KV62
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KV62 |
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| place | Valley of the Kings |
| Discovery date | November 4, 1922 |
| excavation | Howard Carter |
| Previous KV61 |
The following KV63 |
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KV62 (KV as an acronym for Kings' Valley) refers to the tomb of Tutankhamun in Egyptology in the Valley of the Kings in West Thebes . In the order in which the tombs in the valley were discovered, it is the 62nd ancient Egyptian tomb and is located in the eastern area of the royal necropolis. KV62 was discovered on November 4, 1922 on behalf of his financier George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon , usually referred to only as Lord Carnarvon, by the British archaeologist Howard Carter .
The discovery turned out to be a royal tomb , because due to the cartouche (name ring) with the throne name Neb-cheperu-Re of Tutankhamun , which was next to prints of the royal necropolis at the walled grave entrance, the burial place could clearly be this king of the late 18th dynasty ( Neues Empire : 1550 to 1070 BC, 18th to 20th Dynasty). KV62 was only partially robbed and already closed twice in ancient times.
The tomb of Tutankhamun, who lived from around 1332 to 1323 BC. Ruled, remains a popular burial site in Egypt thanks to its discovery that was effective in public and in the media, with a partially preserved grave treasure and the intact burial of an ancient Egyptian king . KV62 attracted thousands of visitors during the entire excavation period. The evacuation, registration and conservation of the found objects as well as the cleaning of the grave took around ten years to complete. The excavation period was not only overshadowed by the death of Lord Carnarvons in 1923, but was repeatedly accompanied by disputes with the antiquities administration (also antiquities administration - at the time Service d'Antiquités ). A total of 5398 objects were recovered, some of which are now exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo or have been stored in the museum's magazines since the grave was discovered. Few pieces can be seen in the Luxor Museum . In the course of the construction of the Grand Egyptian Museum, it is planned to present the entire grave treasure there to the public after appropriate restoration. Tutankhamun's mummy is the only one of an ancient Egyptian king that has remained in the Valley of the Kings since it was buried and also after its discovery. From 1926 it rested in the closed, outer gilded wooden coffin in the sarcophagus in the burial chamber, which had been covered with a glass plate. Today the mummy can be seen, covered up to the head and feet, in the antechamber of the tomb in an air-conditioned glass case.
Howard Carter's notes, drawings and diary entries were handed over to the Griffith Institute in Oxford by his niece, Phyllis Walker, after his death in 1939 and have been kept there since then, like some of the negative films by photographer Harry Burton . The remaining negatives are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, for which Burton worked. For archiving and preparation for the Internet was Egyptologist Jaromir Málek responsible. 95% of the documentation on the excavation is freely accessible to everyone on Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation . Carter's excavation diary is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
discovery
prehistory
The collaboration between Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon , whom Carter had met through Gaston Maspero , began in 1907. Howard Carter was firmly convinced that Tutankhamun's tomb was to be found in the Valley of the Kings. In his opinion, there were several indications for this. Among other things, he was able to identify artifacts with the cartouches of Tutankhamun during his excavation campaign from 1905 to 1906 . As further evidence for a burial of the Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings, Carter also used a small faience beaker with the name Tutankhamuns found in 1905 by the American lawyer Theodore M. Davis , as well as embalming material from the grave KV54 ("embalming depot"), also discovered by Davis in 1907 . Davis himself held this deposit for the tomb of Tutankhamun and had this conclusion published as a result in The Tomb of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou in 1912 . In addition , gold foils could be assigned to the king and his court official Eje from grave KV58 ("chariot grave "), also discovered under Davis in 1909 . The name of Ankhesenamun , Tutankhamun's great royal wife , can also be read on one of these gold foils.
Theodore M. Davis finally declared the Valley of the Kings after many successful years and a less productive excavation in his publication The Tomb of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou as archaeologically exhausted: I fear that the Valley of the Tombs is now exhausted. During the excavation season from 1913 to 1914, he returned his license for the area after working in the Valley of the Kings for more than twelve years. Thereafter, Lord Carnarvon had received permission from the Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte , now the Supreme Council of Antiquities , to carry out excavations in the Valley of the Kings. The excavation license was signed on April 18, 1915 by Georges Daressy and Howard Carter. Work in the Valley of the Kings could not start until 1917 because of the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. By then, Carter had followed all known leads to Tutankhamun and began his systematic search for the grave from 1917. The results of the excavations from 1917 to 1921 were, however, sparse. Between the graves of Ramses II ( KV7 ) and Ramses VI. ( KV9 ) Howard Carter cleared a workers' settlement for Carnarvon and then focused on the surrounding areas when Lord Carnarvon decided in 1921 to terminate the financing agreement. Carter offered to self-finance the dig and ascribe a possible discovery to Lord Carnarvon . This consented at the end of a last excavation season from the following year.
The year in which Carter continued his work for Lord Carnarvon for a final dig in the Valley of the Kings was also a turning point in the history and politics of Egypt . The country gained independence from Great Britain as a kingdom in 1922 and was no longer under British rule . From its founding in 1859 to 1952, the Egyptian antiquities administration was under French and from 1953 ( Republic of Egypt ) exclusively under Egyptian leadership.
Grave of the bird
The local workers gave grave KV62 the name " Tomb of the Bird" or "Tomb of the golden bird". This name goes back to the canary that Howard Carter brought to his house from Cairo to el-Qurna (Gurna) during this excavation season. Carter was so taken with the bird's song in a cafe in Cairo that he bought it from its owner. When asked why he had bought a bird of all things, he answered: “As a friend in the loneliness of the desert.” Carter writes that when he reached Thebes , the bird sang most beautifully and at that moment he thought: “The grave of a bird! ”His employees were also fascinated by the animal and its song, and the workers called it a good luck charm after discovering the first stages of KV62.
After the arrival of Lord Carnarvon and evacuation of all levels, the "lucky bird" is said to have been eaten by a cobra . That was a bad omen for the workers involved in the grave , as this snake ( Wadjet ) was the country goddess for Lower Egypt , alongside the vulture ( Nechbet ), the country goddess for Upper Egypt , a protective symbol of an ancient Egyptian king. Later the death of the canary became part of the Pharaoh's curse . It was important for Howard Carter to reassure his employees and workers and to reassure them that this event was not due to a curse . He told them the bird would be back. After a telegram, Lady Evelyn, Lord Carnarvon's daughter, finally brought another canary with her to Thebes on November 24, 1922.
The discovery
Howard Carter wrote about the search for Tutankhamun's tomb: “At the risk of being accused of post factum prediction, I would like to say that we definitely had the hope of finding the tomb of a particular king, namely that of Tut-ankh-Amen. "
Carter arrived in Luxor on October 28, 1922 , with the excavation season scheduled to begin on November 1. On November 4, 1922, a worker came across a step in the excavation area. After the top step was discovered, rubble was removed from the site. Carter found several intact seals at the top of a bricked-up wall. These "stamp impressions", usually referred to as seal impressions , have the shape of a cartridge . It depicts the god Anubis as a jackal lying over nine prisoners, the so-called nine arches (enemies of Egypt). This seal of the necropolis was a sign of the intactness of a grave, which the responsible overseers of the “city of the dead” had attached after the burial. It was also used after a grave was looted or restored when the grave was closed again. Carter then sent a telegram to Lord Carnarvon:
At last have made wonderful discovery in Valley a magnificent tomb with seals intact recovered same for your arrival congratulations.
“I finally made a wonderful discovery in the valley. Magnificent grave with intact seals. Covered up again until you arrive. Congratulations. "
Until the arrival of Lord Carnarvon, the exposed access was backfilled with rubble. The Lord and his daughter, Lady Evelyn Herbert, arrived in Luxor on November 23rd and 24th .
Legend of the boy who found the grave
The "worker" who found the grave was a child who brought water to the excavation site for the workers and the excavation team. So that a clay water jug had a firm footing in the ground, a hollow had to be made to put it in. The "water boy" came across stone and discovered the first step. In 1925, Harry Burton photographed the young Hussein Abd el-Rassul with a wide necklace with scarabs and sun discs (JE 61896) that had been found in the treasury. According to Zahi Hawass, this was a privilege that could only be bestowed on Howard Carter, who did so to pay tribute to the boy for the discovery.
Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun was not an unknown king due to various finds prior to the discovery of KV62. The archaeological evidence so far, however, did not allow any conclusions to be drawn about his life and work as a ruler. A king named Amentuanch was first mentioned in 1845 by Christian Karl Josias von Bunsen in Egypt's place in world history . Henri Gauthier placed Tutankhamun in the line of kings after Semenchkare and before Eje at the end of the 18th dynasty in 1912 . He ruled from about 1332 to 1323 BC. BC and was born in Achet-Aton ("Horizon of Aton"), the capital newly founded by Akhenaten. Because of his childhood age when he ascended the throne (8-10 years old) and the young age at death (17-19 years), he is usually referred to as the "child king" ( Boy King ).
Tutankhamun's predecessor
Tutankhamun's predecessors after Akhenaten were rulers with the proper names Se-mench-ka-Re-djeser-cheperu ("Consolidated with Ka-forces of Re (and) holy apparitions") and Nefer-neferu-Aton ("The beauties of Aton are beautiful "/" The perfection of the aten is perfect "). Both kings had the same throne name Anch-cheperu-Re ("Living are the appearances of Re"), which either stand alone next to the proper name or are accompanied by epithets (adjectives) that clearly belong to Akhenaten:
- Anch-cheperu-Re meri-wa-en-Re : Anch-cheperu-Re, loved by the only one of the Re ( wa-en-Re is part of the name of the throne name of Akhenaten)
- Anch-cheperu-Re meri-nefer-cheperu-Re : Anch-cheperu-Re, loved by Nefer-cheperu-Re ( Nefer-cheperu-Re is Akhenaten's throne name)
In the case of identical throne names of kings, the determination of an ancient Egyptian king is difficult if the proper name is missing and there are no other indications for a clear identification. The same throne name also exists for a female ruler ( Anchet-cheperu-Re ), characterized by the female T-ending, with epithets identical to Akhenaten. Rolf Krauss sees Akhenaten and Nefertiti's first-born daughter Meritaton in this person . The order of the kings before Tutankhamun is indicated differently in the chronologies . The Krauss dating takes into account Meritaton before Semenchkare without Neferneferuaton, others do not name Meritaton in the position of a king and either list Semenchkare before Neferneferuaton or both together, or Semenchkare after Neferneferuaton.
If Semenchkare is spoken of in relation to Tutankhamun's grave treasure, the throne name Ankh-cheperu-Re is usually meant. Like the proper name Neferneferuaton, this can be found on objects from KV62. According to Christian E. Loeben , Semenchkare's personal name is difficult to read on a vase made of calcite (Egyptian Museum Cairo, JE62172, Carter no. 405). According to him, the names (throne and proper names) of Semenchkare and Akhenaten can be read here, while previous name reconstructions, including those of Howard Carter, of a common mention of Akhenaten and his father Amenophis III. went out and raised the question of a co-regency of father and son.
The name of Tutankhamun
The original proper name of Tutankhamun, "Living Image of Amun" ( Tut-anch-Amun - Twt-ˁnḫ-Jmn ), was Tutanchaton, "Living Image of Aton" ( Tut-anch-Aton - Twt-ˁnḫ-Jtn ). At what time the name change took place is unknown, but probably before the change of residence from Achet-Aton to Memphis . As with Akhenaten, only the proper name was changed, the throne name ( Neb-cheperu-Re - Nb-ḫprw-Rˁ ) remained.
An ancient Egyptian king had a so-called " royal statute ". This consisted of five names, which together represented a kind of "government program" of the ruler. He received the proper name at birth, the Horus , Nebti , Gold , and throne names at the accession to the throne . The name (ancient Egyptian ren ) of a person or of things was of particular importance in ancient Egypt because it was what made existence possible. Only what could be mentioned by a name actually existed and would last. The name was an essential part of a person's being and as important as Ka , Ba and Ach . “To give someone a name means to put their energy into words.” The name was therefore also significant for the afterlife in the hereafter . The goal of name cancellations, such as What happened, for example, with Hatshepsut or Akhenaten , was to wipe out the memory of the people and thus prevent their immortality and eternal continuity. Such a process is called Damnatio memoriae ("damnation of memory"). Also the erasure of the name of the god Amun , partially executed by Akhenaten , even in the name of his father Amenophis III., Or in his later reign also the erasure of the plural spelling “gods” ( njerr.w - netjeru ), which according to his definition of only God (namely Aton ) contradicted, pursued this intention.
Hieroglyphs go to the proper name of a king
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Name of the king with the addition:
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- ( S3 Rˁ Twt ˁnḫ Jmn ḥq3 Jwnw šmˁj - Sa Ra Tutankhamun heqa Iunu schemai ), "Son of Re, living image of Amun, ruler of the southern Junu ( Heliopolis )"
King's throne name:
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- ( Njswt-bjtj Nb-ḫprw-Rˁ - Nisut-biti, Neb-cheperu-Re ) "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of Figures, a Re"
On the walls in the burial chamber, the proper name Tutankhamun is only on the north wall, otherwise his throne name Neb-cheperu-Re and, also on the north wall above his ka, the hieroglyphs that introduce the Horus name "Strong bull, with perfect births", this himself but do not mention there. The representation of the king is defined at this point as his ka. The cartouches found on the walled-up passages as a sign of sealing, like the intact clay seals of shrines or boxes, only bore the throne name Neb-cheperu-Re ("Lord of figures, a Re") of the deceased ruler and not the proper name Tutankhamun. The latter can be read together with the throne name on various objects from the tomb.
excavation
On November 24th the stairs were completely cleared. 16 steps ended in front of a walled blockage, in the upper area of which Carter had already seen the seal of the necropolis ("city of the dead"). After the entire wall could be viewed, the throne name of Tutankhamun, written in a cartouche, was found in the lower part of this wall : Neb-cheperu-Re and not his personal name Tutankhamun. The identification of an ancient Egyptian ruler is easier and clearer via the throne name, as there was often duplication of names for ancient Egyptian kings, such as Thutmosis , Amenophis or Ramses . However, this was not a guarantee that it was the tomb of the "child king", because on the walled entrance to tomb KV55 there was also the throne name of Tutankhamun, during whose reign this burial is classified. Two days later, the wall to the corridor was removed and the corridor behind it was also cleared of rubble. In the late afternoon of November 26th, Carter and his excavation team reached a second door block, which was also walled up and sealed several times, in which he punched a hole and held a candle to check for any leaking fouling gases. Howard Carter described this moment as one of the most beautiful he was able to experience. His frequently quoted words were:
At first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold - everywhere the glint of gold.
“At first I saw nothing, the warm air escaping from the chamber made the candle flame flicker, but then, as my eyes got used to the light, I saw details of the room appear out of the dust, strange animals, statues and gold, shining everywhere the shine of gold. "
- Situation at the beginning of the excavation
first stage to KV62
opened grave entrance
the 16 exposed steps
Part of the walling up to the corridor with the cartridges of the necropolis
the corridor filled with rubble, top left the refilling after the second robbery
later steel grating at the end of the corridor and the entrance to the antechamber
Excavation license and division of finds
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The excavation license (also excavation concession) comprised a total of thirteen points that were decisive for the work of Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings. The concession for excavations in the Valley of the Kings at that time corresponded to the one that had been valid for the excavations of the German Orient Society in Tell el-Amarna under the direction of Ludwig Borchardt . Among other things, the license holder had to pay for all costs and was responsible for any risk of the excavation. Howard Carter, who acted as an archaeologist for Carnarvons, had to be present during the entire excavation period. The excavation work was under the control and supervision of the antiquities administration (Service d'Antiquités) . This not only had the right to supervise the work, but also to change the method of excavation if it seemed more promising than that of the excavator. The license also stipulated that in the event of a discovery the Inspector of Upper Egypt in Luxor - a position that Howard Carter himself held from 1899 to 1904 - was to be notified. At the time of the excavation of KV62, this was Reginald Engelbach . The excavator was given the privilege of being the first to enter an open grave or monument.
Points 8 to 10 determined the distribution of the finds. For example, it was stipulated that the mummies of kings, princes or high priests, along with their coffins and sarcophagi, are the property of the Antiquities Administration. Items from intact, pristine graves should go to the museum without sharing with the excavator. If it was a grave that had already been searched for, the Antiquities Administration claimed, apart from mummies, objects of particular value and of historical and archaeological importance. The rest should be shared with the excavator. He should also be compensated for his expenses and efforts in such a case.
The point of contention after the discovery was whether grave KV62 was an intact or already robbed grave. Carter stated that the grave had been robbed at least twice in antiquity and that it should not be considered intact because there was evidence that objects from the grave equipment were missing. The antiquities administration did not share this view. For them the grave with the seals of the necropolis and the king was an intact grave, the entire contents of which was the property of the antiquities administration, which is why there would be no division of the finds.
After Lord Carnarvon's death on April 5, 1923, the excavation license passed to his widow Lady Carnarvon, who continued to support Howard Carter. He applied for an extension of the license on her behalf, which was granted. In 1929 Lady Almina gave up the excavation license. It was not until 1930 that the Lord Carnarvons family received a sum of £ 35,971 in compensation , which roughly corresponded to the total funds expended for the entire excavation period. Howard Carter had been promised about a quarter of the amount by Lady Carnarvon, and he eventually received the amount of £ 8,012. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which had been involved throughout the excavation period, received no compensation from Egypt for the resulting work Out-of-pocket expenses that came to about £ 8,000 for the museum.
Pierre Lacau, director general of the antiquities administration since 1914 and successor to Gaston Maspero , imposed stricter requirements for excavators in Egypt in 1923. The previous practice of dividing finds was also affected by this. The original division “in equal parts” (à moitié exacte) for the excavator and Egypt was no longer applicable . Although there had been a vague promise to possibly share duplicate items between the excavator and Egypt, in the end all finds, regardless of the find situation, were from then on property of the country of Egypt and the export of antiquities was completely prohibited. For Joyce Tyldesley , this explains, for example, that Flinders Petrie gave up his work in Egypt and began excavations in Palestine. He was dependent on private donors and could no longer export objects for museums from Egypt.
In 1983, the regulation for the division of finds during excavations was relaxed and provided 10% of the objects as a share for the excavator. In 2010, Zahi Hawass obtained an amendment to the law so that no excavator should receive a single find, unless it was already present in multiple forms in the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and thus only a "duplicate" of some of the exhibits.
