the group of the "old".
In addition to the Jews, there were between 96,000 and 120,000 Italians in Tunisia, plus 13,000 Maltese. Moncef Bey , who ascended the throne on June 19, 1942, had no interest whatsoever in stirring up ethnic conflicts that also reached Tunisia as a result of the Palestinian conflict . Rather, he was suspicious of those who had taken French citizenship.
On November 9, 1942, German and Italian troops marched into Tunisia, and a week later they were victorious in the battle of Medjez-el-Bab. This completely changed the situation in the country. General Walther Nehring, as Commander Tunisia, imposed a fine of 20 million francs on the Jewish community, as “ international Jewry ” was responsible for the Anglo-American landing in North Africa. In violation of international law, he let the Jewish population do forced labor to build fortifications. On December 6, 1942, the Service du travail obligatoire was set up, which was responsible for forced labor. Rudolf Rahn claimed the " solution of the Jewish question " as his responsibility for the German foreign office . A system of labor camps was created, organized by Theo Saevecke . Over 2500 Jews died within six months, and the Wehrmacht also participated in executions. There were no more mass murders only because of the different interests of Vichy, Italy and the leadership of the Africa Corps.
In the Tunisian campaign , the Allies defeated the German occupiers. This ended the campaign in Africa , which lasted from September 9, 1940 to May 13, 1943. It had taken its starting point in the Italian-British fighting on the Libyan-Egyptian border, in which German troops had intervened on the side of the Italians.
Struggle for independence (around 1911 to 1956)
In 1907 Béchir Sfar, Ali Bach Hamba and Abdeljelil Zaouche founded the reformist intellectual movement Jeunes Tunisia . It showed its organizational power in the Djellaz affair in 1911 and in the boycott of the tram in Tunis in 1912. From 1914 to 1921, Tunisia was in a state of emergency, in which the freedom of the press was restricted. Towards the end of the First World War, a group around Abdelaziz Thâalbi founded the Destur party . After its foundation on June 4, 1920, it announced an eight-point program. The lawyer Habib Bourguiba , who had attacked the protectorate regime in magazines, founded the magazine L'Action Tunisienne together with Tahar Sfar , Mahmoud Materi and Bahri Guiga in 1932 , which, in addition to independence, also advocated secularism . This position led to the split of the Destour party at the congress of Ksar Hellal on March 2, 1934. The Islamist wing stayed with the old name Destour , the modernist and secular wing was called Néo-Destour . He got himself an organization based on the model of European socialist parties.
After the failure of negotiations with the Léon Blum government , bloody incidents broke out in 1937 , culminating in the unrest of April 1938 . Their suppression led to the fact that the Néo-Destour moved its fight underground. In 1940 the Vichy regime extradited Bourguiba to Italy at Mussolini's request . However, Bourguiba called on August 8, 1942 for support for the Allies . The Allied campaign in Tunisia forced Axis forces to surrender on May 11, 1943 at Cape Bon .
After the Second World War negotiations were held with the French government and Robert Schuman in 1950 indicated a gradual independence of Tunisia; However, nationalist disputes led to the failure of these negotiations in 1951.
After the arrival of the new General President Jean de Hauteclocque on January 13, 1952 and the arrest of 150 Destour members on January 18, an armed uprising began. After the murder of the trade unionist Farhat Hached by the colonialist extremist organization La Main Rouge , there were rallies, strikes and sabotage. France mobilized 70,000 soldiers to bring the Tunisian guerrilla groups under control. Only the assurance of internal autonomy by Pierre Mendès France on July 31, 1954 defused the situation. On July 3, 1955, Tunisia's Prime Minister Tahar Ben Ammar and his French counterpart Edgar Faure signed the Franco-Tunisian treaties. They were accepted by the Congress des Neo-Destour on November 15th in Sfax . On March 20, 1956, France recognized the independence of Tunisia, although it kept the military base in Bizerta . Paris wanted to concentrate its forces on Algeria, where the war, which lasted from 1954 to 1962, escalated. According to official figures, it killed 17,459 French soldiers, the rebels estimated their losses at 300,000, and estimates range up to two million deaths. 90% of the more than one million French settlers left the country.
Independence (1956), Bourguiba government (until 1987)
On March 25, 1956, the constituent national assembly was elected. The Néo-Destour won all seats. Bourguiba took over the parliamentary presidency, on April 11th he was proclaimed prime minister. Active and passive women's suffrage was introduced on June 1, 1959. On the basis of an ordinance, women exercised the right to vote and stand for election for the first time in city council elections in May 1957.
The Civil Status Act was passed on August 13, the monarchy was abolished on July 25, 1957, and Tunisia became a republic . King Lamine Bey , the last ruler of the Husainid dynasty , which ruled Tunisia since 1705 , is declared deposed. Bourguiba was elected the first President of the Republic of Tunisia on November 8, 1959.
On February 8, 1958, in the middle of the Algerian War, aircraft of the French armed forces bombed the Tunisian village of Sakiet Sidi Youssef ( Bombardment of Sakiet Sidi Youssef ). More than 70 residents died in the attack and 130 were injured. In 1961, Tunisia demanded the return of the Bizerta military base. A war broke out ( Bizerta crisis ), which, according to the lowest figures, cost 632, after the highest 5,000 Tunisians, and 24 or 27 French people. The base was returned on October 15, 1963.
After the murder of Salah Ben Youssef, the most important opposition activist since 1955, and the ban on the Communist Party on January 8, 1963, the Republic of Tunisia became a one-party state led by Neo-Destour. In March Ahmed Ben Salah initiated a socialist policy and largely nationalized the Tunisian economy. In 1969, Ben Salah was fired after rioting over the collectivization of agriculture. Tunisia and Libya were to be united in 1974 under the name Arab Islamic Republic ; this project was soon dropped.
The sentencing of Ben Salah to a long prison term ushered in a period in which the liberal wing of the party now renamed PSD , led by Ahmed Mestiri , gained the upper hand. Bourguiba was made president for life in 1975, the UGTT trade union federation gained a certain degree of autonomy during the government of Hédi Nouira , and the Human Rights League was founded in 1977.
At the beginning of the 1980s the country fell into a political and social crisis, the causes of which can be found in nepotism and corruption , in the paralysis of the state in view of Bourguiba's deteriorating health and in succession struggles. In 1981, the partial restoration of the pluralistic system raised hopes, but these were already destroyed by the election fraud in November of the same year. The bloody crackdown on the Bread Riots in December 1983, the renewed destabilization of the UGTT and the arrest of its chairman Habib Achour contributed to the overthrow of the president and the rise of Islamism .
Ben Ali government (1987 to 2011)
On November 7, 1987, Prime Minister Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali deposed the President on the grounds that he was senile. In December Ben Ali fired six of the nine Politburo members of the ruling Parti Socialiste Destourien (PSD) and replaced them with confidants. At the end of 1987, 2,500 prisoners, including 600 Islamic fundamentalists, were released. In terms of foreign policy, Ben Ali relied on closer cooperation with the Maghreb states and resumed the diplomatic relations with Libya that had broken off in 1985.
Ben Ali was elected on April 2, 1989 with 99.27% of the vote. He fought radical Islamism; the Ennahda party was politically sidelined, tens of thousands of Islamists arrested and sentenced to prison terms. The regime restricted civil rights and expanded this instrument to include radical Islamists. Secular oppositionists founded the Pacte national in 1988, a platform with the aim of democratizing the regime.
In the 1994 presidential election, Ben Ali was re-elected with 99.91% of the vote, and he also won the October 24, 1999 election. The 2002 constitutional amendment increased the president's power. On April 21, 2002, there was a serious attack on the El Ghriba Synagogue , in which 21 tourists died, 14 of them from Germany. About 30 other people were injured, some seriously.
In 1995 Ben Ali signed a free trade agreement with the European Union. Tunisia has been associated with it since 2008.
During Ben Ali's reign, the population, which tripled to over 10 million between 1956 and 2010, continued to grow, albeit at a slower pace, so that the long-term trend towards the conversion of forest to agricultural areas accelerated considerably. In 1922 only about 12,000 km² of the national territory was used for agriculture, by the year 2000 it was already 50,000 km². As a result, Tunisia lost 60% of its forest area between 1940 and 2000, which in turn led to wild populations being decimated. The annual population growth decreased to 1.0% until 2007/11.