Grave designation and subsequent graves
The numbering system of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings goes back to John Gardner Wilkinson , who first traveled to Egypt in 1821 and, while recording inscriptions, also numbered the royal tombs known up to that point in time. Previously there was already numbering by, for example, Richard Pococke , Jean-François Champollion , Carl Richard Lepsius or Giovanni Battista Belzoni . Wilkinson's system has been maintained to this day. All grave numbers in the Valley of the Kings are preceded by the abbreviation KV (for King's Valley ), followed by the number of the grave, with the graves in the western valley being referred to as both KV and WV (for West Valley ). Similarly, the private graves of civil servants or nobles in Thebes are predominantly marked with TT ( Theban Tomb - "Theban grave") or in Amarna with AT ( Amarna Tomb - "Amarna grave") and also a consecutive number. In 1922, grave KV62 was the 62nd grave to be discovered in the Valley of the Kings. Howard Carter himself gave it the number 433, in the order of his discoveries since 1915. KV62 is not an alternative name, but in addition to the commonly used term "Tutankhamun's tomb", the one used internationally in Egyptology for this royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
Since Tutankhamun's grave was discovered in 1922, only two other graves have been found in the Valley of the Kings: KV63 (2005) under the direction of Otto Schaden, formerly from the University of Memphis , and KV64 (2011) as part of the University of Basel Kings' started in 2009 Valley Project by Egyptologists from the University of Basel under the direction of Susanne Bickel. KV63 could not be assigned to any person, but was due to the finds in the period of the governments of Amenhotep III. assigned to Tutankhamun. KV64 is therefore considered to be originally laid out in the 18th dynasty, in which there was a second burial of Nehemes-Bastet, daughter of a priest and "singer of Amun ", in the 22nd dynasty ( Third Intermediate Period ) .
Organization and excavation team
Overall, the find posed a major organizational and logistical challenge for Howard Carter. There had previously been no comparable find in Egypt and it was up to Howard Carter to develop a system to document and recover the grave treasure. George Andrew Reisner made a similar discovery in 1925 . Three years after the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb, he found the only partially robbed tomb of Hetepheres I in Gizeh , the mother of King Cheops (4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom ). In addition to an empty sarcophagus, it contained various pieces of furniture made of wood, a canopic chest, jewelry and other objects. A find comparable to that of KV62 was the discovery of the grave of Psusennes I by Pierre Montet , who had also found this grave untouched.
Howard Carter described the finds in KV62 as "a matter that could not be handled by a man." The number of objects found exceeded any previous "ordinary" find in Egypt. Not only did workers have to be hired, but plans for general work, the power supply, cataloging and recovery of objects found in the grave, their preservation and their transport to Cairo had to be drawn up. Other points were the need for and the procurement of various packaging materials for safe transport as well as suitable and trained personnel for handling and processing the objects on site. After the first inspection of the grave, it was foreseeable that the work would take more than a season. In fact, due to various circumstances, working hours during a season were limited to a few months or weeks within a year. At the time of the tomb's discovery, there were academic staff at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in Thebes and Albert M. Lythgoe , head of the museum's Egyptian department, offered his assistance. The excavation team was put together from December 7th to 18th, 1922 with his help, which, in addition to Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon, finally included:
- Arthur C. Mace , former assistant curator and curator of the Department of Egyptian Antiquities at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Alfred Lucas, chemist in the Department of Antiquities ( Département d'Antiquités or Service d'Antiquités )
- Harry Burton , photographer for the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Arthur R. Callender , architect and engineer, longtime friend of Howard Carter
- Percy E. Newberry , professor of Egyptology at the University of Liverpool and Carter's first mentor
- Alan Henderson Gardiner , Egyptologist and philologist
- James Henry Breasted , Founder and Director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago
- Walter Hauser, former member of the Egyptian Expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Lindsley Foote Hall, former member of the Egyptian Expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Richard Adamson, former sergeant, guard and security
During the second excavation season (1923-1924) Richard Bethell, a member of the Egypt Exploration Society , was Howard Carter's assistant. From 1922 to 1932, other employees included Douglas E. Derry and Saleh Bey Hamdi in the investigation of the royal mummy, Battiscombe George Gunn for the evaluation of ostraka , the botanist LA Boodle, HJ Plenderleith from the British Museum for analytical support, James R. Ogden for evaluating the gold work in the tomb; and GF Hulme of Geological Survey of Egypt .
The excavation team was supported by numerous local workers, who were headed by the so-called "rice" (foremen), to remove the rubble and rubble and to transport materials and objects from the grave. Often children were given the task of bringing water to the excavation site.
On-site premises were also required to conserve and store the finds after they were recovered from the grave before they could be transported from the west bank of the Nile near Luxor to Cairo . The use of already open graves in the Valley of the Kings offered itself for this purpose, but had to be approved by the ancient administration. This is how the grave of Ramses XI served. ( KV4 ) as a general storage room for "lower value finds", the grave of Seti II ( KV15 ) was used as a conservation laboratory and a photo studio, while Harry Burton's grave KV55, not far from KV62, was used as a darkroom.
Working methods and documentation
In contrast to the approach taken by, for example, Theodore M. Davis during the excavation of grave KV55, Howard Carter and his team worked very carefully. This contributed to the fact that not only the grave treasure was largely preserved, but also that, thanks to the documentation, it can still be explored many decades after the grave was discovered. Flinders Petrie (William Matthew Flinders Petrie), under whom Howard Carter had worked in Amarna in 1892 , remarked while working together about the then 18-year-old:
Mr. Carter is a good-natured lad whose interest is entirely in painting and natural history ... it is of no use to me to work him up as an excavator.
"Mr. Carter is a good-natured boy whose interest is entirely in painting and natural history ... it is of no use to me to train him to be an excavator. "
Thirty years later, on the discovery of the Royal Tomb, Petrie said, "We are lucky that all of this is in the hands of Carter and Lucas." According to TGH James , this was the greatest praise Carter could ever have received.
Howard Carter's system provided for all finds to be photographed, numbered and cataloged on the spot, and in some cases to be protected from complete disintegration by conservation measures in the grave so that they could be transported and restored later. Carter also made detailed drawings or sketches for many pieces.
Numbering system
The objects found in the grave were numbered according to object groups in the chambers. The walled up and sealed doorways (including partition walls), the stairs and the corridor were also counted as “rooms”. There were a total of 620 object groups, the sub-categories of which within the group were identified alphabetically by letters. For example, the jewelry and other accessories belonging to the mummy (256) were assigned to group number 256, from the golden death mask with number 256a to number 256-4v (256vvvv), an iron amulet in the form of a headrest. Objects related to the Anubis Shrine were given the main number 261 (261–261r). The object group 620 from the side chamber ( annexes ), which is numbered from 620: 1 to 620: 123, is an exception to this . The complete grave inventory was recorded according to this system.
| chamber | Object group number |
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| Entrance stairs | 1–3 (3 object groups) |
| first sealed door | 4th |
| corridor | 5–12 (8 object groups) |
| second sealed door | 13 |
| Antechamber | 14–27 and 29–170 (156 object groups) |
| fourth sealed door to the burial chamber | 28 |
| Burial chamber | 172–260 (89 object groups) |
| Treasury | 261–336 (76 object groups) |
| third sealed door to the annex | 171 |
| Side chamber | 337–620 (284 object groups) |
documentation
The location sketching of individual objects in the find situation in the antechamber was not only done photographically by Harry Burton, but also graphically by the architects from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Walter Hauser and Lindsley Foote Hall. Both left the excavation team after completing their final work in the antechamber because they could not cope with "the quick-tempered temperament" of Howard Carter. Howard Carter completely traced the contents of the burial chamber. No drawings were made for the side chamber and the treasury. The photographs were the responsibility of Harry Burton, the drawings and cataloging were done by Howard Carter and Arthur Callender, while the chemist Alfred Lucas of the Department of Antiquities and Arthur C. Mace, curator of the Department of Egyptian Antiques at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, were responsible for the chemical analysis, conservation and restoration were responsible. The philologist and Egyptologist Sir Alan Gardiner , known for his work with Adolf Erman on the creation of a dictionary of the Egyptian language and, among other things, the Gardiner symbol list that appeared in his Egyptian grammar , was responsible for the translation and analysis of the inscriptions on the objects in the grave deals. Percy E. Newberry analyzed the herbal additions found in the grave.
Due to this careful procedure, the objects from the antechamber were only removed from the grave after about seven weeks, for example. Howard Carter described the antechamber situation:
It was slow work, painfully slow, and nerve-racking at that, for one felt all the time a heavy weight of responisibility. Every excavator must, if have any archaelogical concience at all. The things he finds are not his own property […] They are a direct legacy from the past to the present age […]
“It was slow work, painfully slow and also nerve-wracking because you feel the heavy weight of responsibility all the time. Any excavator should if he has any archaeological awareness. The things he finds are not his property [...] They are a direct legacy from the past to the present day [...] "
- Working in the grave
Workers removing and carrying away rubble
Howard Carter (left) and Lord Carnarvon (right)
Howard Carter (left), Arthur C. Mace (right) and a worker working on the breakthrough to the burial chamber
after opening all the shrines with a view of the sarcophagus (re-enactment scene): Howard Carter, behind him Arthur R. Callender and a foreman
intact rope with undamaged clay seal of the necropolis (including the throne name Tutankhamun) of the third, inner shrine
Howard Carter cleaning the second, gilded wooden coffin
Howard Carter and a local worker examine the third golden coffin
During the inventory, the objects were given signs with the corresponding numbers and photographed again by Harry Burton so that the original position in the grave could later be traced. For Howard Carter this "constant care" was necessary so that even the smallest finds were not separated from their "identification slips". At the end of an excavation season, the complete find history for each object was given. This approach included:
- the dimensions, scale drawings and archaeological records,
- Records of the inscriptions by Alan Gardiner,
- Lucas records of the conservation process used,
- a photograph showing the exact location of the object in the grave,
- a scale photograph or a series of images depicting the object alone,
- they were boxes, a series of views showing the clearing out in its various stages.
The documentation of the excavation of KV62 finally comprised a total of 3200 object cards ( index cards ) described by Carter, some with drawings. Some cards also have notes from Alan Gardiner and Alfred Lucas. In addition, around 1850 photographs by Harry Burton as well as Howard Carter's excavation diary and his personal notes. In addition, the three-volume publication The tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen (1923–1933) was published as a preliminary report. Further brief reports can be found in Arthur C. Mace's digging diaries for the first and second seasons.
Recovery and transport
Apart from the salvage and preservation, the preparation for the transport of the artifacts had to be organized. Each find was individually packaged. For the objects from the antechamber alone, in addition to the furniture, 89 boxes and 1,500 m of cotton fabric for upholstery and packaging in 34 wooden boxes were required. Other materials used for packaging were cotton wool and towels. A steamship was available to Cairo through the antiquities administration, but it was still about 10 km from the laboratory in the Valley of the Kings, where the packed objects were, to the bank of the Nile. This path is relatively straight, but there were windings and inclines that made transport difficult. At the time, the road to the Valley of the Kings was unpaved and automobiles were a rarity. For transportation from the valley to the Nile , there were several options: donkeys, camels, porters or Decauville - Feldbahn with Güterloren . The decision was made to use this so-called “portable railway”. While the individually loaded wagons were pushed forward, the tracks of the route covered were dismantled and relocated in front of the railway. The heat in the valley was a great burden for the workers and excavators and the tracks, which were extremely heated by the sun, were more difficult to lay during the transport. Reaching the banks of the Nile took 15 hours. The shipment to Cairo took about a week. The most valuable objects were unpacked there and then exhibited in the Cairo museum, which opened in 1902. A few finds, such as Tutankhamun's golden mask or the golden coffin, were transported to Cairo by train, for which a special car with armed guards was made available.
Excavation periods and events
The excavation period comprised a total of nine excavation seasons of different lengths:
- Season: October 28, 1922 to May 30, 1923
- Season: October 3, 1923 to February 9, 1924
- Season: January 19 to March 31, 1925
- Season: September 28, 1925 to May 21, 1926
- Season: September 22, 1926 to May 3, 1927
- Season: October 8, 1927 to April 26, 1928
- Season: September 20 to December 4, 1928
- Season: 1929 to 1930: no work on the grave
- Season: September 24th to November 17th, 1930
From November 24, 1922, Tutankhamun's tomb was excavated by Carter and his scientific team. The excavation continued with all final conservation work until 1932. However, the period of a season did not mean that during that time work was carried out exclusively on the items in the tomb. For example, KV62 was filled in again at the end of the season for safety reasons in the first few years and had to be cleared of rubble again in the next excavation season in order to be able to continue the work. In addition, Howard Carter traveled from Luxor back to Cairo in order to clarify various points with the Antiquities Administration or the Ministry of Public Affairs or to extend the concession. With each season new materials for packaging and transport, chemicals for preservation had to be organized and workers had to be hired. For example, Tuesday was a day off for workers as it was market day. Waiting for local craftsmen, such as stonemasons or carpenters, also had an effect on the continuation of the work. Howard Carter complained about such delays several times in his digging diary. The effective working hours decreased due to these various circumstances. Another factor that had a negative effect on the continued work was the frequent presence of visitors and press representatives in the grave.
For Howard Carter, giving up Lady Carnarvon's excavation license meant that he no longer had official access to the grave and that his scientific work could not continue as before. From then on, he was under the supervision of inspectors from the Antiquities Department, who had the keys to the grave and laboratory. They also decided who was allowed to visit the grave. Although these circumstances were very unsatisfactory for Carter, he worked on the grave and the remaining objects to be recovered as well as in the laboratory until February 1932. Funding for the work on the excavation lay from 1930 onwards with Howard Carter himself and Egypt.
Strike and closure of the tomb
As early as December 1923, only the Antiquities Administration determined who could visit the grave and be a member of Howard Carter's excavation team. During the second excavation season in February 1924, there was a scandal that Carter does not include in his records. His notes end before the events and after the sarcophagus lid has been lifted on February 12 in the presence of an invited audience. The incident is also not mentioned in the continuation of his recordings for the next season.
The grave was scheduled to open on February 13th for the press to visit the burial chamber and sarcophagus. After that, Carter wanted the archaeologists' wives to be able to see the open sarcophagus. The Egyptian government, however, forbade the ladies from visiting the burial chamber. The letter sent to Howard Carter stated: “I am sorry to inform you that I have received a telegram from the Secretary of State for Public Works. His speeches made within the ministry unfortunately do not allow the wives of your employees to visit the grave tomorrow, February 13th. ”Even Lady Almina Carnarvon, who has held the excavation license since the death of her husband and continues to finance the excavation, was the visit thus denied. Howard Carter saw this as a personal affront to himself and the license holder and saw only one possibility: the workers immediately stopped working and he closed the grave. The situation worsened and Carter was told that "it was not his grave". He received another letter prohibiting him and any member of the excavation team from entering the tomb. As a result, Lady Carnarvon was revoked on February 20, 1924, her excavation license. Work in KV62 was only resumed in January 1925 after tedious discussions about how to proceed. The new concession for Lady Carnarvon was issued on January 13, 1925. During this period the heavy sarcophagus lid, which was broken in antiquity but was cemented, hung on cables over the sarcophagus tub and the coffins inside, a circumstance that later archaeologists described as irresponsible. Howard Carter eventually returned, also to Pierre Lacau's relief, to work on the grave. Herbert E. Winlock commented that "there was no better person to whom these precious finds could be entrusted." According to Nicholas Reeves, this was "a job nobody really wanted".
Press and reporting
The news about the discovery of a locked royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings spread quickly in Egypt. Rumors of immeasurable treasures arose just as quickly, although the complete contents of the grave were still unknown. Numerous letters of congratulations and offers of help for Howard Carter were received. The press literally assaulted Lord Carnarvon and his excavation team. The sudden and great interest of the world public in an archaeological find was unusual and strange for Carter, since this had never happened until the discovery of grave KV62. He considered the unexpected attention from the press and visitors in the valley as "embarrassing." The first press report on Tutankhamun's tomb appeared on November 30, 1922 after the official opening of the tomb, the antechamber and the extension, in the London Times . The discovery of grave KV62 was the first to result in such constant reporting.
After much deliberation and discussions with Howard Carter and Alan Gardiner, Lord Carnarvon signed an exclusive contract for an initial coverage with The Times on January 9, 1923 , because it was "the best newspaper in the world". This should relieve the excavation team, because with this contract, the information on the progress of the work on the grave only had to be passed on to a newspaper instead of repeatedly to countless individual press employees. That is why all the other newspapers, including the Egyptian, could only report after publication in the Times. The conclusion of this contract should bring Carnarvon £ 5,000, plus 75% of the revenue from the Times from selling the news to other newspapers. As early as June of the same year, income from reporting was £ 11,600 . Arthur Merton, a Times official, was named by Carter as a member of the excavation team.
These decisions caused resentment and indignation in the press agencies. Large newspapers worldwide reported on the contract and wrote, among other things: "[... to degrade the world of science to a whore for sale ...]" or "[... to sell out archeology and world history.]" Albert M. Lythgoe , at the time Head of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Egypt expedition, advised the museum's director, Edward Robinson, of the special circumstances and that the museum should be careful about information about the tomb. Robinson noted that although the "lion's share" of the work in KV62 would be done by employees of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the grave was in the hands of Carnarvon and Carter and therefore the right to public announcements was with them.
The newspapers called these circumstances "scandalous" and protested the contract with the Times. As the excavation progressed, they increasingly complained to Pierre Lacau, the director of the antiquities administration. The Egyptian newspapers complained that they were denied access to an ancient Egyptian royal tomb. Lacau appealed to Howard Carter to reserve at least one day in the grave for personal and press visits. The latter refused, "because his scientific assignment would take a lot of effort" and he emphasized that the antiquities administration, due to the concession, "has no right to demand such an event that would mean an unreasonable interruption of the archaeological work". Visitors, whether from the press or on recommendation, caused additional work both before and after a visit: the access routes had to be secured, power cables had to be laid differently, tools and work materials removed and, above all, the objects still in the grave must be protected. For the excavation team, the days on which work could not continue quickly were "lost days". Howard Carter repeatedly noted in his digging diary no work was done in the tomb or work progressing slowly .
Lord Carnarvon , whose health had been impaired for a long time, died in Cairo on April 5, 1923, a few months after the grave was discovered and a short time after the burial chamber was opened. His death was followed by the story of the " Curse of the Pharaoh, " which was circulated by the press around the world, but vehemently denied by Howard Carter. Carnarvon's death also presented Carter with the difficulty of dealing with the grave's visitors and press staff himself as an excavator. The contract with the Times became increasingly burdensome. For Morcos Bey Hanna, the new minister for public affairs since January 1924 and not fond of the British in Egypt, called the contract, which directly excluded the Egyptian press, a mistake. Carter assured that the contract would expire after April 1924 and that there would be no new signing. From December 1923, the visits by the press and reports to the press staff took place mostly on Mondays, before the day off for the workers. Finally, to provide the press with information, there were press views , comparable to on-site press conferences. Howard Carter noted that despite the fall of the Times monopoly, the Egyptian press showed little interest in the tomb.
According to the first report in the Times, the first major contribution to Tutankhamun's grave was to be read a week later in a supplement to the Vossische Zeitung on December 7, 1922. It appeared after a lecture by Ludwig Borchardt, under whose direction the bust of Nefertiti had been discovered during the excavations of the German Orient Society in Tell el-Amarna . The Times published the first photos of Harry Burton on January 30, 1923. The first color photograph of a grave object was that of the golden throne found in the antechamber on November 10, 1923. The steady, international coverage of the excavation work in KV62 lasted almost the entire processing period of the objects from the grave.
Visitors
After the discovery and throughout the excavation period, the tomb not only attracted the international press but also aroused the curiosity of numerous tourists and locals. Howard Carter described dealing with visitors as "a special matter of sensitivity". A real tourism developed to visit the Valley of the Kings and grave KV62. Particularly high-ranking and registered visitors were given permission to visit the grave and the laboratory (KV15), initially from Carnarvon or Carter themselves, later from the antiquities administration. Many visitors came because of letters of recommendation, some of which Carter considered to be bogus. He was not fond of interruptions from the press or from visitors who were interested in the grave and were very angry about these "disturbances". In his excavation diary he emphasizes that he is “not a tourist guide, but an archaeologist”. Visitors of all kinds not only mean delays in the conservation and recovery of the grave treasure. As long as the partly fragile objects were in the grave, they could be damaged by visitors directly through contact or indirectly through sand that was brought with them and blown up. The sand carried into the grave by tourists is still a threat to the wall paintings in the grave chamber.
Howard Carter mentions the high number of visitors during the excavation in a letter to his uncle Henry William Carter in February 1926. "Since January 2nd alone, over 9,000 people had come to see Tutankhamun's tomb". Nicholas Reeves puts the number of visitors from January 1 to March 15, 1926 at the height of the hysteria about the grave at 12,000. Not all tourists in the valley had visited the grave themselves, but the area around the archaeological site "besieged". Despite his aversion to the curious, Carter occasionally allowed those present to see the artifacts he found, which he then had uncovered from the grave. This included, for example, the transport of the ritual beds or Tutankhamun's “mannequin”.
Despite Carter's objections to visitors of any kind, the period in the first excavation season, February 18-25, 1923, was reserved for press representatives and visitors to the grave. Howard Carter noted that while the antechamber was cleared, about a quarter of the time during the excavation season was spent on visitors only. For February 10, 1925, he noted 40 visitors to the tomb in his excavation diary, who had been selected and invited by the Egyptian government. To his regret, few of the guests showed any real interest. There was also little interest from the press and there were no questions. Carter was also amazed at the absence of the Egyptian press, which had complained a year earlier about not having access to this ancient Egyptian royal tomb.
In his excavation diary, Carter sometimes lists the names of the visitors to KV62, who not only included the employees of the antiquities administration, the inspector for Upper Egypt or the wives of the employees of the excavation team. These included personalities of the nobility and members of royalty. In March 1923 the Queen of the Belgians, Elisabeth Gabriele in Bavaria , who was also present at the official opening of the grave on February 18, 1923, visited the laboratory. King Fu'ad I , first king of the Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953), proclaimed in 1922 , visited the grave and laboratory in 1926. The King of Afghanistan followed in 1927, the Crown Prince of Italy in 1928 and in 1930 the Crown Prince of Sweden, Gustav Adolf Hereditary Prince of Sweden .
The tomb in ancient times
Maya was probably responsible for the tomb of Tutankhamun , a high official with the title of treasurer under Tutankhamun, who later served under King Haremhab . It is not known who chose Tutankhamun's grave. Generally, Eje, Tutankhamun's successor, is assumed to be the client. From Maya there are burial objects for the king, which identify him as a devoted servant. The name of his assistant, Djehutimose, is written on a calcite vase found in the side chamber. Both persons are connected to the restoration work of grave KV43 ( Thutmose IV. ), Which dates to the 8th year of Haremhab's reign, which was discovered in 1903 by Howard Carter for Theodore M. Davis. Nachtmin , another high dignitary under Tutankhamun, is also an option .
Carter found evidence that the ancient chambers of KV62 had been robbed at least twice immediately after the royal burial. Not only did two different seals on the exposed first wall lining at the grave entrance testify to this, but also the deranged objects in the antechamber (I) and in particular in the extension ( Annex Ia ) spoke in favor of it. Another clue was that when comparing different inventory lists of chests or boxes, it was found that a number of artifacts were missing, which could prove the theft of some objects. About 60% of the jewelry had been stolen from the chests and boxes in the treasury, as well as vessels made of precious metals. In a chest in the antechamber was found a linen cloth knotted together containing rings made of solid gold. These were apparently stolen goods that had been taken from the grave robbers and returned by the necropolis officials without paying any further attention to the grave and its contents. According to Carter, this cleanup had been done very negligently. Howard Carter noted that the thieves must have penetrated the burial chamber into the treasury, but left the outermost shrine and thus in particular the complete royal burial untouched. The grave goods stolen by the grave robbers included precious jewelry, linen, ointments and oils. Carter interpreted this as a robbery that must have taken place shortly after the burial, since, for example, ointments and oils were not long-lasting and usable. In order to rob the treasury, he stated that despite the raid, no major damage had been done and only certain chests with valuable items had been opened. Carter concluded that the grave robbers must have been familiar with the contents of the grave. On the other hand, he concluded “that the best and most precious pieces were irretrievably lost and that he only had to deal with remains.” The grave robbers were probably involved in the king's funeral. The punishment for grave robbers and enemies of the state was impalation .
After the first robbery of the antechamber, parts of the booty found in the corridor and left behind were deposited in grave KV54 ("embalming depot") and the access to the antechamber was closed again and the necropolis was sealed. The corridor was filled with rubble to the ceiling and the breakthrough point at the entrance was closed and sealed. This made the grave more difficult to access, but did not prevent later grave robbers from entering the treasury a second time. After the discovery of the second robbery, the passages to the grave chamber and antechamber were closed, plastered and sealed, the corridor was again completely filled with rubble, the opening in the access to the grave was closed again and the steps were also hidden under rubble. The final sealing of the tomb probably took place under the rule of Pharaoh Haremhab.
Since the access from KV62 below the entrance ramp of the later laid tomb of Ramses VI. ( KV9 ) and the overburden of the Ramesside tomb and the workers' houses built on it covered access to Tutankhamun's tomb, it was hidden for thousands of years. A robbery of Tutankhamun's tomb is therefore not permitted during or after the reign of Ramses VI. (1145–1137 BC).
Location and architecture
Topographically , the Valley of the Kings ( Arabic وادي الملوك, DMG Wādī al-Mulūk ; Bibân el-Molûk ) in the west and east valleys. Most of the graves found so far are in the eastern valley , including the tomb of Tutankhamun, which is centrally located at the lowest point in the main wadi of the eastern valley. Nearby are the graves KV9 ( Ramses VI. ), KV10 , KV55 , KV56 ("gold grave") and KV63 (depot). The rock components in the Valley of the Kings are primarily limestone of various quality and sedimentary rocks . KV62 was cut in white, amorphous limestone, which is partially criss-crossed with calcite veins.
Tutankhamun's tomb with all its chambers and passages has a total size of 109.83 m². The grave of Seti I ( KV17 ) is comparatively 649.04 m², the grave of Tutankhamun's successor Eje 212.22 m² and the private grave of Tuja and Juja ( KV46 ) with a chamber, also located in the Valley of the Kings, has 62, 36 m².
Despite its smaller size compared to other royal tombs, the tomb has a floor plan that corresponds to the traditional tombs of the valley. KV62 was not built according to the royal elite measure, but according to the so-called "private elite measure". KV62 is similar to other private graves of this time in terms of the basic plan and dimensions , but is unique in this design as no similar private grave has been found so far. Contrary to the hitherto general interpretation that it is a reworked private grave, KV62 according to Nicholas Reeves is quite comparable with other royal graves. In his opinion, as already assumed by Howard Carter, this becomes clear when the plan of the tomb is rotated "in the mind" by 90 degrees.
KV62 consists of an access path (A) with 16 steps, which ended at a walled entrance (B) with the seals of the necropolis and the deceased king, followed by a further descending corridor (B) , which is also walled up (Gate I) to the next chamber ended, the antechamber. On the west wall of the pre-chamber, a further bricked, but openwork found entrance (gate Ia) , subsequent to a side chamber (Chamber Side Ia) , also known as cultivation ( Annex hereinafter) leads. The antechamber (I) is followed by the burial chamber (J) on the northern side, which was blocked from the antechamber by a walled and sealed entrance (Gate J) . Another side chamber (Ja) branches off from the burial chamber to the east and, like the antechamber, is higher than the burial chamber. This last chamber is known as the “treasury”. Apart from the burial chamber, the rest of the grave is undecorated.
Chambers and finds
Grave entrance
The stairs measure 5.61 m in length and 1.66 m in width. Various smaller objects were found while clearing the rubble. These include clay seals from the necropolis, a fragment of ivory , shards or completely preserved vessels made of stone or ceramic , fragments of wood, inventory lists for jewelry, dates on wine jugs and animal bones. Some finds could be assigned by name: a scarab of Thutmose III. , a knob with the throne name Tutankhamuns, Neb-cheperu-Re , inlays from a wooden chest with the throne and proper names ( Nefer-cheperu-Re-wa-en-Re ) Akhenaten and ( Ankh-cheperu-Re ) Neferneferuaton as well as Akhenaten and Nefertiti's first daughter, Meritaton , who here bears the title of Great Royal Wife . Akhenaten and Neferneferuaton are both named here as "King of Upper and Lower Egypt " (nisut-biti) . Howard Carter called the find the Wooden box of Smenkhkare ("Wooden box of the Semenchkare"). Carter also mentioned a fragment with the name of Amenhotep III. He was amazed at this collection of objects with the names of different people from the Amarna period , since such objects would correspond more to a “pit” than a grave entrance to a royal tomb. It was also found that of the 16 steps only the first ten had been carved into the rock, while the last six were made of stones bonded with mortar. Presumably all 16 steps were originally carved out of the rock and the last six steps before the first walling had to be removed in order to bring large grave goods, such as the gilded shrines, into the grave. After the burial, the removed steps were replaced with new ones made of a mortar and stone composite. These steps were removed again in 1930, in the 9th excavation season, so that the walls and ceilings of the last parts of the dismantled shrines that had remained since the opening of the burial chamber and in the antechamber of the grave could be brought out of the grave in their transport containers.
corridor
The first wall of the door after the 16-step staircase to the corridor was about three feet thick. The adjoining corridor is 7.67 m long and, like the stairs, 1.66 m wide and was completely cleared on the afternoon of November 26, 1922. Among other things, splinters of wood, fragments of chests and closures of various vessels, whole and broken alabaster vessels , clay seals, fragments of ivory or ivory inlays, inlays of gold and parts of gold foil were recovered from the rubble in the corridor . A find that Howard Carter did not list in his notes or in the inventory list of the entrance and corridor, but later stated the corridor as the place where it was found, is the " head of Nefertem " or "head on the lotus flower" (Egyptian Museum, Cairo, JE 60723). This bust was found in March 1924 by Pierre Lacau , the head of the antiquities administration, and Rex Engelbach , inspector of Upper Egypt , during an inventory of KV4 , the grave of Ramses XI. that was used as a warehouse while Howard Carter was not in Egypt. The "head of Nefertem" was in a red wine box between supplies. This fact led to further disagreements with the antiquities administration. Carter explained that everything that was stored in KV4 had been found in the entrance corridor, before the opening of the antechamber, and was previously listed under a group number and therefore not as a single item in the directory.
The Antechamber
The descending corridor (also the corridor) ended in front of an approx. 90 cm thick door block, behind which the 28.02 m² large antechamber is located. The walls of this chamber are roughly hewn and undecorated. In addition to the grave chamber plastered and painted with plaster, the north wall of the antechamber with the passage to the grave chamber was the only other plastered wall in the grave that was also provided with seals. On the adjoining, partly brick partition wall to the burial chamber, with a thickness of approx. 1 m, there are markings of chisels on the ceiling, which indicate that this chamber led at least two meters further north before the access to the burial chamber there was a wall was closed.
Finds in the antechamber
Along the western wall three large ritual beds (also ritual stretchers) were set up one behind the other, facing the burial chamber. Under the ritual bed of the Ammit ("Devourer of the Dead" or "Dead Eater") stood Tutankhamun's throne, made of wood, gold-plated and decorated with inlays of faience , silver, stone and colored glass . The front side of the backrest shows a scene in the style of Amarna art in which the named Ankhesenamun , the Great Royal Wife , puts on the breast ornament to the seated King Tutankhamun. Above the royal couple is the solar disk Aton , on the left and right of it two cartridges with the “didactic name of Aton” in the newer version, which was used from the 9th year of Akhenaten's reign. The god gives life to the king and queen, symbolized by the ankh at the end of the rays that end in hands. The back of the back of the golden throne, on the other hand , bears the actual birth name of the king, Tutanchaton , as well as his throne name ( Neb-cheperu-Re - "Lord of figures, a Re") and the original name of his wife, Ankhesenpaaton ("She lives through Aton / She lives for Aton ”), provided from the Amarna period .
Under the middle ritual bed of the goddess Isis-Mehtet, with the appearance of a stylized cow, about two dozen oval containers with a plaster-like surface were stacked, which contained animal food for the king's journey to the hereafter. Based on the inscriptions, this bed was assigned to the goddess Isis-Mehtet, who, however, is a lion goddess and the figure of the cow is more likely to be assigned to Hathor or Mehet-weret ("The great northern waters"). The foremost ritual bed facing the burial chamber is that of the goddess Mehet-Weret, but the chosen animal shape is not the cow corresponding to the goddess, but the lion. So the shapes and inscriptions of the two ritual beds are reversed: the bier of the lion goddess bears the inscription about the cow goddess and vice versa. There were also a large number of rolled up items of clothing, such as underclothes or kerchiefs , which Howard Carter had mistaken for papyri when he first looked into the chamber . Papyri with information on historical events were not part of a traditional grave decoration, but the Egyptian Book of the Dead or small papyri with magical formulas and sayings that were worked into the linen layers of a mummy. The latter were later found on Tutankhamun's mummy, but were so fragile that when touched they fell apart and could not be read.
In the southeast corner were four chariots, completely dismantled . A chest (find number 21) was placed between the statues on the north wall, the painted scenes of which show Tutankhamun hunting and during campaigns against Syria and Nubia . There were over 600 objects in the antechamber.
Guardian statues
The locked access to the burial chamber (J), the north wall of the antechamber, was flanked on the left and right by two black painted and gilded wooden statues, each of which was wrapped in a crumbled linen cloth, to symbolically guard the royal mummy . With the base, the "guardian statues", also known as Ka statues , measure around 1.90 m, the figures themselves have a size of around 1.72 m. According to Douglas E. Derry, who examined Tutankhamun's mummy, this corresponds approximately to the height of the king. The statue on the left of the walled-in entrance wears a so-called chat headgear (also: afnet ), the right the classic Nemes headscarf . Both figures carry the uraeus snake on their foreheads and each hold a long staff and a club in their hands. Around her neck is each one eight-row jewelry collar . The inscription on the statue with chat identifies it as the ka of the king: “The good God, before whom one bows, the ruler one is proud of, the ka of Harachte , the Osiris, the king. Lord of the Two Lands, Neb-cheperu-Re , this is justified. ”Nicholas Reeves sees, in view of the size of the statues, these as the only real portraits of the young king in the tomb. The black skin color of the figures did not serve to deter intruders. In ancient Egypt, black stood for “renewal” and the color symbolizes the Osirian aspect of the deceased king and his rebirth. For Marianne Eaton-Krauss, the positioning of the guardian statues facing each other on the north wall of the antechamber is an indubitable indication of the burial chamber behind it.
There are not many surviving, life-size depictions of an ancient Egyptian king, including three in the British Museum in London. In one of these figures, the apron is hollow and, due to the size of the cavity, was probably intended for a papyrus roll . Nicholas Reeves suspected that these figures were therefore less the guardians of the burial chamber, but rather the guardians of Tutankhamun's last secret: "The hiding place of his religious texts." A detailed examination of the statues with regard to this reference was not carried out by the antiquities administration at the time. In 2005, as part of radiological examinations of archaeological artifacts made from different materials, a Japanese-Belgian research team also published the examinations of the guardian statues in The Radiographic Examinations of the Guardian Statues from the Tomb of Tutankhamen in the International Library of Archeology. X-Rays for Archeology. One aspect was to learn something about the construction of the statues and whether papyri are or have been in the statues. The painted wooden statues were in a poor state of preservation at this point and the restoration work carried out after their discovery was still recognizable. No evidence of papyri was found. It was suggested that the other smaller figures from the tomb be examined as well.
- Finds in the antechamber
Tutankhamun's throne, Egyptian Museum, Cairo (JE 62028)
Ritual bed of the Ammit, Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 62012)
Ritual bed of Isis-Mehtet, Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 62013)
Ritual bed of the Mehet-weret (replica), Original: Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 62911)
Guardian statue with Nemes headscarf , Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 60707)
Detail of the painted chest (find number 21), Cairo Egyptian Museum (JE 61467)
Dress bust of Tutankhamun , Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 60722)
The grave chamber (Burial Chamber)
The floor level of the 26.22 m² grave chamber (also coffin chamber) is approximately one meter lower than that of the slightly larger antechamber. It was opened on February 16, 1923, in the presence of officials from the Antiquities Authority, Lord Carnarvon and his daughter, members of the excavation team and other guests, after the appropriate measures had been taken days beforehand: analyzing the seals on the wall and taking precautions for the objects behind hit the wall. In the upper part of the walled partition wall were the cartouches of the throne name of Tutankhamun (Neb-cheperu-Re) , while on the bottom there was only the seal of the necropolis. The burial chamber, with its more than 300 individual pieces, was completely cleared after all shrines were opened and dismantled, after about eight months by May 1925.
The hewn chamber walls are plastered and decorated. They also have small rectangular niches that vary in size. The sizes are between a height of 24 to 27 cm, a width of 16 to 20 cm and a depth of 10 to 18 cm in the rock. The small niches had been closed with a limestone slab, plastered and painted. Each niche contained a magical brick made of unfired clay, all of which, except for the brick of the west wall, were provided with sections from the Egyptian Book of the Dead (Proverbs 151 - "the four magical bricks"). They had a symbolic protective function for the royal mummy. A grave amulet or a magical figure belonged to each of the bricks. In Tutankhamun's tomb these were found in a non-typical arrangement according to the cardinal points: a small Osiris figure (east wall - facing south), a Djed pillar (south wall - facing east), the symbol of permanence and duration, an Anubis figure (West wall - facing north) and a shabti figure (north wall - facing west). A Djed pillar was usually used for the west wall, an amulet in the shape of Anubis for the east wall, a torch made of reed for the south wall and a shabti- like figure for the north wall . However, Howard Carter notes that in the New Kingdom there were often variations in the orientations of the characters as well as in the symbolism and in text copies of the Book of the Dead itself. There was also a fifth magical brick with a miniature torch and charcoal remains in the treasury on the floor in front of the Anubis Shrine . Both were replaced by the Osiris figure on the west wall. Howard Carter makes explicit reference to this fifth brick and torch in his notes. According to Zahi Hawass, this unusual fifth brick was supposed to protect the contents of the grave from robbers, as the corresponding "Spruch 151 for the secret head (mummy mask)" from the Book of the Dead , which also contains the saying for the four magical bricks, is:
- “It is I who prevents the sand from blocking the hidden, and who rejects him who rejects (himself) to the torch of the desert. I set the desert on fire, I led the way (of the enemy) astray. I am the protection of the NN "
This saying was after Lord Carnarvon's death next to the variant "Death will come to that on swift wings, which disturbs the peace of the Pharaoh." The curse of the pharaoh reproduced as another and in abbreviated form in the press: "I prevent that Sand fills the secret chamber. I am there to protect the dead. "
Finds in the burial chamber
After Howard Carter had punched a hole in the partition wall to the burial chamber and shone it with a flashlight, he saw a "wall of pure gold" that could not be explained. Only when the opening was enlarged did this “wall” reveal itself as a shrine, which thus identified the room as a burial chamber. The outermost shrine almost completely filled the burial chamber: from the shrine roof to the ceiling the free space was just over 90 cm and below 90 cm towards the north and south walls. Since the sarcophagus is not in the middle of the chamber, the distance between the shrines built above it and the west wall is smaller than that of the east wall. In the large outer gilded wooden shrine there were three other gilded wooden shrines with a wooden catafalque above them . A linen cloth decorated with daisies made of bronze lay over it . Such a cloth and the so-called "coffin rosettes" had already been found by Theodore M. Davis in grave KV55. The cloth in KV62 had suffered considerably from the weight of the decorations and, like that in KV55, was therefore crumbled and fragile. Dangling parts of it covered the offerings between the outer and third shrines. The nested shrines finally contained the stone sarcophagus with the three coffins and the mummy. There were numerous other objects between the wall and the outermost shrine and within the shrines.