Overthrow of Ben Ali and political transition
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Mohamed Bouazizi , a 26-year-old greengrocer, died on January 4, 2011 as a result of self-immolation which he inflicted on December 17, 2010 in protest against the arbitrary abuse of the authorities . Protest rallies soon made demands for freedom of the press and freedom of expression, mixed with criticism of corruption and censorship, of the kleptocracy in the vicinity of Ben Ali.
In January 2011, the government imposed a curfew on the capital and some suburbs. President Ben Ali responded to the Jasmine Revolution , named after a place south of Hammamet , by declaring a state of emergency . Although he announced new elections, he fled the country on January 14, 2011.
The Constitutional Council transferred the duties of office to the President of Parliament Fouad Mebazaa on an interim basis after Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi briefly led them. The transitional government formed under Ghannouchi announced freedom of the press and the release of all political prisoners. On February 3, interim president Mebazaâ announced the election of a constituent assembly which, it was said, would initiate the final break with the Ben Ali system.
The elections to the Constituent Assembly took place on October 23, 2011 and were the first free elections in Tunisia. Most of the votes were received by the Ennahda party, which is considered to be moderate Islamist . The task of the assembly elected for a year is to organize presidential and parliamentary elections. Until then, Moncef Marzouki was appointed the new interim president. Until a final constitution was drawn up, a transitional constitution was voted on, around whose more secular, religiously neutral, moderate Islamist or Salafist orientation the disputes came to a head in early 2012.
The government of the Ennahda party was heavily criticized and held responsible for the murders of two opposition politicians. The unstable situation brought about a compromise between the government and the opposition through the mediation of the trade unions: a transitional government was formed and new elections were held in 2014. Beji Caid Essebsi , who died in office in 2019 , won the presidential election in November / December 2014 ; the secular party Nidaa Tounes , to which Essebsi belonged , won the parliamentary election in October 2014 .
literature
Overview works
- Amy McKenna (Ed.): The History of Northern Africa. The Rosen Publishing Group, New York 2010. ISBN 978-1-61530-397-7
- Paul Sebag : Tunis. Histoire d'une ville. L'Harmattan, Paris 2000, ISBN 2-7384-6610-9
- Paul Sebag: Histoire des Juifs de Tunisie. Des origines à nos jours. L'Harmattan, Paris 1991. ISBN 978-2-7384-1027-6
- Harry H. Johnston: A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-23128-2
Prehistory and early history
- Clémentine Gutron: L'archéologie en Tunisie (XIXe-XXe siècles). Jeux généalogiques sur l'Antiquité. Paris / Tunis 2010. ISBN 978-2-8111-0396-5
- Katherine E. Hoffman, Susan Gilson Miller: Berbers and Others. Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib. Indiana University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-253-22200-8
- Heinz Günter Horn , Christoph B. Rüger : The Numid. Horsemen and kings north of the Sahara. Exhibition catalog Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn , Rhineland, Cologne 1979, ISBN 3-7927-0498-6 ( Art and Antiquity on the Rhine 96 ).
- Dexter Hoyos: A Companion to the Punic Wars. John Wiley & Sons, Oxford a. a. 2011. ISBN 978-1-4051-7600-2
- Werner Huss : History of the Carthaginians . CH Beck, Munich 1985.
- Gerald Schuster: The Bedouins in the prehistory of Tunisia. The Banu Hilal "invasion" and its aftermath. Schwarz, Berlin 2006. ISBN 978-3-87997-330-9
Rome, Vandals, Byzantium
- Helmut Castritius : The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues. Kohlhammer-Urban, Stuttgart 2007 (from p. 76). ISBN 978-3-17-018870-9
- François Baratte: The Romans in Tunisia and Libya. North Africa in Roman times. Zabern's illustrated books on archeology, Darmstadt / Mainz 2012, ISBN 978-3-8053-4459-3
- Leslie Dossey: Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London 2010. ISBN 978-0-520-25439-8
- Abdelmajid Ennabli (ed.): Pour sauver Carthage: exploration et conservation de la cité punique, romaine et byzantine. Paris / Tunis 1992, ISBN 92-3-202782-8
- Charles-André Julien : Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc des origines à la conquête arabe (647 ap. J.-C.). Payot, Paris 1961.