Shrines
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Of all four gilded wooden shrines , the first and last (viewed from the outside in) were only locked with a wooden bolt in the corresponding brackets, while the second and third shrines were found with a knotted rope and intact clay seals. The intact seals of the city of the dead ( necropolis ) showed the god Anubis in a large cartouche in the form of a reclining canid over the Nine Arches , the enemies of Egypt, and above the throne name of Tutankhamun Neb-cheperu-Re in a smaller cartouche within the large ones. In the case of the two shrines, these seals were a clear indication that no grave robber had reached the king's mummy .
All four shrines, also called coffin shrines or burial chapels, have different roofs. That of the first and exterior resembles and corresponds to the traditional shrine of Upper Egypt , per-wer . Even the canopic chest of alabaster and various wooden chests showed this form on the cover. The fourth and last shrine, on the other hand, shows the roof of the predynastic and Lower Egyptian palace shrine per-nu ("House of Flame").
The names of the first, second, third and fourth shrines go back to the order in the find situation, i.e. the outer shrine was numbered with the number 1, for example. According to the inscriptions on the shrines, the reading of the contents begins with the innermost, the fourth shrine from the inside out, with the beginning of the king's path to his immortality. The four shrines are labeled on both exterior and interior walls. Usually the walls in a royal tomb of the 18th dynasty were decorated with religious texts and representations that were supposed to enable the deceased “to pass through the underworld at night and to unite with the sun god at dawn.” This for Tutankhamun due to the The grave used in the unexpected death of the young king was too small to represent this complete "program". The four shrines with texts from the Egyptian Book of the Dead , excerpts from the pyramid texts from the Old Kingdom and the Amduat (“That which is in the underworld”) were used for this purpose. The first shrine also contains the " Book of the Celestial Cow " with the content of the annihilation of mankind as it is found later on the wall of a side chamber in grave ( KV17 ) Seti I and in grave KV62 for the first time with text in one Royal tomb is occupied. Although this content on the shrines shows parallels to conventional wall paintings and inscriptions from the 18th Dynasty, some of them are difficult to interpret. The second, inner shrine also shows the oldest known image of an ouroboros , a snake that bites its own tail end and thus forms a circle. This representation can be found once around the head and once around the feet of the representation of Tutankhamun as a mummified Osiris. The snake shown is Mehen , whose name translates as "the enveloping one".
Howard Carter noted that changes had been made to the cartridges on the second shrine, viewed from the outside, and concluded that these were from the Amarna period . Originally there was a name under the name Tutankhamun that ended in -aton . He noted that the depictions were not in the “Amarna Art Style”.
The doors of all shrines opened to the east, so that they were oriented from west to east and not, as correctly with the sarcophagus, from east to west, towards the realm of the dead. The dismantling of the shrines was sometimes difficult because, firstly, they were put together against the markings and, secondly, little care was taken and some of them had been "forcibly" put together. In two shrines, for example, there were still massive traces of work with a hammer and some parts of the gold paneling had flaked off. The reason for this installation in the burial chamber is probably that the doors could only have opened slightly or not at all if they were correctly aligned, as there was more space in the burial chamber towards the east wall.
The arrangement of nested shrines was known to the excavators from a plan for the grave ( KV2 ) of Ramses IV , which is on the Turin papyrus in 1885 , but these coffin shrines in KV62 were the first to be found in their complete execution were. Carter wrote in his excavation notes that the plan for grave KV2 would have had five shrines instead of four. A comparable shrine, which had been dismantled and badly damaged, was found in 1907 by Edward R. Ayrton for Theodore M. Davis in grave KV55 . This shrine, also made of wood and decorated with gold leaf, shows Akhenaten's mother, Queen Teje , to whom the shrine could be assigned through the inscriptions. Few parts of it are exhibited today in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo in the “Amarna Room”.
sarcophagus
Work on the west-facing sarcophagus (find number 240) began on February 12, 1924. The sarcophagus is 2.75 m long, 1.33 m wide and 1.49 m high. It is made from a single block of yellow quartzite , which has been supplemented with alabaster at the corners . The lid, on the other hand, is made of rose granite and painted to match the sarcophagus tub. It is possible that the actual lid was not finished at the time of the burial. Marianne Eaton-Krauss, on the other hand, specifies red granite as the material for the coffin tub. The lid has a massive crack in the middle, which was probably created in ancient times when it was adapted to the container. Although the crack had been closed with plaster of paris, the excavators were faced with the difficulty that the lid, weighing 1250 kg, could break through completely when lifted and thereby damage the contents of the sarcophagus.
The base of the sarcophagus is painted black. Above that, the lower decoration alternates with Djed pillars , the symbol of consistency and durability, and Isis knot , a symbol of the goddess Isis. These signs can also be found on the first and outer shrine, the Anubis shrine and the canopic shrine and are intended to protect the deceased extensively. The goddesses Isis, Nephthys (to the west), Selket and Neith (to the east) are worked into the corners as a raised relief , which embrace the dead with their wings and thus also provide protection. The upper edge of the sarcophagus is closed with a circumferential hieroglyphic inscription , the long sides each have four columns with inscriptions. The west-facing "head end" with the goddesses Isis and Nephthys is completely provided with inscriptions that can be read from the center to the left and right and relate to the goddesses. The east-facing foot end with the goddesses Selket and Neith has no associated inscriptions. At the head end of the sarcophagus lid facing west is the winged sun disk and the hieroglyphic text belonging to Behdeti (a subsidiary form of the god Horus) in the columns below, which is unique for a royal sarcophagus of the 18th dynasty. In the middle column, Tutankhamun is referred to by his throne name as "Osiris". The shape of the lid corresponds to that of the second shrine and the canopic box and the traditional shrine of Upper Egypt ( per-wer - "big house").
Marianne Eaton-Krauss had examined the sarcophagus in detail and found that it must have been made at least 10 years before Tutankhamun. There is also evidence of a reworking for Tutankhamun's burial. The cartouches were overwritten with the name of Tutankhamun, but the original name can no longer be reconstructed. She suspects that it is the sarcophagus of Neferneferuaton and that it was not used for this king due to the political and religious upheaval. Eaton-Krauss also found that not only about 3 mm of the outer surface of the sarcophagus had been removed in order to remove the original inscriptions, but that the wings of the goddesses had also been added at the four corners.
The position of the sarcophagus has not changed since it was discovered in 1922. Like the outermost gilded wooden coffin and the king's mummy, it has remained in grave KV62 since it was discovered.
coffins
Inside the sarcophagus, Carter discovered three anthropomorphic coffins one after the other . After the last coffin had been recovered, they all stood on a low, gilded wooden stretcher inside the sarcophagus. The bier is decorated with lions' heads and since the king's burial it had carried the weight of all three coffins with a total of "25 x 50 hundredweights" undamaged for thousands of years. Over each of the coffins lay a linen cloth that was decorated with either artificial appliqués or floral decorations. The height of the coffins is measured with the height of the foot section.
The outermost of the coffins measures about 224 centimeters and is made of gilded cypress wood . In order for it to fit into the sarcophagus, the upper part of the foot had to be planed off in order to close the sarcophagus. Carter found the shavings on the sarcophagus, next to a Djed amulet. The second coffin, with a length of 204 cm, is also made of wood covered with gold leaf and, like all Tutankhamun's coffins, is made in the "feather pattern" ( Rishi coffin ). Compared to the outer coffin, the middle coffin has inlays made of glass and gemstones. The colored glass stood for lapis lazuli , turquoise and carnelian . Both the miniature coffins for the entrails of the king and the gilded wooden coffin from grave KV55 have the same design. The second coffin differs in the facial features of the king from the outer and inner coffins. It was therefore probably not originally made for Tutankhamun, but probably for his predecessor with the throne name Ankh-cheperu-Re . The last and inner coffin is made of solid gold. Its length is 187.5 cm and, like the middle coffin, it has partly the same colored inlays made of gemstones. The weight is 110.4 kilograms and the thickness of the gold walls varies between 2.5 mm and 3.0 mm. TGH James writes about this: "It is probably the most impressive coffin that has ever been discovered [...]" This coffin contained the royal mummy with the golden death mask .
The recovery or separation of the middle coffin from the inner coffin turned out to be difficult, as both fit almost exactly into one another and the pegs for lifting out the inner coffin were not easily accessible. Another problem was the abundant anointing oils and resins poured over the inner coffin, which had hardened into a pitch-like mass over time and the last, golden coffin literally stuck to the bottom of the central wooden coffin. The excess of these liquids has caused much damage to the inlay work of the coffin. Among other things, the white of the calcite eyes is destroyed, which is why they are completely black.
Golden death mask
The golden death mask had been stuck to the bottom of the last and golden coffin, together with the mummy, because of the hardened, pitch-like substance, as Carter called it. During the procedure to detach them, some of the inlays of the Nemes headscarf remained in the hardened anointing oils, some of which had to be recovered individually and could be reinserted.
Tutankhamun's mask (find number 256a) is of priceless value and, along with the golden throne, is probably the most famous piece from the king's tomb treasure worldwide. It is one of the most important art treasures of ancient Egypt . The life-size mask is made entirely of chased and polished gold. It weighs 11 kg, is 54 cm high and 39.3 cm wide. The inlays consist entirely of blue glass , which is supposed to imitate lapis lazuli , carnelian , real lapis lazuli, quartz , turquoise blue glass, green feldspar and obsidian . In its processing, the death mask is a masterpiece of Egyptian goldsmithing .
The mask depicts the young king as Osiris and is in the conventional art style from the time of Amenhotep III. worked and not in the style of Amarna art under Akhenaten. Only the two neck folds are based on depictions from the Amarna period. To what extent the golden mask shows the real face of the king is unclear. The portrait, like the bust of Nefertiti, is presumably an ideal and not a realistic representation. The king wears the Nemes headscarf and a neck collar (wesech) that ends at the height of the shoulders with falcon heads as a clasp, as well as the royal beard , which is one of the pharaonic insignia . On the forehead are the king's protective goddesses and symbols of the unification of the empire : Wadjet (country goddess of Lower Egypt ), who has the shape of a Uraeus snake , and Nechbet (country goddess of Upper Egypt ) in the shape of a vulture. On the shoulder area on the right side is the throne name of Tutankhamun, the text over the shoulder can be read from back to front and describes the king as Osiris ( Usir-nisut - "Osiris king") and "true in voice (justified), be given to life like Re ”. On the back of the mask is a hieroglyphic text in ten vertical rows. They reflect the 531st chapter of the coffin texts from the Middle Kingdom (around 2137 to 1781 BC), which was later adopted in the Egyptian Book of the Dead under Proverb 151 B. The saying is supposed to protect the king in the underworld from various dangers. In Proverb 151 of the Book of the Dead it says, among other things, as can be read on Tutankhamun's mask:
- Excerpt from Proverb 151 B: “Your right eye is the night boat, your left eye is the day boat, and your eyebrows are the unity of the gods. Your parting is Anubis , the back of your head is Horus , your fingers are Thoth , your lock of hair is Ptah - Sokar . "
The individual parts of the head are thereby equated with the gods and “give the royal head eternal youth”.
After the restoration work, the mask was initially exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo without the royal beard, which had come off when the mask was removed from the mummy. The first color photograph of the death mask appeared in The Illustrated London News on November 13, 1926 .
The mummy of Tutankhamun
Howard Carter and his team found the young king's mummy after opening the last coffin made entirely of gold on October 28, 1925. Over her was a linen cloth adorned with garlands of flowers. Since the mummy was found in situ , it could be clearly assigned to the young king.
The golden coffin with the mummy was brought to the grave of Seti II (KV15) on November 1, 1925, as more space was available there. The first examination of Tutankhamun's mummy took place on November 11th. Present were, among others, Pierre Lacau, Director of Antiquities Management, Douglas E. Derry, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Cairo , Saleh Bey Hamdi, Howard Carter, Alfred Lucas, Harry Burton and other interested people.
The mummy with a death mask and linen bandages almost completely filled the coffin. She was leaning slightly to one side. As with the golden coffin, an excess of anointing oils had been used on the mummy. According to Carter, these had been poured over the mummy before it was coffin, which was concluded from the different levels of hardened oils on the coffin walls. The linen bandages were worn on both sides of the feet, which must have been caused by friction on the gold coffin. Carter concluded that both of these were due to an impact against the walls of the sarcophagus when it was lowered into the sarcophagus.
Due to the excessive use of anointing oils, the linen bandages were not only colored black, but also extremely brittle. In addition, the oils here had hardened to a pitch-like substance over time, so that the golden death mask and the mummy were completely stuck to the bottom of the coffin and could not be easily lifted out. Carter described that removing Tutankhamun's remains was not possible without significant damage to the mummy. The linen layers were coated with heated paraffin wax and, after hardening, cut open piece by piece to reveal the mummy. Howard Carter's fears about the condition were confirmed: The mummy itself had suffered considerably from the large amount of anointing oils used and was in a "terrible condition" and the bandages near the body were the most severely affected. According to Carter, the bandages had been soaked in the oils and he speculated that approximately "two full buckets of anointing oils" must have been poured over both the golden coffin and the mummy. Douglas E. Derry assumed that the bandages were damp at the time of burial and, in connection with the decomposition process of the fatty acids contained in the oils, had led to both a veritable charring of the bandages and the similarly poor condition of the mummy. The head and feet were less affected because less anointing oil was used in these areas.
The layers of linen on the back of Tutankhamun's mummy were so firmly attached to the bottom of the coffin by the “pitch-like mass” that it had to be chiseled away in order to be able to recover the mummy. In addition, the mummy was beheaded when it was removed, and the pelvis and limbs were separated. The mummy was later reassembled on a sand pad and the limbs glued together with resin. The death mask with the skull inside could not be removed from the coffin floor, so the examination of the mummy on the feet began. For loosening the gold mask, the previously successful method of heating the hardened mass had no effect and, according to Carter's excavation report, hot knives were finally used to loosen the mask. The last examination was for the head of Tutankhamun's mummy.
It was found that the body had been wrapped very carefully with linen bandages, the limbs individually first and then together with the body. Since it was not possible to unwind the individual napkin layers "properly" due to the condition of the napkins, no more precise information could be given about the technology itself. Overall, it was proven that the mummy was wrapped in accordance with its time, the 18th dynasty. The outer and inner layers of lines turned out to be of higher quality than those in between. The mummy was also provided with so-called golden "mummy ribbons". These were demonstrably adapted for Tutankhamun and, after closer examination, were originally made for King Semenchkare / Neferneferuaton . Fragments of this mummy tape had been found in the entrance to the tomb, which Howard Carter found irritating. On the outermost layer of the bandages, artificial hands made of gold leaf, in a crossed posture, held the royal insignia, crook and frond .
Numerous pieces of jewelry and amulets, such as Djed pillars , figures of gods from Thoth , Anubis or Horus, and Isis knots , were inserted into the individual layers of the linen bandages , which were supposed to protect the deceased. The royal mummy also wore bracelets, pectorals, neck collars (wesech) , chains and rings. A total of 143 objects (divided into 101 object groups) were found on Tutankhamun's mummy, which was wrapped in 16 layers of linen bandages. Including two daggers, one of which is made of gold and the other of iron.
The king's arms were slightly bent and not, as can be seen on all three coffin lids, crossed over the chest, with the flagellum and crook as royal insignia. The arms were on the upper abdomen, the left forearm a little higher than the right and the right hand rested on the left hip. The fingers wore gold finger sleeves and gold toe sleeves and gold-plated sandals were found on the feet. The skull was shaved and, in addition to a “headband” made of linen, a “pearl-embroidered cap” was fitted on the back of the head with the two cartouches of the god Aton in his newer version (from the 9th year of Akhenaten's reign). This cap could not be removed without being destroyed and, according to Carter's notes, remained in situ on the mummy's head after the investigation. The linen ribbon and the "cap" are no longer available today. Zahi Hawass attributes this to the investigations by Harrison and Iskander in 1968. The mummy has pierced earlobes. Douglas E. Derry noted, among other things, that in contrast to the usual embalming of the body, the eyes were left untreated. Even the eyelashes, which he described as "very long", were retained. His examination of the mummy at the time revealed that the king died between 17 and 19 years of age. The height calculated from the limbs was 1.68 m according to Derry. To Howard Carter's regret, this examination of the mummy did not reveal the cause of Tutankhamun's death.
After completion of the investigation, Tutankhamun's remains, which had been separated considerably, were completely re-bandaged. The reburial of the young king in KV62 took place on October 23, 1926. When all work on the grave was finished, Tutankhamun's mummy lay undisturbed in the outer wooden coffin in the sarcophagus, which had now been closed with a glass plate instead of the sarcophagus lid, until the first radiological examination.
Howard Carter has graphically documented the respective position of the objects found on the mummy, so that it is possible to understand in which binding layer and in which position the objects were.
Tutankhamun's mummy was never on display in the Cairo museum or stored in a magazine. She is the only royal mummy that has remained in her own grave since a grave was discovered. For a long time it was not visible to visitors at all. During restoration work in the burial chamber, however, the mummy was temporarily stored in the antechamber of the tomb in an air-conditioned glass box. The glass box has been replacing the outer wooden coffin since 2007, as this itself is extremely in need of restoration and the king's mummy is in poor condition since it was repeatedly lifted out for various investigations.
The former minister for antiquities, Mamdouh el-Damaty, forbade a transport of the mummy for further tests to Cairo for further tests in the years since its discovery in 2014, because it has since decayed badly. The archaeologist Ahmed Saleh, responsible for Nubian monuments, noted that the mummy had suffered more from investigations over the past three decades than among archaeologists after the tomb was discovered. "If it continued like this, Tutankhamun's mummy would, in his opinion, be completely destroyed within the next 50 years."