- Walter Emil Kaegi: Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-19677-2
- Dennis P. Kehoe: The Economics of Agriculture on Roman Imperial Estates in North Africa , Habil., Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988. ISBN 978-3-525-25188-1
- Anna Leone: Changing Townscapes in North Africa from late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest. Edipuglia, Bari 2007. ISBN 978-88-7228-498-8
- Claude Lepelley: Africa . In: Ders .: Rome and the Empire in the High Imperial Age 44 BC. - 260 AD. The regions of the empire. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2001, pp. 79–120. ISBN 978-3-598-77449-2
- E. Lennox Manton: Roman North Africa. Trafalgar Square, London 1988, ISBN 978-1-85264-007-1
- Georges Tirologos (ed.): L'Afrique du Nord antique. Cultures et paysages, Colloque de Nantes - May 1996 , Presses Univ. Franche-Comté, 1999. ISBN 978-2-913322-47-9
- Christian Witschel: On the situation in Roman Africa during the 3rd century , in: Klaus-Peter Johne, Thomas Gerhardt, Udo Hartmann (eds.): Deleto paene imperio Romano. Transformation processes of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century and their reception in modern times. Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, pp. 145-221. ISBN 978-3-515-08941-8
Muslim dynasties and minorities, Ottomans
- Mohamed Talbi : L'Émirat aghlabide. 184-296 / 800-909. Histoire politique. Paris 1966.
- Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Ed.): Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2011. ISBN 978-0-253-22225-1
- Ramzi Rouighi: The Making of a Mediterranean Emirates. Ifrīqiyā and its Andalusis, 1200-1400. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2011. ISBN 978-0-8122-4310-9
- Pierre Grandchamp: Étude d'histoire tunisienne XVIIe-XXe siècle. Paris 1966.
- Néji Djelloul: Les fortifications cotières ottomans de la Régence de Tunis. Fondation Temimi pour la Recherche Scientifique et l'Information, Zaghouan 1995.
- Daniel Panzac: Barbary Corsairs. The End of a Legend 1800-1820. Brill, Leiden 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12594-0
- Bice Salama: L'insurrection de 1864 en Tunisie. Tunis 1967.
- Salvatore Speziale: Oltre la peste. Sanità, popolazione e società in Tunisia e nel Maghreb (XVIII-XX secolo). Pellegrini Editore, Cosenza 1997. ISBN 978-88-8101-040-0
- Robert Brunschvig: La Berberie orientale sous les Hafsides des origines à la fin du XVe siècle , 2 vols., Paris 1940, 1947.
Recent history
- Laurent Fourchard, Marie-Emmanuelle Pommerolle: Politique Africaine. La Tunisie en révolution? , Paris 2011, pp. 23-67. ISBN 978-2-8111-3353-5
Web links
- North Africa , Encyclopedia Britannica
- Bibliography du Maghreb antique et médiéval
Remarks
- ↑ On the prehistory of Algeria cf. Ginette Aumassip: L'Algérie des premiers hommes , Paris 2001.
- ↑ Ginette Aumassip: L'Algérie des premiers hommes , Paris 2001, p. 122.
- ^ M. Sahnouni, J. de Heinzelin: The Site of Aïn Hanech Revisitid: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria , in: Journal of Archaeological Science 25 (1998) 1083-1101.
- ↑ John J. Shea , John G. Fleagle, Andrea L. Baden: Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia , 2010, p. 193.
- ↑ The site was discovered in 1947. See Camille Arambourg: Du Nouveau a l'Ain Hanech , in: Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de l'Afrique du Nord 43 (1952) 152-169. The old age of the sites has meanwhile been questioned: Denis Geraads, Jean-Paul Raynal, Vera Eisenmann: The earliest human occupation of North Africa: a reply to Sahnouni et al. (2002) , in: Journal of Human Evolution 46 (2004) 751-761. In contrast, Merouane Rabhi: Étude de l'Industrie Lithique du level "A" de Ain Hanech: Approche Expérimentale , in: Athar, Revue Scientifique d'Archéologie et du Patrimoine, Institut d'Archéologie, Université d'Alger, 8 (2009) 13 -37.
- ↑ Howell FC, G. Petter: Machairodus africanus Arambourg, 1970 (Carnivora, Mammalia) du Villafranchien d'Ain Brimba, Tunisie , in: Bulletin du Musée d'Histoire Naturelle 9 (1987) 97-119.
- ↑ John J. Shea, John G. Fleagle, Andrea L. Baden: Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia , 2010, p. 36.
- ^ EG Gobert: Le gisement paléolithique de Sidi Zin , in: Karthago, Vol. 1, Tunis 1950.
- ↑ Eric Delson, Ian Tattersall, John A. Van Couvering, Alison S. Brooks: Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory , New York 2000, p. 473.
- ↑ There are three lower jaws, a parietal bone and a few teeth. The group was initially assigned to an Atlanthropus mauritanicus , later to Homo erectus. The tools belong to the Acheuleans .
- ↑ Nick A. Drakea, Roger M. Blenchb, Simon J. Armitagec, Charlie S. Bristowd, Kevin H. White: Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert , in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 , 2 (2011) 458-462, here: p. 461.
- ↑ N. Aouadi-Abdeljaouad, L. Belhouchet: Recent Prehistoric Field Research in Central Tunisia: Prehistoric Occupations in the Meknassy Basin , in: African Archaeological Review 25,1-2 (2008) 75-85.
- ^ John Donnelly Fage , Roland Anthony Oliver (Eds.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 266.
- ↑ JD Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 262.
- ↑ Ahmed Moro, Bernard Kalaora: Le désert. De l'écologie du divin au développement durable , Paris 2006, ISBN 2-7475-9677-X , p. 110.
- ↑ Ghaki Mansour: Le nouveau monument megalithic de Makthar: préliminaire Rapport , in: Reppal X (1997) 63-72.
- ↑ On this war cf. B. Dexter Hoyos: Truceless War. Carthage's Fight for Survival, 241 to 237 BC , Leiden 2007.
- ^ Amy McKenna (Ed.): The History of Northern Africa , The Rosen Publishing Group, New York 2010, p. 13.
- ↑ Bruce Maddy-Weitzman: The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States , University of Texas Press 2011, pp. 17f.
- ↑ The Punic Mausoleum of Dougga (French)
- ↑ Wolfgang Kuhoff: Sufetula: The change of an urban center in late Roman Africa , in: Detlev Kreikenbom , Karl-Uwe Mahler, Patrick Schollmeyer , Thomas M. Weber (ed.): Crisis and cult. The Middle East and North Africa from Aurelian to Justinian , de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, pp. 279–315.
- ↑ Joseph von Kolb: Sabinianus. A forgotten Roman emperor , Vienna 1878.
- ^ Karlheinz Dietz: Senatus contra principem , Beck, Munich 1980, p. 337.
- ↑ Hsain Ilahiane: Historical dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen) , Scarecrow Press, 2006, p XVIII.
- ↑ Dominique Borne, Benoît Falaize: Religions et colonization. Afrique-Asie-Océanie-Amériques XVIe-XXe siècle , Editions de l'Atelier, Paris 2009, p. 129.
- ^ David E. Wilhite: Tertullian the African , Berlin 2007 interprets it much more ethnically and socially.
- ↑ On the disputes between the African churches cf. Brent D. Shaw: Sacred Violence. African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine , Cambridge University Press 2011.
- ↑ After Victor von Vita . Compare Jakob Haury: About the strength of the Vandals in Africa , in: Byzantinische Zeitschrift 14 (1905) 527f.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 79.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 96.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 100-102.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 107.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, map on p. 111.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 113f.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 126.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 128–130.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 131.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 132.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 135.
- ^ Alfred Louis Delattre : La Basilique de Damous El-Karita à Carthage , Constantine 1892, p. 10.
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws, CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 105–107.