- To the mummy of Tutankhamun
Start of the investigation of Tutankhamun's mummy in KV15 (grave of Sethos II. )
After removing the linen bandages and examining them on a sand base
Side view of the skull with a "pearl-embroidered cap" and a headband
Golden vulture collar from grave KV55, as found in Tutankhamun
Amulets made of sheet gold found on the mummy
Sandals and toe sleeves (replicas)
More finds
Both outside and inside the shrines there were other grave goods. Between the outer wall of the shrine and the north wall, a total of 11 wooden oars lay facing west. In front of the west wall there was an imiut , also known as the “Emblem of Anubis” or the Anubis fetish, to the left and right , which was supposed to serve the restoration and resuscitation of the dead. Other finds outside the shrines included two silver trumpets ( Scheneb ) , gilded fans, some of which still have ostrich feathers, and a limestone oil lamp . There were also a total of three wine amphorae facing the east, west and south walls of the burial chamber. Originally, these empty containers were found to have a ritual character with reference to burial rituals that were performed in the burial chamber after the king's burial and were intended to contribute to the king's transformation. It is questionable who drank this wine instead of the king during a ceremony. Inside the shrines, Carter and his team found many other gifts, including a vase for perfume and a cosmetic jar, each made of alabaster, as well as walking sticks, bows and arrows.
- Further finds in the burial chamber
Lion bier on which all three coffins stood inside the sarcophagus
Alabaster oil vase with Nile gods (JE 62114)
Necklace with three scarabs, found on Tutankhamun's mummy (JE 61900)
Chain with the eye of Re (JE 61901)
Imiuts, emblems of Anubis (JE 61374 and JE 61375)
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The Treasury (Treasury)
The side chamber bordering the burial chamber to the east, referred to as the Treasury by Howard Carter , has a size of 18.06 m². Like the antechamber and the extension, the room is only roughly hewn, not plastered or undecorated. The access to the treasury was open. Its height is about the same as the antechamber, but there is a step in the entrance. Like the annex, the treasury has a large number of objects that do not belong together due to the lack of space in the grave. Carter refers to the Papyrus Turin 1885 on the grave of Ramses IV. There information is given about the chambers in the grave, according to which there are four other rooms or treasure chambers in addition to a "crypt", as well as adjoining pillar halls, a room for shabtis , a "resting place of the Gods ”, a treasure chamber and a“ treasure chamber of the innermost room ”. In the treasury in KV62, all of these rooms are put together, which, according to Carter, explains the different and downright “crammed together” gifts inside. Work in the treasury began on October 24, 1926, in the fifth season of excavations.
Finds in the treasury
Canopic shrine and canopic box
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The most important find of the side chamber to the east of the burial chamber is considered to be the gilded canopic shrine of Tutankhamun, which was placed on a canopy above it with uraeus snakes and stood on a gilded wooden sledge. The four protective goddesses Isis , Nephthys , Selket and Neith have been placed on the sides . In terms of their proportions, the goddesses are worked according to the specifications of Amarna art, but are not shown with the usual clothing. All of them wear the tight-fitting, pleated garments typical of the Amarna period, such as Nefertiti on reliefs or sculptures. This also points to an emergence during or shortly after the Amarna period. They are clearly identified by the associated emblems as headdresses.
The four goddesses were responsible for protecting the sons of Horus , also called guardian spirits ( Genii ), who watch over the mummified entrails. A goddess was assigned to each son of Horus. The orientation of both the goddesses and the sons of Horus was determined according to the cardinal points. In KV62, however, the goddesses were reversed in pairs: Selket was in the south (instead of west) and Isis in the west (instead of south), Neith in the north (instead of east) and Nephthys in the east (instead of north). As a result, they did not protect their respective son of Horus. For Selket this is Kebechsenuef (west), for Isis Amset (south), for Neith Duamutef (east) and for Nephthys Hapi (north).
The shrine contained the alabaster canopic box , which was covered with a dark discolored linen cloth when it was found. The box was closed on each side by knotted ropes with four intact clay seals of the city of the dead. Inside the box, four compartments in oval canopic shape are incorporated into the alabaster, which were closed with four human-headed lids. These small coffins contained the ruler's mummified entrails removed from the body. Both they and the entrails made of gold and contained therein show the facial features of a king, but differ from other depictions of Tutankhamun. According to detailed studies, the miniature coffins had been reworked for Tutankhamun and his names written on the cartouches. These originally contained the throne name Ankcheperure from Tutankhamun's predecessor Neferneferuaton ( proper name ). As presumably the canopic box, the miniature coffins were also made for Neferneferuaton .
Anubis Shrine
Directly at the entrance to the chamber was a partially gilded and black painted statue of Anubis in the form of a reclining canid on a shrine that stood on a sled with carrying bars. In front of it there was a magical brick with a small torch made of reeds and charcoal on the ground. The Anubis figure was wrapped in a linen shirt, which , according to the hieroglyphic inscription in ink, dates from the 7th year of King ( Pharaoh ) Akhenaten's reign . Four small compartments and one large compartment are incorporated into the interior of the shrine. Despite being robbed, they contained numerous objects: amulets, everyday objects, miniature beef thighs, small figures in mummies and figures of gods. Howard Carter suspected that these additions were related to rituals for mummification . The pectorals had no chains or counterweights and were wrapped in linen and sealed. In one of the pectorals showing the winged sky goddess Nut , Carter found that this originally contained the names ( throne and proper names ) Akhenaten and had been reworked for Tutankhamun. Behind Anubisschrein and between the canopic shrine stood a gilded cow's head symbolizing Hathor .
Heart scarab
Another of the golden pectorals from the Anubis shrine is special: Tutankhamun's heart scarab, made of green feldspar, with stylized, open wings, is incorporated between the goddesses Isis and Nephthys. The scarab was missing when it was found in the Anubis Shrine and was later discovered in the cartridge-shaped chest and reinserted into the piece of jewelry. The winged sun disk above the scarab is (also winged sun ), a symbol of the god Horus . The reverse bears a saying from the Egyptian Book of the Dead , which warns the heart ( jb - ib) of the king to bear false witness against him.
- Excerpt from Proverb 30 A: "Do not speak against me: He has done it - according to what I have done - do not bring any charges against me before the Greatest God of the West".
- Excerpt from Proverb 30 B. “Don't lie against me on the side of God, before the Great God, the Lord of the West! See, you are exalted so that you are justified ( Maa-cheru ) ! "
The addendum to Spruch 30B describes what materials the heart scarab has to be made of, about which the saying is to be spoken and how the amulet is to be put on the deceased: “To speak of a beetle made of green stone, set in white gold, his ring made of silver . Will be given to the deceased ( oh ) on his neck. ”Usually these heart scarabs were inserted into the linen bandages on the chest when the mummy was wrapped, usually near the heart, as the heart was not removed from the corpse. Tutankhamun's mummy had another heart scarab made of black stone, which was supposed to replace the actual heart scarab, lying on the outermost layer of binding between the crossed gold leaf hands holding the scepter and flagellum . This scarab instead had Proverb 29 B from the Egyptian Book of the Dead on the reverse. The peculiarity of the location of the actual heart scarab in the treasury is that the mummy of Tutankhamun lacks a heart.
More finds
Other objects include small gilded statues of the king and gods as well as chests, model boats and ushabti.
In this chamber a wooden box was found that contained two small anthropomorphic coffins with two fetuses . On the other hand, according to popular opinion, these are not an isolated find; some other finds of mummified fetuses are known. The Italian archaeologist Ernesto Schiaparelli discovered 1903-1906 in the grave ( QV 55 ) of Amuncherchepeschef , a son of Ramses III in the valley of the queens, also a fetus, probably a child of Ramses III. The skeleton of a late fetus or a premature birth was also found in the shaft below the grave of Haremhab . There are also known burials of fetuses in a Roman cemetery in the Daleh oasis.
The two fetuses were found in the tomb of Tutankhamun in small coffins, which do not bear the children's names, but simply refer to them as " Osiris " ( Usjr - Usir), a title that every dead person wore. They are now held at the Cairo University Medical School under inventory numbers "Carter 317a" and "Carter 317b" .
317a is the smaller of the two fetuses and was in very good condition when it was discovered; it even had remains of the umbilical cord. The body was artificially mummified , so traces of mummified entrails were found in the body cavity and traces of embalming material in the skull. The hands of the fetus are placed on the inner thighs. Today, however, the mummy is in such a bad condition that no incision to remove the organs or damage to the skull to remove the brain could be detected. Even the statement from earlier studies that the fetus is female can no longer be confirmed today. The fetus is 29.9 cm and is estimated to be 24.5 weeks of age.
The larger fetus 317b was less well preserved when it was discovered, but is in better condition than 317a today. He is 36.1 cm tall and still has hair fluff, eyebrows and eyelashes. The hands are placed on both sides of the body. There is a 1.8 cm incision on the side of the mummy through which the entrails were removed. The brain was removed with a tiny instrument. This tool was so small that it was probably made specifically for the mummification of the fetus. The then examining medic, Douglas Derry, threw it away. The fetus lived to be 30-36 weeks old (the data differ depending on the examination) and was fully viable. However, it has some genetic anomalies: Sprengel malformation, the spinal dysphrasia syndrome and a slight scoliosis . The fetus is female.
Due to the poor state of preservation, proper DNA samples could not be taken from the fetuses. With fetus 317a they were so bad that no conclusive results could be obtained, with 317b, however, there is a 99.9% probability that it is a child of Tutankhamun. As the mother of the child, the mummy KV21a was identified as part of the 2010 King Tutankhamen Family Project . This could not be genetically assigned to a daughter of King Akhenaten and thus possibly Anchesenamun . Your identity has therefore not yet been clarified.
A small gilded death mask made of cardboard , which was found in KV54 ("embalming depot"), can probably be assigned to one of the two fetuses. All the finds from grave KV54, except for this small death mask, are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. In the treasury there were further miniature coffins, some of which contained another small coffin. One of these coffins contained the crouching gold figure of a king with an accompanying pearl necklace (find number 302c), which Howard Carter Amenhotep III. assigned. According to Reeves, it can also be a representation of Tutankhamun himself. Another coffin contained a lock of hair (find number 320e) which, according to the inscriptions, belongs to Queen Tiy . The lock of hair was compared with this because of the inscription and the early suspicion that the "mummy KV35EL" (EL for Elder Lady ) from the grave ( KV35 ) of Amenhotep II was Queen Teje. The investigation already showed that the "mummy KV35EL" is that of Queen Tiy before the investigation carried out in 2010 as part of the so-called King Tutankhamen Family Project . This lock of hair in Tutankhamun's grave is undoubtedly from his grandmother Teje.
In total, over 500 different objects were found in the treasury. The investigation and evacuation of the chamber took place after the burial chamber and began in the 5th excavation season (September 22, 1926 - May 3, 1927). During the work in the burial chamber, this side chamber was closed with wooden boards in order to prevent damage to the objects located there.
- Finds in the treasury
Anubis at his shrine , Cairo Egyptian Museum (JE 61444)
Canopic shrine from KV62, Cairo Egyptian Museum (JE 60686)
Canopic box, Cairo Egyptian Museum (JE 60687)
Model boat / sailing boat (replica), original: Egyptian Museum Cairo
winged scarab with the throne name Tutankhamun (Neb-cheperu-Re) , Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 61886)
Figure of the Sekhmet (replica), Original: Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 60794)
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The side chamber (annexes)
The side chamber adjoining the west side of the antechamber (I), also known as an extension, has a size of 11.14 m² and was separated from the antechamber by a door panel. Like the antechamber, the side chamber is roughly hewn, not plastered and undecorated. The floor level of this chamber is about 90 cm lower than that of the antechamber. After the king's funeral, it was probably the last chamber sealed in the tomb. The passage, which was originally walled up and partially broken by grave robbers, is 1.40 m high. As with the antechamber or treasury, the officials of the Necropolis had not carried out any clean-up work after the first robbery and Howard Carter found the grave goods in this chamber in complete confusion. In contrast to the two other passages in the partition walls, from the corridor to the antechamber and from the antechamber to the burial chamber, this entrance was not completely closed again after the first robbery. The remains of the original walling were preserved and showed both the seal of the necropolis and the seal of the necropolis with the throne name Tutankhamun in it. The side chamber was, apart from a few pieces stored in the antechamber, the last chamber of the tomb to be cleared. Work in this last chamber began on October 30, 1927 and was completed in December of the same year.
Finds in the side chamber
This chamber, originally intended as a storage room, contained objects that are atypical for such a room. Usually it was used to store precious oils, wine in jugs or food such as bread and dried meat. However, the items included extensive furniture such as beds, chairs, walking sticks, chests and boxes, shields, bows and arrows, as well as two other chariots and the supplies intended for this chamber such as wine jugs, loaves of bread, baskets and, furthermore, ushabtis (servant figures).
- Finds in the side chamber
Calcite boat with a basin (replica), Original: Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 62120)
Ointment jar of calcite , Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 62114)
Ceremonial fan, Cairo Egyptian Museum (JE 62000)
Chariots from the antechamber, shields from the extension (replicas)
Senet game, Cairo Egyptian Museum
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Wall decorations
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The burial chamber is the only decorated room in the tomb. The roughly hewn and unplastered ceiling shows no paintings in comparison to other royal tombs. The walls are also not completely painted from floor to ceiling. The wall paintings end approximately at the level of the sarcophagus. The area below is white. The basic color of all walls is a shade of yellow that was applied to the white plaster of the smoothly hewn walls. Yellow symbolized gold, which was the metal of the gods and was also seen as the flesh of the gods, especially the sun god Re . The name for a burial chamber or the workshops in which coffins were made was also "gold house" (per-nebu) . The colors used in the murals for the figures are red, brown, blue, green, black and white. Except for black, the bases for the colors were of mineral origin. The colors looked lively , despite the mold stains and the areas that were destroyed as a result.
On each side of the chamber forms the hieroglyph for heaven in dark blue (pet)
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The Getty Conservation Institute found in its work from 2009 to 2014 that the artistic work on the north wall is different from all the other three walls. On the east, west and south walls, the figures were applied directly to the yellow background color, whereas the figures shown on the north wall were originally painted on a pure white surface and the yellow painting was subsequently applied around the figures. In addition, the yellow tone of the north wall shows a slightly lighter color deviation from the remaining walls of the chamber. Nicholas Reeves therefore deduces, among other things, from the different processing of the chamber walls that the north wall must have been painted in front of the other walls in the tomb and that this had been reworked for Tutankhamun's burial. The original inscriptions were painted over and new ones were written. According to Howard Carter, the burial chamber was not plastered and decorated with wall paintings until after the king had been buried and all the shrines had been built, since the walling of the passage from the south wall of the burial chamber to the antechamber could only be done after the complete burial. Accordingly, there was little space available for the craftsmen and artists, which, according to Carter, resulted in the very simple and less artistic execution of the paintings. In addition, according to Marianne Eaton-Krauss, there was insufficient light in the burial chamber. On the other hand, the paintings with the “brilliant and bright colors” had obviously been executed in a hurry. Howard Carter suspected in this last work in grave KV62 the cause of the formation of mold, since both the plastered walls and the freshly applied paint were still damp without being able to dry completely before the grave was closed. The south wall of the burial chamber was the last wall to be painted after the burial chamber was fully furnished. A passage remained for the work of the artists, which was completely walled up after the wall decoration had been completed.
The representations of the figures in the entire burial chamber appear in some cases extraordinary compared to representations in other royal tombs and are reminiscent of the art of the Amarna period . In fact, different design grids were used by the draftsmen for the figures . On the one hand, the original grid with 18 squares on the south wall and the one used in Amarna art with 20 squares, so that the proportions of the figures are different. The contrast is formed by the wall paintings in Haremhab's grave ( KV57 ), which are again in the style of the Theban necropolis . Gaston Maspero therefore assumed, for example, that the decorations in this tomb were made by the same artists as those in tomb KV17 of Sethos I.
Decoration program
The motifs of the burial chamber walls begin with the east wall, ending with the north, west and south wall, running counterclockwise and with the beginning of the burial of the king up to his entry into the realm of the dead. The direction of the events shown is from right to left, except on the east wall. The reading direction of the hieroglyphs depends on the representations.
East wall
The deceased king lies mummified on a bier with lion heads and lion feet, which is located in a canopy under a canopy decorated with uraeus snakes on a bark and stands on a sledge. The reading of the hieroglyphs is done entirely from left to right on this wall. Above the king's mummy it reads: “The perfect God, Lord of the two countries, Neb-cheperu-Re ( throne name Tutankhamun), may he live for ever, the name of Re for infinite duration.” Isis is at the back of the boat , at the front her twin sister Nephthys and in front of her the king lion's body. The bow of the barque shows a Horus eye (udjat) , which is a common symbol for funeral boats. Both the bow and stern of the bark are provided with a red and a white band, which is typical of the Amarna period.
Twelve people in five groups pull the sledge. All wear a white headband as a sign of mourning. The penultimate two people have shaved heads and, in contrast to the other grave bearers, wear off-the-shoulder robes. They are probably viziers in their function as ministers for Upper and Lower Egypt . According to the hieroglyphic text above their heads, they speak with one voice "that Neb-cheperu-Re comes in peace, is praised as God and is protector of the land". The scene continues directly on the north wall, as the beginning of the rope that the grave bearers hold to pull the sledge is shown there.
The depiction of a king being carried to his grave is unusual for a royal tomb and is uniquely documented in Tutankhamun's burial place. Just as comparatively the “bird hunting in the swamps” in the Ejes grave ( WV23 ) is unique for a royal grave and belongs to the pictorial program of a civil grave. The first nine people are referred to as so-called "nine friends" in other depictions and are also taken from the traditional image program of the private graves.
North face
The decoration of the adjoining north wall consists of three scenes and begins with the preparation of the king's journey to the afterlife ( Duat ).
The first section shows the opening ceremony of the mouth of the deceased king by Eje , who was a vizier and “true scribe of the king” under Tutankhamun before his accession to the throne . As the new ruler, he wears the blue crown ( Chepresch ), which was often worn in the 18th dynasty, and is also identified as a Sem priest by the panther skin . Tutankhamun has the shape of Osiris with a typical Atef crown , a flagellum in each hand and a scarab with open wings as decoration. Such a scarab can also be seen on the east wall on the depicted royal mummy and was also a piece of jewelry in the grave treasure. In the cult of the dead, one of the tasks of the Sem priest was that of a ritual priest to perform the ceremony of opening the mouth. The symbol of the mouth opening is an adze that Eje holds in both hands. Through this mouth opening ceremony the king's mummy should not only regain the ability to eat and drink in the afterlife, but the deceased should regain power over all his senses . Eje functions here in the “mythological role of Horus , who buries his father Osiris.” Marianne Eaton-Krauss points out to this scene that “the actual age relationship of Eje and Tutankhamun in no way corresponds to Eje's cultic function”. Between the two people there is a table on which there is also an adze, a beef thigh, an ostrich feather held by a "magic finger" and the symbol of the double feather - the magic devices necessary for the ritual. Above it are five vessels with materials that also belong to the mouth opening, presumably incense, ointments or baking soda. Eje not only wears the blue crown, which identifies him as the reigning king, but also the hieroglyphics that precede the two cartouches of his own name and throne name , characterize him with the titles Sa Ra ("Son of Re ") and Nisut biti (" King of Upper and Lower Egypt ”) as ruler. The former court official Akhenaten and Tutankhamun with the title "Father of God" is thus recorded as the royal successor of Tutankhamun, as he is missing in the later king lists. This scene, in which the subsequent king is depicted in the grave of his deceased predecessor during the opening ceremony of the mouth, is so far without comparison in royal graves. Of all four decorated walls, only Tutankhamun's name and throne name can be found here, otherwise only the throne name. Carter describes this scene as of particular historical value. The inscriptions can be read on the north wall facing the direction of the person they are standing above. For Eje the reading is from left to right, for Tutankhamun from right to left.
The inscription in four columns to Eje reads on the right side of the first scene, reading the hieroglyphs in the depiction from left to right:
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1) Perfect God, Lord of both countries, Lord of the making of things (also: Lord of rituals)
2) King of Upper and Lower Egypt, ( Cheper-cheperu-Re ) "embodiment of the appearances of Re",
3) Son of Re , ( It-netjer-Ai ) “God's father Eje”,
4) Be given to life as Re, eternal and of infinite duration.
The inscription in three columns to Tutankhamun on the left side of the first scene reads the hieroglyphs in the depiction from left to right:
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1) Perfect God, Lord of both countries, Lord of the apparitions (also: Lord of the Crowns)
2) King of Upper and Lower Egypt, ( Neb-cheperu-Re ) "Lord of figures, a Re",
3) Son of Re, "Living image of Amun, ruler of the southern Iunu ", given to life forever.
In the second, immediately following scene, the deceased ruler faces the sky goddess Nut , who greets the king with the Ni-Ni gesture as "the one she gave birth". A goddess' greeting to the king as her son. Tutankhamun wears a short wig and over it a diadem with a uraeus snake on his forehead. A comparable diadem was found on Tutankhamun's mummy. The deceased king holds a staff in his right hand and an ankh symbol, the hieroglyph for life and a royal insignia in his left hand . The saying about Nut reads: “Lady of Heaven, Beloved of the Gods, who gives health and life to his nose and thus his breath.” For Tutankhamun, the texts can be read from left to right and for Nut from right to left.
The last and final scene shows Tutankhamun with a Nemes headscarf and his ka standing behind him in front of Osiris, the god of the afterlife and rebirth, but also the god of fertility, who welcomes the king to the underworld with a hug. The hieroglyphs about Tutankhamun describe him as "perfect God, Lord of both countries, Lord of appearances, to whom life is given, eternal and of infinite duration."
West wall
The west wall on the left of the entrance to the burial chamber contains text excerpts from the first chapter of the Amduat book, “The book of what is in the Duat (Beyond)”. This representation is the most important in Tutankhamun's burial chamber. The scene is read from right to left. In the first, two-part register, under the hieroglyphic inscription, the sun barge is preceded by five gods from the Amduat: Maa, Nebet-uba, Heru, Ka-Shu and Nehes. In the barque is the scarab Chepre (also Chepri), which symbolizes the sunrise and the morning sun and stands for life and existence. Below are three more registers, each divided into four compartments with a sacred baboon, which is also a symbolic animal of the god Thoth. These crouching baboons represent the first of the twelve hours of night that the sun and the king have to put behind them in order to be born again in the morning. This goes back to the myth of the sun god Re , who had to face numerous enemies, obstacles and spirits on his journey through the twelve hours of the night. The best known is probably the fight against the snake Apophis , who is always pushed back into chaos so that Re can rise again as the sun, incarnating Chepre. At the end of the first lesson in the Amduat it says:
- “There are 120 miles to go to this gateway. The hour that guides this doorway - its name is Which shatters the foreheads of Re . It is the first hour of the night. "
A comparable representation can be found, with a slightly different division compared to that in Tutankhamun's burial chamber, on the northeast wall in the tomb ( WV23 ) of his successor Eje.
South wall
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The depictions on the south wall are a parallel to the north wall and represent the conclusion of the depictions of the king from his burial to his entry into the realm of the dead. Tutankhamun wears a so-called chat headscarf with Uraeus and is Hathor , goddess of the west according to hieroglyphics ( Realm of the Dead) and “Mistress of Heaven” (Nebet-pet) , but generally also the goddess of love, peace, beauty, dance, art and music. She holds a life-giving Ankh to the deceased's nose while she holds another in her hand. Behind the king stands Anubis , the god of the rites of the dead, also holding an ankh, who puts a hand on Tutankhamun's shoulder. In order to gain access to the burial chamber and to examine it and finally to clear it, Howard Carter had to remove part of the north wall of the antechamber and thus part of the south wall of the burial chamber. However, Harry Burton was able to take a photograph of the reassembled parts of the original wall so that the overall view remains comprehensible. The goddess Isis standing behind Anubis , also goddess of the dead and goddess of birth, rebirth and magic , as well as three squatting, identical underworld deities are no longer preserved today. Most of the inscription on Isis with her name is still legible. Isis holds the symbol for "water" in both hands, which indicates ritual purity ( Ni-Ni greeting) and is therefore the counterpart to the goddess Nut on the north wall, who holds the same symbol in her hands and faces the king there directly. Georg Steindorff commented on the goddess Isis: “The picture was incomplete; it makes no sense without the king, on whom the goddess performs the water-giving ceremony. "
The representations of the gods
The gods Osiris and Nut shown on the north wall face east. On the south wall, however, the face of Hathor faces the king facing east and Anubis, Isis and the underworld deities are facing west, with their gaze resting directly on the only representation of the king on this wall. Compared to the north wall, where Tutankhamun stands in front of Nut, a figure of the king in front of Isis is missing on the south wall, as there was not enough space for this, despite the almost identical wall length to the north wall, due to the representation of the identical underworld deities.
The goddess Isis was not depicted in royal tombs until the end of the Amarna period . This is due to the fact that the daily resurrection of Osiris did not take place through his sister wife Isis, but through the sun god Re . On the other hand, neither Osiris nor Isis had a function within the new religion of Aten of Akhenaten. Isis was not only considered the sister of Osiris, but also the mother of the king. Isis is shown for the first time in the tomb of Tutankhamun, and four times in the later tomb of King Haremhab ( KV57 ).
Furnishing
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The grave equipment comprised the following categories of objects:
- Those that have already been used in everyday life, such as jewelry or cosmetic jars.
- Specially made for a funeral, such as a coffin or ushabti.
- Objects that were used in religious rituals during funeral ceremonies and then buried with the dead.
The discovery of KV62 with a largely complete grave treasure with artefacts in different states of preservation was the first of its kind and brought various insights for Egyptological research. On the one hand about the additions at royal funerals and on the other hand about the burial of a king. The grave contained both the shrines mentioned on a papyrus for the grave of Ramses IV and a complete coffin ensemble, consisting of a sarcophagus, three coffins and the king's mummy. In addition, information about Tutankhamun and the Amarna period could be obtained.
The grave contained the following items distributed across all chambers: clothing, fabrics and numerous scarabs or jewelry made of gold and precious stones, small statues of the king and gods, incense , walking sticks, fans, decorative items, furniture such as chests, chairs and loungers, board games, food (Bread), wine jugs, clay and gold vessels, chariots and hunting weapons , as well as various vessels for cosmetics , ointments and oils as well as spices. Numerous amulets and other jewelry were found on the mummy itself. Some of the gifts could be assigned to the personal use of the king, such as clothing or jewelry, while others were intended purely for burial or ritual use.
But there were also objects donated for burial, such as a ushabti made of wood by the high official and treasurer Maya , identified by the inscription with his name dedicated to the king. This figure shows King Tutankhamun in the form of a mummy lying on a bier, flanked by a falcon and the king's ba , both of which protect the king with their wings. Also by Nachtmin , under Tutankhamun with the titles “ member of the elite ”, “ clerk of the king”, “great chief of troops” or “ frond bearer on the right of the king ”, ushabtis were found for his king in KV62.
A gilded reed rod that Tutankhamun cut himself, according to the inscription, is considered the king's personal item .
For a large part of the grave goods it was already proven at the time of the discovery by Howard Carter that much of the grave equipment was not originally intended for Tutankhamun or made for him, but came from "second hand". As in grave KV55, it was a " hodgepodge " of objects that could be assigned to the following people from Tutankhamun's family or his predecessors:
- Amenhotep III : an ivory palette and a calcite vase, the latter together with the name of Queen Teje
- Teje : Miniature coffin with an inscription to Queen Teje, which contained a lock of her hair, as well as ivory rattles with her name
- Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV.): Fans, various linen cloths with different years of government, pieces of jewelry that were reworked for Tutankhamun
- Neferneferuaton / Semenchkare : for example, golden mummy ribbons, small intestinal coffins (changed for Tutankhamun)
- Meritaton : pen palette
- Neferneferure : lid of a box
- Maketaton : ivory pen palette
- Thutmose (Crown Prince) : whip stick
Some pieces, such as the small golden shrine, chests or the golden throne, show Tutankhamun with his great royal wife Ankhesenamun . The didactic name of the god Aton , in its second version from the 9th year of Akhenaten's reign, can be found not only on the golden throne, but also on the "pearl-embroidered cap" that was found on the head of Tutankhamun's mummy. A gold Sechem scepter (find number 577, Egyptian Museum Cairo, JE 61759) names both Aton and Amun . Aton is "subordinate" to Amun here
TGH James' impression of the entire tomb inventory is that of a seemingly random collection of objects from the palace and the magazines: “For example, a royal funeral offered the opportunity to dispose of objects that are no longer needed but are not thrown away were allowed? ”Although there are many unanswered questions about the objects themselves, they still provide information about the artists who made these“ remarkable ”objects and who had extensive knowledge of the materials they worked on and processed. His rating of the grave equipment is:
“The content of the grave is a cornucopia of sacred and profane treasures that always enchant, surprise and teach us anew. They are just wonderful things [...] "
The grave goods not only give an impression of the excellent artistic skills of the workers in the necropolis, but also of the processing techniques of the materials used in clothing, jewelry or furniture. Many similarly found objects are in a much worse state of preservation, which is why the objects from KV62 are ideally suited for analyzes and investigations. Comparisons of materials found in the tomb showed different qualities, as had already been determined with the bandages for the mummification of the king.
Assessment of Howard Carter's work
While his former mentor Flinders Petrie approved at the time of the discovery that this excavation was the responsibility of Howard Carter and Alfred Lucas, Carter's work on grave KV62 as well as his notes and descriptions did not go unreflected and uncritical among later archaeologists. The ratings are different. Various aspects have been objected to over the years: working methods, misrepresentation of events, doubts about the descriptions of two robberies of the grave in antiquity, and the unlawful stealing of objects from the grave treasure. The presentation of the history of the find was later partially corrected by Alfred Lucas, at the time a member of the Carter's excavation team, and Thomas Hoving, former director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
Working methods
According to Thomas Hoving, Howard Carter failed his grave work. On the one hand, instead of a scientific treatise, Carter would have published only a three-volume work, which is generally regarded as a preliminary report, on the other hand, his "lack of profound scientific knowledge would put him close to Giovanni Battista Belzoni , whom he held so highly valued ." Hoving described Carter as one "The last and greatest treasure hunter in Egypt."
The destructive handling of Tutankhamun's mummy was also criticized. To establish that the royal mummy was missing the breastbone and parts of the ribs, Zahi Hawass and Ahmed Saleh, for example, judged that Howard Carter's interest was only in recovering the jewelry from the mummy and not in itself. In addition, these missing bones were not mentioned by the royal mummy in either Carter's notes or Douglas E. Derry's report.
Representation of events
Christine El Mahdy described it as a strange coincidence that KV62 was discovered just three days after the start of the excavation season. Carter must have known the location of the grave before it was discovered, as the protective wall that was erected around the grave of Ramses VI. ( KV9 ) was erected before the tomb of Tutankhamun was found and closes exactly without obstructing the entrance of KV62.
Howard Carter's descriptions of some events do not always correspond to the representations of third parties. Contrary to his statements, he, Lord Carnarvon and his daughter Evelyn Herbert secretly entered the burial chamber and probably the treasury already on November 28, 1922, one day before the official opening of the tomb, in the same way as the grave robbers at the time. The original hole in the partition was then closed and covered with reed and a woven basket lid. This premature entry emerges on the one hand from a letter from Lady Evelyn to Howard Carter, who thanks him for being allowed to enter the "holy of the holy". She describes this moment as the "greatest of her life". On the other hand, Lord Carnarvon also mentions the visit to the burial chamber in a letter to Alan Gardiner. Furthermore, the photos of the north wall of the antechamber show that the chest (find number 21) had been moved between the large wooden statues, as it can be seen in different positions on the photos. In 1947, eight years after Howard Carter's death, Alfred Lucas published a report in Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte , according to which Carter admitted that the hole had been reclosed. According to Jaromír Málek, entering the burial chamber early speaks for Howard Carter's later statement that the burial chamber must be located behind the walled partition.
Doubts about grave robbery in antiquity
Rolf Krauss doubts the representation of Carter about a two-time robbery before the grave was discovered and considers this to be faked. Paragraphs 9 and 10 on the division of finds in the excavation license form the basis for its acceptance. Only in the case of a robbed grave should the shares of the find be made equally for the excavator and the country of Egypt. According to Krauss, it would have been in Carnarvon's and Carter's interest to "interpret the find situation in their favor". Krauss also attributes the opening of the small shrines and chests to Carter himself, and makes various points in his argument about Howard Carter's intentional deception. In addition to the fact that the "head of Nefertem" was found and the later depiction of Alfred Lucas on the partition wall from the antechamber to the burial chamber, he points out, among other things, that Carter does not mention any broken pieces of the seal from the shrine doors or the wine jugs. In his opinion, the wine jugs do not necessarily have to be closed at the time of entombment, for example. He is skeptical of Howard Carter's conclusion that the contents of the chests did not match their inventory lists and that this was due to the careless placing of objects in the containers by officials of the necropolis. Rolf Krauss refers to Jaroslav Černý , according to which the containers were already marked before they were filled and some things that were intended for the grave had not been delivered to the burial and were therefore missing from the start. Another inconsistency is the description of the find of an ointment vessel in the form of a double cartridge (find number 240 bis, Egyptian Museum Cairo, JE 61496). Carter said he found it in the sarcophagus tub, while Alfred Lucas said the object was found inside the shrines. According to Krauss, the photos are arranged in situ in the antechamber, especially that of the north wall towards the burial chamber with the two guardian statues. He also questions the ancient footprints in the grave mentioned by Carter and refers, among other things, to an observation by Rosemarie Drenkhahn. According to her, the arch case found in the side chamber has impressions with heels and are therefore modern shoes and not the ancient grave robbers. Krauss also questions how Howard Carter was able to distinguish the footprints of grave robbers from those who repaired and sealed the grave.
Stolen objects
As early as 1924, during Howard Carter's absence in Egypt, the "head of Nefertem" caused a stir and there was suspicion that he had embezzled the object. After both Lord Carnarvon's and Howard Carter's deaths, it turned out that there were objects in both estates that had to come from the grave treasure of KV62, but had not been recorded in the records. Carnarvon's Egyptian collection had been sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Phyllis Walker, Carter's niece and sole heir, was only able to return the objects to Egypt through King Faruq in 1946 due to the Second World War . These pieces have since been part of the exhibition in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. How and when the objects came into the possession of both is unclear. Zahi Hawass concludes that they must have taken the finds before it was decided that there would be no division of the grave treasure. In his opinion, this was Howard Carter's greatest mistake if the announcement by the Egyptian government that the tomb was to be considered "intact" had been made before the items were removed. After that, Howard Carter would have been a thief.
Another controversial object for Christian E. Loeben , curator and head of the Egyptian and Islamic collection in the August Kestner Museum in Hanover, is a shabti of Tutankhamun in the Louvre that bears the king's throne name. According to Loeben, it can "only come from the grave".
Other reviews
Veronica Seton-Williams and Joyce Tyldesley take a different perspective on Howard Carter's approach to dealing with grave treasure.
“And what do we think of Carter and Carnavon? It has become fashionable to denigrate people who have made a name for themselves in any field. It has now been more than 50 years since Tutankhamun's tomb was discovered, and at that time the ideas of what was correct and incorrect in the archaeological field were completely different. If something is reprehensible, it is not the relatively imperfect field work that had to be done under very difficult conditions, but rather the unscrupulous attempts by financially strong museums to find a piece that seems attractive to buy at any price without researching its origin. "
"But before we condemn Carter for thinking and acting like a man of his time, perhaps we should think about what would have happened had one or the other of his contemporaries discovered Tutankhamun's grave."
Jaromír Málek not only considered an early discovery of the grave illogical, but also sees the meticulousness with which Carter worked over the entire period of the excavation as a contradiction to the allegations made. He would not call Howard Carter a “thief” because he would never have tried to sell items from the grave.
Howard Carter after Tutankhamun
The work on grave KV62 had not only been strenuous for Howard Carter since its discovery, but also frustrating over the period of the excavation. Four years after the annex had been cleared, the last objects in the grave and in the laboratory had been cleared, the work on Tutankhamun's grave had been completely completed in 1932, ten years after its discovery. In 1933 Carter finished the third and final volume of The tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen . Subsequently, a six-volume publication was planned under the title A Report upon the Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen . All that exists is his notes in preparation for such a publication, which are also available on the Griffith Institute website. After ten years of excavation, Carter, now 58 years old, was mentally and physically exhausted. The work on the objects and their analysis had become increasingly a burden for him. His notes give the impression that “Tutankhamun's grave was too much for him in life”. He had never been involved in an excavation in Egypt again, but occasionally led dignitaries or personalities through the Valley of the Kings, the last time in 1936. Carter had few friends among Egyptologists and despite his fame for this discovery, he received public recognition for his work failed at the time. Howard Carter's health deteriorated increasingly since 1933 and he lived alternately in England and Egypt until his death on March 2, 1939 in London.
Interpretation and meaning of the grave complex
“The archaeological value of the grave equipment is immeasurable. Objects were found which, apart from depictions in other tombs and temples, had never been seen before [...] "
General
The common assumption is that because of its rather small size, tomb KV62 was originally created for a high official or a member of the royal family in the late half of the 18th Dynasty. According to Erik Hornung , the grave is not a royal grave in terms of its layout. For Tutankhamun either WV23 , the later grave of Ejes, or WV25 , which might have been started by Amenhotep IV (later Akhenaten), was originally planned in the western valley . Haremhab's tomb, KV57, was also considered for Tutankhamun. However, there is no indication of which of these graves was intended for him. Tutankhamun's successor Eje was finally buried in grave WV23. There the burial chamber is also the only decorated room and the wall paintings show striking parallels to those in the burial chamber of KV62, such as the yellow, almost ocher-colored background and the wall with the text excerpt from the Amduat.