- ^ Franz Dölger, Peter Wirth, Andreas E Muller (eds.): Regesta of the imperial documents of the Eastern Roman Empire: Regesten 565 - 867 , CH Beck, Munich 2009, n. 65, p. of August 11, 582. The bishop is referred to there as "antistes Carthagensium civitatis".
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws , C. H: Beck, Munich 2007, p. 85.
- ↑ Theological Real Encyclopedia . Study edition, de Gruyter, Berlin 1993, pp. 687f.
- ↑ G. Camps: Essai de cartographie culturelle: A propos de la frontière de Numidie et de Maurétanie , in: Claude Lepelley, Xavier Dupuis (ed.): Frontières et limites géographiques de l'Afrique du Nord antique. Hommage à Pierre Salama , Paris 1999, pp. 43–70, here: p. 55.
- ↑ François Decret: Les invasions hilaliennes en Ifrîqiya, Clio, September 2003
- ↑ Alexandre Lézine: Mahdiya , Klincksieck, Paris 1965, p. 137.
- ^ Jonah Steinberg: Isma'ili Modern. Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community , University of North Carolina Press 2011, p. 37.
- ↑ Article Tunis , in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Vol. VIII, Col. 1093-1095, here: Col. 1095.
- ^ Peter C. Sutton, Marjorie E. Wieseman: The Age of Rubens , 1993, p. 235.
- ^ Hendrik Lodewijk Wesseling: Divide and rule: The partition of Africa 1880-1914 , Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-515-07543-7 , p. 23ff.
- ^ Philippe Conrad: Le Maghreb sous domination française (1830–1962) , January 2003.
- ^ Richard H. Curtiss: Women's Rights. An Affair of State for Tunisia , in: Suha Sabbagh: Arab Women. Between Defiance and Restraint , Northampton, Massachusetts: Olive Branch Press, 1996, pp. 33-40, here: p. 34.
- ↑ Itzhag Avrahami: Le mémorial de la Comunauté Israélite Portuguaise: Les Granas, 1710-1944 , Lod 1997th
- ^ Raul Hilberg: The Destruction of European Jews , Volume 2, Fischer Taschenbuch 1990, ISBN 3-596-24417-X , p. 6860
- ↑ Klaus-Michael Mallmann , Martin Cüppers : Half moon and swastika. The Third Reich, the Arabs and Palestine , Darmstadt 2006.
- ^ Algeria ( Memento of February 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), University of Hamburg, archive.org, February 16, 2008.
- ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 385.
- ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Accessed November 13, 2018 .
- ↑ Le bombardement de Sakiet Sidi Youssef , in: Jeune Afrique, February 5, 2007.
- ^ Mohamed Lazhar Gharbi: Historiographie de la Tunisie contemporaine. Une colonization et une décolonization “en douceur” in: Les Cahiers de Tunisie LVI, n ° 189-190 (2004) 29-42.
- ↑ The CIA World Fact Book names between 2.0 and 2.1 births per woman for the years 2007 to 2010.
- ^ David P. Mallon, Steven Charles Kingswood: Antelopes. North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia , International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland / Cambridge 2001, p. 30.
- ↑ World Bank estimates .
- ↑ First constant penance, then a slap in the face , in: Tages-Anzeiger of January 21, 2011.
- ^ Pierre Tristan: Wikileaks Cable: Tunisian Corruption and President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali , Internet portal About.com , accessed on May 13, 2012.
- ↑ Transitional President appointed - military intervenes
- ^ Government wants freedom of the press and amnesty RP ONLINE , January 17, 2011
- ^ Tunisia on the way to a new constitution ( memento of January 17, 2012 in the Internet Archive ), in: Zeit online , February 4, 2011.
- ↑ Tunisia goes to the first free election , in: Spiegel online, October 23, 2011.
- ↑ Islamists win by a large margin , in: Süddeutsche Zeitung, October 28, 2011.
- ^ Transitional constitution in Tunisia adopted in: Rheinische Post Online, December 11, 2011.
- ↑ 14 shots against democracy , in: Die Zeit, July 26, 2013.
- ^ Tunisia's government ready to resign , in: Die Zeit, September 28, 2013.
54 African member states of the United Nations:
Egypt |
Algeria |
Angola |
Equatorial Guinea |
Ethiopia |
Benin |
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