For the burial of Tutankhamun, according to the thesis of a grave exchange, a burial chamber and an auxiliary chamber were added in KV62 to make it resemble a royal tomb. So-called "official graves" or private graves consist of just one chamber , like the grave KV46 of Tuja and Juja , which is also in the Valley of the Kings . Investigations by Egyptologists on various objects from the grave have shown over the years that the grave goods in KV62 consist only of a few personal objects for or by Tutankhamun and that many objects had been reworked for him, i.e. given his name and the originally repaid. Compared to other royal tombs, the wall decorations are not carried out too carefully either. Due to this and the reworking of a corridor grave into a small royal grave, Tutankhamun's burial is interpreted as hasty and improvised. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt noted that, despite the hasty burial, this had taken place according to the prescribed rites: “One could only object that these rooms were probably not intended for the ruler, after all they had been made available in such a way that they did not have any fundamental laws In 1922, Howard Carter noted that Tutankhamun's tomb and KV55, which was considered the “cachette” of Akhenaten and located near grave KV62, were similar in plan and style as well as in dimensions . According to Daniel Polz , second director of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) in the Cairo department , “[...] there have been discussions about the ground plan of the tomb since it was discovered. It does not fit into the familiar pattern of royal tombs. "
Nicholas Reeves described in 1997 in the lecture The Tombs of Tutankhamun and his Predecessor that of ten main objects from the tomb, half of the objects had been adapted for burial and changed for Tutankhamun. Numerous linen cloths that were placed around statues of gods bore the name Akhenaten from his early reign (e.g. year 3), as well as his name on some boxes. Other objects originally had the name of Akhenaten's co-regent (Semenchkare or Neferneferuaton) and other depictions of a king from KV62, which were ascribed to Tutankhamun, clearly have female attributes. So "the king on the panther" (find number 289 b). Reeves stated, "These representations offer further remarkable evidence of the existence of a female pharaoh at this time in history, Nefertiti-Semenchkare (Nefertiti-Smenkhkare) ."
The information about the tomb and the tomb equipment relating to Tutankhamun's contemporary history that was obtained from the find immediately after the grave was discovered was limited. Among the few contemporary evaluations that contributed to further findings about Tutankhamun, for example, was the examination of the contents of a chest found in the antechamber (find number 21). Carter's comment was, "With very few exceptions ... the clothes in this chest were those of a child," suggesting that Tutankhamun was a boy when he came to the throne. Due to a wine jug found in the grave, Tutankhamun's reign could be corrected from six to nine years. The "golden throne" (find number 91) from the antechamber proves that Tutankhamun's great royal wife , Ankhesenamun, was a daughter of Akhenaten, as the throne still has the name Ankhesenpaaton on the back, as it is, for example, on the border steles in Akhenaten newly founded capital Achet-Aton ( Amarna ) is called.
Interpretation by Nicholas Reeves 2015
Nicholas Reeves came to a completely different interpretation in relation to an original grave. He released in August 2015 with The Burial of Nefertiti? the thesis that there could be two more chambers in grave KV62 (adjacent to the west and north walls of the grave chamber) and that the grave is originally that of Tutankhamun's predecessor, Neferneferuaton ( Nefertiti ).
His assumption of other chambers and Nefertiti as the actual owner of the grave is based on various clues:
- Nicholas Reeves has long seen Nefertiti , Akhenaten's great royal consort, his co-regent instead of a male king named Semenchkare , of whom, in addition to his name and a common mention with the king's daughter Meritaton as his great royal consort in the tomb of Merire II in Amarna ( Grave ), nothing is known. Reeves therefore regards Semenchkare as female and equates the identity with Akhenaten's successor Anchcheperure Neferneferuaton . As regent, Nefertiti had the proper name Semenchkare-djesercheperu (throne name: Ankh -cheperu-Re ). Accordingly, Nefertiti, who is now inscribed into Akhenaten's 16th year of reign, presumably survived her husband, who died in his 17th year of reign, and then, like Hatshepsut , ruled Egypt alone as the female pharaoh . Many objects of the grave equipment for the young Tutankhamun show that cartouches, which originally bore the names of Akhenaten and Ankhcheperure Neferneferuaton (= Nefertiti), were reworked for Tutankhamun. Reeves assumes that around 80% of the tomb treasure was used for Tutankhamun. Due to the numerous revisions of the throne name Anchcheperure and thus Nefertiti as the original owner of the grave of KV62, he suspects .
- In 2009, Factum Arte took high-resolution images from 3D laser scans of the walls of the burial chamber. The pure surface structure without color information was also made visible. After the images were put online, Nicholas Reeves studied them and discovered vertical and horizontal lines in the walls in addition to natural cracks in the plaster on the north and west walls. He interpreted this as a walled-up passage to other chambers, as found, for example, from the anteroom to the burial chamber in KV62. As a comparison, he cites Haremhab's grave ( KV57 ), in which there was also a walled-in passage that was plastered and then decorated. There the complete wall painting had not been able to deceive the grave robbers and they had penetrated further into the interior of the grave. According to Reeves, the left vertical furrow on the north wall, visible on the surface scan, is exactly in alignment with the west wall of the antechamber. This supports his assumption that the antechamber was originally designed as part of a long continuous corridor that could continue behind the north wall. Another clue for his thesis is a noticeable crack above the king's head in the second scene of the king with the sky goddess Nut, which runs downwards. Reeves interprets this as a settlement crack . This typically occurs with partition walls when the masonry sinks slightly over time and then becomes visible in the plaster. As a result, it is likely that the north wall would also consist partly of artificial masonry. The possible passage into a further corridor or another chamber is, according to Reeves, on the north wall in the first scene, directly below the figure of the king, who was identified as Osiris, i.e. the deceased king, according to the inscriptions, King Tutankhamun.
- An additional indication for Reeves is the different positions of the niches for the magic bricks and the associated magic figures. Compared to Ejes ( WV23 ) or Haremhabs Grab (KV57), these are not embedded in the middle or at about the same height in the respective chamber wall, but rather are strongly offset. In this view, however, Haremhab's burial chamber is also a special feature, because there these niches are attached relatively high and are each laid out twice in a wall and not in the individual walls according to the cardinal points. There the niches are located exclusively on the east and west walls. Reeves derives from these otherwise exact placements in relation to tomb KV62, and based on the cracks in the wall that he found, that the niches in Tutankhamun's tomb were deliberately set in the solid rock in order to bypass a wall and thus hide it .
- The ceilings in KV62 had never been examined in detail before. In Howard Carter's reports there is a reference to traces of soot and markings made by the stonemasons, as well as a note on lines in connection with the vestibule and burial chamber. According to Reeves, these workings by the stonemasons on the ceilings near the vestibule and burial chamber suggest that there was originally a long corridor going off to the right. In the burial chamber there are the same course lines, which also seem to continue behind the north and west walls, which, according to Reeves, speaks for further chambers. Due to the corridor to the right, Reeves assumes that the tomb is a queen's tomb, and makes this clear, among other things, using the example of Hatshepsut's tomb. Reeves also suspects several phases of construction for KV62. In the first phase the grave was laid out for Queen Nefertiti, in the second it was enlarged for Nefertiti as co-regent and in the third again for Nefertiti as ruler of Neferneferuaton. The fourth construction phase is the reworking for the burial of Tutankhamun, in which the antechamber has now been made from the original corridor and the annex and treasury have been added and the corridor that continues.
- With regard to other royal tombs and a 90 ° clockwise rotation of the grave axis of KV62, according to Reeves, there are no side chambers that were used as storage rooms in other royal tombs. Tutankhamun's burial chamber was probably originally intended as a “well shaft”. One of these can be found, for example, in KV17 , the grave of Seti I (19th dynasty), after the second flight of stairs and the second corridor. Here the late King Seti I is depicted with various deities. For the time of the 18th dynasty, the secondary chambers were located at 2, 4, 8 and 10 o'clock. KV62, on the other hand, has only two side chambers and no chamber at the “10 o'clock” position.
- According to the results of the investigation by the Getty Conservation Institute, the north wall was already in place before Tutankhamun's burial and had wall paintings. Of particular importance to Reeves is the first depicted scene with the opening of the mouth ceremony, in which the deceased king and his successor face each other. In the figure of a king as Osiris, with the name (throne and proper name) of Tutankhamun in the inscription above, Reeves recognizes similarities to the older Nefertiti as compared to the standing figure of Nefertiti in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin, with the pronounced, downward corner of the mouth, but also the straight lower jaw and the rounded chin. The opposite, with a blue crown and Eje's name above it, he interprets as Tutankhamun. Reeves draws comparisons in the representation to the young king, such as the "head of Nefertem", which is shown, for example, with the same, slightly "plump" facial features and a double chin. A feature that cannot be found in the few portraits that are assigned to King Eje. According to Nicholas Reeves, it is originally Tutankhamun as the Sem priest who performs the ritual on his predecessor.
Assessment of Reeves' interpretation
Nicholas Reeves' thesis has been judged differently since its publication and after the initial examination in the grave:
- Harco Willems, Research Unit Historical Cultural Sciences at Johannes Gutenberg University : “He is a good Egyptologist who is one of the greatest experts on the Valley of the Kings. What he sees in the pictures, I also see. It seems to me to be out of the question that there are two doors. "
- Dietrich Wildung , former director of the Egyptian Museum Berlin : “Reeves justifies his conclusion that it was Nefertiti for whom the grave was designed, with sound arguments such as the grave plan and the style of the paintings on the north wall. This is not definitive proof. That can only be achieved by opening the locked rooms. "
- Mamdouh el-Damaty, former Egyptian minister for antiquities, partially supported the thesis: In his opinion there are other chambers, but not Nefertiti but rather Tutankhamun's mother, Kija , can be found there. Another possibility he considered a funeral of Meritaton , the eldest daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, whom Alain Zivie equates with Tutankhamun's wet nurse Maia .
- Aidan Dodson , Bristol University : The idea that one (room) might lead to a preexisting burial chamber, let alone that of Nefertiti, is pure speculation. ("The idea that a room leads to an already existing burial chamber, especially that of Nefertiti, is pure speculation.")
- Frank Müller-Römer doubts in “Critical comment on The Burial of Nefertiti ?? “The presence of other chambers.
- Zahi Hawass , Former Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities and Former Minister for Antiquities: Mr Reeves sold the air to us. I confirm that there is nothing at all behind the wall. He succeeded in saying something exciting - the tomb of Nefertiti is inside the tomb of Tutankhamun. But his theory is baseless. ("Mr. Reeves sells us air. I confirm that there is absolutely nothing behind the wall. Successfully he promised something exciting - the tomb of Nefertiti in the tomb of Tutankhamun. But his theory has no basis.")
- Michael E. Habicht , Francesco M. Galassi, Wolfgang Wettengel and Frank J. Rühli evaluate the results in a joint effort: Since Queen Nefertiti is regarded as the Younger Lady (KV35YL) and the canopies from KV55 are those of the Kija , their burials are her unlikely in KV62. Thus, as far as possible, a male person remains buried as King Semenchkare or that of Queen Meritaton.
Exploring the tomb and its contents
After the grave discovery in general
Despite Howard Carter's extraordinary discovery of KV62, the tomb and its treasures initially received little attention from a scientific point of view compared to the regular reports in the press. Carter published, initially in collaboration with Arthur Mace, a three-volume, popular report (1923, 1926 and 1933) on the excavation, which was promptly published in full in German and Danish. There were no other translations. In Germany, the German-language editions were printed by Brockhaus and reprints appeared after the Second World War . In addition to reports on the activities in the grave, these publications also contain numerous photos of the objects along with interpretations based on the state of research at the time. Further contents of the three-volume report deal, for example, with a treatise on the king (Tutankhamun) and the queen (Ankhesenamun), general conservation work or ancient Egyptian burial rites.
The literature on KV62 and the Amarna period is extensive, but there are only a few publications that deal exclusively and directly with the grave and the objects or individual groups of finds. The majority of the authors dealt with individual objects from the later exhibitions over the years. One suspicion of missing evaluations of the grave treasure was the "oversaturation" by press reports on the grave since the discovery. For example, it was not until 1938, 16 years after the discovery and one year before Howard Carter's death, that Georg Steindorff published a description and assessment of the wall paintings in the Annales du Service des antiquités de l'Egypte (ASAE) for the first time with “The burial chamber of Tutankhamun” Burial chamber. The Second World War (1939–1945) is seen as another reason for the cautious exploration of the grave and its objects.
Phyllis Walker, Howard Carter's niece, had made all documents available to the Griffith Institute in Oxford in 1946. Even if there was an “Anglo-American monopoly” during the entire excavation period, there was little interest in researching objects from the grave, regardless of what nationality the researchers belonged to or belong to, these dates and decades evaluate the finds. Marianne Eaton-Krauss attributes this to the fact that only very few concrete historical statements about Tutankhamun and his time could be obtained from the grave and the grave treasure. She also points out that the absence of German Egyptologists among those visiting the tomb during the excavation is striking. The reasons for such disinterest are unknown. What was particularly disappointing for the philologists at the time of the grave discovery was that no papyri were found in the grave . Eaton-Krauss also notes: “But many groups of finds are still waiting for a qualified specialist.” She is one of the few Egyptologists who dealt with various finds and published the results of the analyzes in monographs , including the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun and the small golden shrine the treasury. Little literature deals in depth with the plant remains or the “human remains” in the grave (e.g. F. Filce Leek, 1972). Alexandre Piankoff described the four shrines of the burial chamber in 1955. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt was not only responsible for the exhibition catalog in France in 1967, but also published a book about Tutankhamun and his time at the same time. In 1986 Christian E. Loeben dealt with the chests and boxes from Tutankhamun's grave in his unpublished master's thesis The Inscribed Chests and Boxes of Tutankhamun. Nicholas Reeves has been one of the steady researchers of the Amarna period and Tutankhamun for many years and described Tutankhamun in The complete 1990 . The king, the tomb, the royal treasure. Comprehensive grave and grave equipment.
Jaromír Málek stated in 1993 that since the grave was completely cleared in 1932, only about 30% of the grave treasure from KV62 had been examined or evaluated. Since 1995 the documents about the Griffith Institute in Oxford have been on the Internet at Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. Piece by piece available to all interested parties free of charge. His intention was:
“We can't make Egyptologists work on the material if they are not inclined to do so,” he says. “But we could make sure that all of the excavation records are available to anyone who is interested. Then there will be no excuse. "
“We can't get the Egyptologists to work on the material if they're not inclined to do it,” he says. But we can ensure that all records of the excavation are available to anyone interested. Then there is no longer any excuse. "
Málek sees various reasons why so few objects from the grave treasures of King Tutankhamun have been scientifically examined and described: on the one hand, the large number of objects recovered from the tomb, on the other hand, the access to them for detailed investigations, since most of the finds are made of valuable materials and are not accessible to everyone. He also explains that examining objects on the basis of photos alone cannot produce any real results.
In 1950, Alan Gardiner cited the cost of a publication as a presumably decisive point . The publication planned by Howard Carter A Report upon the Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen put this 1926 against Gardiner at £ 30,000 pounds. According to Gardiner, that was a little less than £ 100,000 in 1950 and he questioned: But who will finance such a publication today? (“But who wants to finance such a publication today?”).
The objects from the tomb of Tutankhamun that have so far been examined and described most frequently include the king's mummy, the shrines from the burial chamber, thrones and chairs as well as the death mask. The hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions on all objects are only partially published.
Current
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The Getty Conservation Institute had during the five-year project (2009-2014) the colors used for the decorations of the grave walls and pigments , but also, as well as their processing techniques, the binder analyzed. Other aspects of the investigations were the general environmental conditions as well as geotechnical , hydrological and microbiological analyzes.
The walls and ceilings of the burial chamber were first examined by Hirokatsu Watanabe in September 2015 based on Reeves' thesis. The former Egyptian minister for antiquities, Mamdouh el-Damaty, only announced the result of this analysis in March 2016. According to Watanabe, who carried out the investigation, there are metallic and organic material behind both the north and east walls. el-Damaty was 90% sure that there would be a chamber behind both walls.
In view of Hirokatsu Watanabe's findings, metallic and organic materials indicated more than unfinished chambers for Salima Ikram . Michael Jones of the American Research Center in Egypt pointed out to possible finds that it is better, especially with organic remains, to leave them untouched. Ikram, however, looks at it from a different point of view. According to her, such suspected finds are an incentive for robbery and illegal antiques trading when such archaeological finds are publicly known. She believes it is irresponsible not to attempt an excavation and to retrieve the finds in a safe manner.
Further investigations followed, including one with infrared cameras in October 2015, which could show temperature changes behind the north wall and suggest chambers. The result was not clear, which is why a month later, in addition to thermographic methods for measurements on the north, west and south walls, radar devices were also used. According to these results, the probability that there is another chamber behind both the north wall and the west wall was still 90%. Further scans were then carried out to determine the size of the chambers on the one hand and the thickness of the walls on the other. Khaled El Anany, the new minister for antiquities, had announced that further scans from outside the grave should also be carried out by the end of April 2016. In the run-up to the event, he explained, “You follow the scientific processes and you would not look for hidden chambers, but for reality and truth”. The ministry's Facebook page said: “We have to be 100 percent sure that something is behind these walls.” The members of the investigation team were also named, including the incumbent minister for antiquities, the former ministers for antiquities , Mamdouh el-Damaty and Zahi Hawass, Nicholas Reeves, GPR specialists from National Geographic, and other Egyptian scientists, including those from the Geophysical Research Center in Egypt . This last known study was funded by the National Geographic Society . The results were presented at the beginning of May 2016, after a “Conference on Tutankhamun” in which scientists from all over the world were supposed to participate to discuss theses and results, and then at a press conference by Khaled El Anany.
At the conference, not only was Nicholas Reeves' thesis criticized again, but also Hirakatsu Watanabe's credibility with the investigations. Watanabe had used outdated equipment and modified it so that only he could evaluate this data. The National Geographic survey results did not match his results and excluded voids next to the burial chamber, although the antiquities administration had previously confirmed a match between the two results. The result after the conference was to conduct further research. Scientists questioned what other technical means should be used for this. Furthermore, National Geographic cannot publish any further details about the evaluations without the consent of the Egyptian Antiquities Administration.
After the conference , Friederike Seyfried described Reeves' theory as a vague hypothesis. In their opinion, there are no hidden chambers in tomb KV62. Regarding the mouth opening scene of Eje an Tutankhamun, she pointed out that ancient Egyptian artists would never add a representation of a pharaoh without correct inscriptions.
In May 2018, the results of further radar analyzes were announced at a Tutankhamun conference, which were carried out by three independent teams at the beginning of the year. No doors or cavities could be detected, so other hidden burial chambers can be excluded with a high degree of certainty.
Grave treasure
Gold sheets
The ornate gold sheets (gold foils) made of KV62, partly applied to leather and presumably belonging to the chariots, the horse harness and the weapons equipment, were, for example, only subjected to a scientific investigation by an Egyptian-German team in 2014 and the restoration began. Before that, the fragmented pieces had been stored untouched in the storage room of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo after their discovery in the antechamber. The conservation status is described as "very bad". The investigations include a material analysis and are intended to provide information, among other things, on how the gold was applied to the materials.
In May 2013, the project “The gold sheets of Tutankhamun - Investigations into cultural communication between Egypt and the Middle East” began and this year the finds were cataloged for the first time. The project is being carried out in cooperation with the German Archaeological Institute , Cairo Department, the Institute for Cultures of the Ancient Orient at the Eberhard Karls University in Tübingen and the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and is designed for a total of three years. The Roman-Germanic Central Museum (RGZM) in Mainz and two external employees, including Salima Ikram , are also involved in partnership .
"As part of the project, the objects are to be restored / conserved, carefully documented in text, photo and drawing, scientifically examined, art-historical and archaeological evaluated and comprehensively published." After the work has been completed, it is planned to display this group of objects in the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) exhibit.
Golden throne
Nicholas Reeves examined the "golden throne" (find number 91) in 2014 one more time. As early as 1995 he published in The Complete Tutankhamun that there is no doubt that the throne does not come from the reign of Tutankhamun, but is older. Not only are the revisions for Tutankhamun verifiable, but the original names can also be reconstructed. As on the golden mummy ribbons and the small intestinal coffins, the proper name Neferneferuaton and the corresponding throne name Ankh-cheperu-Re can be found here . This shows that this piece is another one that was reworked for Tutankhamun and not made for him personally. This reworking becomes clear, for example, on the front of the backrest in the area of the crowns of both persons shown. The king's crown is incomplete and on the queen's side, the “ray arms” of the Aton are partially interrupted or shortened, the hieroglyphic inscriptions on Aton “swallowed” and parts of the upper frieze on both sides of the royal couple “deleted”. According to Reeves research, the throne was made for Tutankhamun's predecessor Nefer-neferu-aton (Ankh-cheperu-re) , Nefertiti as the ruling queen and predecessor of Tutankhamun, during Akhenaten's reign . The throne also shows traces of repair work, which speaks for an earlier date of manufacture.
Golden death mask
In 2007, the gold used for the mask was examined in detail by Japanese researchers. The analysis revealed differences in the purity of the gold in the face area and the Nemes headscarf. The rear part of the mask has a significantly higher degree of purity than the front, both in the core and on the surface. Pure gold is 24 carats (kt). The core fineness of the mask is between 23.2 kt (face area) and 23.5 kt (Nemes headscarf), for the surfaces between 18.4 kt and 22.5 kt. Nicholas Reeves came to the conclusion in 2010 that the object was not originally made for Tutankhamun, but for his female predecessor Anchcheperure Neferneferuaton (Nefertiti as reigning queen after Akhenaten). The decisive factors for his argument are, among other things, that the small intestinal coffins had already been made for Anchcheperure Neferneferuaton and belonged to her burial equipment , and that many other objects in the grave originally bore her name. Another important aspect for Reeves is that the interior gold coffin was clearly intended for a woman because of its decor. As a further point, he cites the pierced ears on the gold mask, which were covered with thin gold plates when Howard Carter found them to cover the pierced ears. Except in adolescence, young Egyptian men did not wear earrings, whereas women almost always wore them. Howard Carter had already referred to this fact during his work in KV62. At the end of 2015, the presumption of a second use of the mask was confirmed. According to Reeves, the cartouche with the throne name over the left shoulder had been changed from Anchcheperure to Nebcheperure . The originally larger or longer cartouche was reduced in size for Tutankhamun and the following text was continued with the inserted words maa-cheru (“justified / true in voice”), which designate a deceased who has passed the judgment of the dead.
After the king's beard of the gold mask fell off during cleaning work on the showcase in 2014 and had to be reattached by employees of the museum with the wrong binding agent, Christian Eckmann, restorer at the Roman-Germanic Central Museum in Mainz, was commissioned to repair the damage. Eckmann was already consulted a few years ago about restoration work on the copper statue Pepi I. In the course of the 2015 repair work on the golden death mask, it should not only be subjected to conservation work, but also re-examined and measured. This work was supported by the Federal Foreign Office's cultural preservation program . This processing received further help from the Gerda Henkel Foundation , which also provided funding and developed a special high-tech adhesive for attaching the beard. The examinations revealed, among other things, that the beard on the mask was originally attached to the mask with a tube made of gold and honey wax. The team comprised around 20 people during working hours. After removing the adhesive, the ceremonial beard was attached to the mask with a new tube made of fiberglass using epoxy resin and then the beard itself was attached with honey wax, as it was originally attached. Another result was that the beard did not weigh 2.5 kg, as originally assumed, but only 168 g. The focus of the restorers was on "manufacturing-technical investigations" such as the number of processed gold sheets or the various inlays . The cartouche described by Nicholas Reeves and documented in drawings by Marc Gabolde was also examined. According to Eckmann, a change could not be confirmed: "The mask was made for Tutankhamun, from the beginning."
Conservation measures and state of preservation
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State after discovery
From the finds in the grave, Howard Carter deduced that KV62 had not been damaged by massively penetrating water through cracks in the rock or by flooding through the grave entrance, since it had been sealed. However, the moisture that penetrated through cracks in the rock affected the objects and murals in the grave. Numerous graves in the Valley of the Kings had been affected by such flash floods with debris floods over the years , even if these did not occur regularly and frequently. Graves that had been open to the public since ancient times were particularly affected. Examples are KV8 (Tomb of Merenptah ) and KV59 . Carter's notes give no indication of any restoration work on the wall paintings by him and his team. However, he noted the "dark spots" as mold in the wall painting of the burial chamber, the formation of which had been favored by moisture penetration and that of organic objects in the grave, as well as probably by the plastering and color of the walls.
Damage caused by the excavators occurred, among other things, on the north wall of the antechamber in order to gain access to the burial chamber. The passage was later extended to allow the shrines and coffins to be recovered from the burial chamber. Parts of the wall decoration on the south wall in the burial chamber were destroyed, so that the scenes of the gods depicting the goddess Isis and three identical underworld deities are no longer preserved. The wall and the chipped off part had previously been documented photographically by Harry Burton. In order to be able to remove from the grave the large roofs of the shrines stored between the antechamber, some of which were in a poor state of preservation, not only the steel gate had to be removed in October 1930, but also some of the lower steps, as Carter had already done for antiquity had noted. After everything had been packed for transport, the passageways and entrance passages had to be expanded to the south.
The painted fragments with the goddess Isis and the three underworld deities from the torn south wall were found in the 1980s in the grave of Queen Tausret and King Sethnacht ( KV14 ), where they were deposited during the excavation work. However, shortly after their discovery, the remains of the wall were completely destroyed by rainwater penetrating the grave. The current location of these fragments from the wall from the burial chamber of KV62 is unknown and they are being searched for.
State at the present time
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In response to the flood damage in the Valley of the Kings in 1994, protective measures were taken against such weather influences. In addition to a roof over the grave entrance and a wall, these also included the installation of a metal protective door at the upper and lower end of Corridor B and a metal access staircase.
In the grave, only the antechamber is accessible to visitors, from which they can view the east, north and west walls and the sarcophagus in the grave chamber. The entrances to the annex and to the treasury are closed with steel bars.
The Getty Conservation Institute and the Supreme Council of Antiquities had jointly agreed on a five-year project (2009–2014) for Tutankhamun's tomb, which included conservation work and management of the tomb. The project was divided into three phases. The first phase (2009–2011) comprised an exact inventory of the condition of the grave and the wall decorations, scientific analyzes of the material and processing techniques of the colors, as well as environmental influences on the grave and research into the causes of the deteriorating condition of the wall paintings. Phases two and three took place at the same time (2012–2014). In phase two, appropriate options for making improvements to the state of preservation of the grave and the wall paintings were developed on the basis of phase one. In addition, infrastructure such as sidewalks, lighting and ventilation in the grave were improved. The last phase was to evaluate the work in the grave and to make it accessible to the public through various media. During the investigation of the burial chamber, Tutankhamun's mummy was exhibited in a glass case in the antechamber. One result of the investigations in the grave was that visitors not only change the room climate through sweat and breathing air, but also bring dust into the grave, which is deposited on the wall paintings. These deposits can be seen as a light gray haze on photos from Getty Conservation and those from Factum Arte. The "brown" dots on the wall paintings that were already present in the burial chamber at the time the grave was opened were also examined and it was found that these are of microbiological origin, but no longer viable and no longer active. A statement made by Alfred Lucas, who was responsible for the chemical investigations in the grave and the preservation of the objects. In his analysis of the chemistry in the grave, he noted “that no bacterial life form was detectable”.
Grave treasure
State after the discovery and processing of the objects
The objects found in the grave were in different condition due to different materials. In his report The Chemistry of the Tomb , in the appendix to Howard Carter's second volume of The Tomb of Tutankhamun , Alfred Lucas goes into more detail on the individual materials found in the grave. He describes that before the objects could be processed in any way, a thorough material analysis was required first. According to him, “chemistry” could be of help to archeology and he noted “that the chemist is ultimately a necessary member of a team, both in museums and on archaeological expeditions, as is the first time with Tutankhamun's tomb ".
According to Carter, the high moisture content in the grave had damaged the items. Some were completely or nearly destroyed. Therefore, they were either preserved on the spot for transport from the grave or for complete preservation, and processed in the preservation laboratory, the grave of Seti II ( KV15 ), before being transported to Cairo . As an example, he cites sandals with pearls worked into them. At first glance, these looked completely intact, but the small pearls disintegrated when touched. The pearls, which are often made of glass, were treated with liquid wax, for example, and could be transported intact after the hardening process. The grave bouquets were sprayed with liquid celluloid to make them durable. Objects made of organic materials such as wood, plants, leather, linen or food were particularly fragile. Howard Carter describes this as "first aid measures", without which "even a tenth" of the numerous grave goods would not have reached the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. He describes the processing and handling of a wide variety of materials found in the grave, as well as the associated difficulties of conservation in his first volume on the grave of Tutankhamun. Each material required different treatment and at times had to be improvised. Objects that consisted of different materials were problematic, because different treatment options for preservation were necessary for each object, which also depended on the material and state of preservation. In some cases, only experiments helped to find the best possible conservation measure, as there has been no comparable experience with such complex finds from an excavation. The handling and treatment of wood presented various difficulties. One was the poor state of preservation of the millennia-old material, which could disintegrate when touched, another that the wood had started to shrink due to the air changes in the grave itself caused by the grave opening and the inlays , such as inlays made of glass, precious stones and ivory or the Coatings of plaster of paris or gold foil, then fell off. For this purpose, paraffin was usually used for conservation .
Often the conservation work was preceded by the cleaning process of objects, which was carried out with warm water, steam or ammonium , among other things . Some items only required cleaning.
- Finds from the antechamber
Bunch of flowers
a pair of fly whiskers
Sandal with the main motif of a lotus flower
Remnants of an artificial panther skin with a clasp
Gloves
Bundle with linen rolls
Neck collar
Jewelry, linen and crook in a chest
In 1925 Howard Carter and Alfred Lucas visited the exhibition on the objects shown there shortly after the excavation in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The background was to look at the objects from the perspective of conservation. Carter noted that the paraffin preservation had been very effective. Nevertheless, it was already apparent three years after the discovery that Tutankhamun's golden throne chair was much darker in color than in comparison to the time of discovery and the exhibition in the museum that followed immediately. During the inspection, Howard Carter also found "with horror" that the silver stick with a figure of the king (find number 235 b, Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 61666), of which there is a gold "counterpart" in the grave (find number 235 a, Egyptian Museum Cairo JE 61665), was now broken. The damage occurred when the piece was shown to the Belgian archaeologist Jean Capart . Carter's entry in the excavation journal dated October 3, 1925 reads: “It seems a shame, after all the effort we went into preserving these valuable objects and transporting them safely to the museum, that they are allowed to hand over those people who are not know how to handle antique objects. "
State at the present time
In 1978, Veronica Seton-Williams describes the condition of the objects from the grave in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which at that time required cleaning and restoration. She explained that on the one hand the air composition in Cairo had a strong effect on the exhibits, on the other hand the temperature fluctuations in Cairo are greater than in Luxor. Changes due to tarnishing in objects made of gold and warping in those made of wood were recognizable 66 years after the grave was discovered, especially with plaster coating or cladding with gold leaf. According to her statement, the items of the grave treasure were still in the order in which they were recovered from the grave. Most of the items were on display in the showcases in which they were first displayed after the grave was discovered. Thomas Hoving wrote in the same year: “The hundreds of gilded works of art, the statuettes, tools, utensils, shields, chests, pieces of furniture - even the majestic canopic shrine with its four patron goddesses - gradually disintegrate, break into pieces, dissolve. At the time, it was said that there was not enough money for restoration work. The state of the Tutenkh Amun treasures is a shame for the museum as well as for the people […] “Like Seton-Williams, he expressed the hope that the worldwide exhibitions of some original pieces (1961–1981) from the tomb treasure of the Tutankhamun would raise funds for the preservation of the original pieces. However, there was no plan for restoration work up to this point.
Zahi Hawass wrote in Discovering Tutankhamun in 2013 . From Howard Carter to DNA to the gilded wooden shrines from the burial chamber, that these are still in the original condition of the first restoration by Alfred Lucas in the 1920s. He also points out the climatic changes and the air pollution, but also emphasizes that the direct radiation of sunlight damages such fragile objects. He hoped, as Seton-Williams and Hoving had done years earlier, that there would be a major conservation project when the complete tomb treasure of Tutankhamun was to be moved to the new Grand Museum . At the time, 2015 was planned for this. In the same year, the former director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (2004–2010), Wafaa el-Saddik , gave a comparable description of the condition of exhibits about the coffin of Juja , the father of Queen Teje . Here, too, there were deep cracks in the gold leaf-covered wood of the coffin, which after its discovery in 1905 is still in the same old showcase and is also exposed to heat, cold and fluctuations in the humidity in the museum.
Zahi Hawass cited the head of Nefertem as a good example of the work of the conservators in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . This bust was shown as one of the original objects at international traveling exhibitions. According to Hawass, there is often concern that such exhibitions could lead to damage to the loans. However, he emphasized that special importance is attached to the preservation of exhibits for traveling exhibitions. Howard Carter already described the careful handling of fallen parts of the small bust that he and Arthur Callender had "painstakingly collected" for this find. At the time, he was concerned about the individual color fragments on plaster and the restoration of the object after it had arrived at the museum.
Before the exhibition "Tutankhamun - his grave and treasures", which was shown in Dresden from October 2015 to February 2016 , in which only replicas could be seen, Wilfried Seipel also commented on the condition of the original pieces in Cairo:
"[...] But there the objects go to the dogs because of the insufficient air conditioning."
The Egyptologist also criticized the inadequate lighting and labeling of the exhibits in the museum and described most of the original objects from Tutankhamun's grave treasure as no longer "fit for travel". Thomas Hoving had already made the same statement in 1978 about the labeling of the objects: the labels were brown with age, wrinkled and for the most part illegible.
During the revolution in Egypt in 2011 , the Egyptian Museum was looted, including some finds from Tutankhamun's tomb. A small gold-plated statuette (JE 60710.1) and the upper part of another are missing. Several other statues were broken but could be restored.
Exhibitions of original pieces and storage of grave treasures
The entire tomb treasure of Tutankhamun is owned by the country of Egypt . Howard Carter's discovery of this enormous grave treasure required a complete reorganization of the previous exhibition space on the upper floor of the museum in order to be able to exhibit the large number of objects. Around 1700 of the finds are currently on display in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo , and a few more in the Luxor Museum . The objects in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo have numbers that begin with JE (Journal d'Entrée du Musée) for identification . Some of the plant materials found in KV62 are on display at the Agricultural Museum in Cairo. Items that have not been exhibited are stored in the magazines of the museum in Cairo, in Luxor and in the storage rooms of the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM). At the end of 2016, all finds from KV62 were to be transferred to the new Grand Egyptian Museum , near the pyramids of Giza , for a permanent exhibition . Some of the objects will be restored in advance, others later in the GEM laboratories. The transport of some pieces started in August 2016.
Some of the “best objects” from Tutankhamun's tomb were exhibited at the museum in Cairo immediately upon arrival. From 1961 to 1981, only original finds from the grave, including Tutankhamun's golden death mask, were to be seen in varying numbers and combinations. The traveling exhibition began in the USA, then Canada, Japan, France, England, Russia and West Germany (1980–1981). In West Germany, the exhibition in West Berlin , Cologne, Munich, Hanover and Hamburg comprised a total of 55 objects. For the creation of the German catalog for the exhibition, Jürgen Settgast wrote :
“The present catalog was written without the authors having had the opportunity to study the exhibition in detail in the original - a drawback that cannot be avoided if the decision on whether or not to participate in an exhibition tour can only be made at a certain point in time which the exhibition has long been in an international orbit. "
The revenues from the traveling exhibitions of parts of the grave treasure worldwide were considerable. According to Zahi Hawass, in the United States (1961–1964, 1976–1979), for example, they amounted to 30 million US dollars in Chicago , 60 million in Seattle and 85 million in New Orleans. Wafaa el-Saddik states that Tutankhamun's death mask alone brought in about $ 11 million between 1972 and 1982. The overall number of visitors was very high. In New York (1964 and 1978) the exhibition had seen more than 1.2 million visitors and in Cologne (1980) over half a million people.
After the figure of the goddess Selket , one of the protective goddesses of the canopic shrine found in the treasury, was damaged at the exhibitions in Germany in 1980 , after the end of the “tour” there was an export ban on objects from KV62. This was repealed in 2004 by Farouk Hosny , the minister of antiquities at the time. That is why in 2004 the exhibition “Tutankhamun. The golden afterlife. Grave treasures from the Valley of the Kings. ”Many originals can be seen. In this exhibition, the originals were, for example, among other shabtis the king, various statues of gods, one of the four Kanopenverschlüsse , one of the four viscera coffins, stools, the heart scarab found in the treasury in the pectoral, ceremonial shields, fans, the diadem found on the mummy of Tutankhamun , an ointment vessel found in the burial chamber and many other finds from KV62 are shown. Wafaa el-Saddik points out that whenever the government of Egypt needed money, ancient Egyptian art treasures were shown in international exhibitions. However, the share of the income from the exhibitions did not go to the museum, but to the Egyptian state, as did the entrance fees to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. According to el-Saddik's predecessor and former minister for antiquities, Mamdouh el-Damaty, the museum was funded by the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) exclusively with 2000 Egyptian pounds per year . In 2016 that corresponds to around 230 euros .
Due to their fragility, objects from Tutankhamun's tomb treasure are rarely or not at all in worldwide traveling exhibitions. The trend is to preserve the original pieces at the Cairo site and to replace them with replicas. For example, the young king's golden death mask will only be seen in Egypt. When asked why the priceless death mask was no longer lent to other exhibitions outside of Egypt, the then General Secretary of the Supreme Council of Antiquities , Zahi Hawass , replied :
I reply that it is too fragile to travel, and that taking it away from Egypt would disappoint the thousands of tourists who come to the Cairo Museum just to see this unique object.
"I answer that it is too fragile to travel and take it out of Egypt would disappoint the thousands of tourists who come to the Cairo museum to see this unique object."
Replicas
dig
With their scans of the burial chamber in KV62, the Spanish company Factum Arte made it possible to make a detailed copy of it, which includes the sarcophagus as well as the wall decorations. The full copy of the grave is located near Howard Carter's former home, at the entrance to the Valley of the Kings, and opened on April 30, 2014. This copy of the grave KV62 is accompanied by an exhibition with pictures and texts by Jaromír Málek and Nicholas Reeves , as well as the owner of Factum Arte, Adam Lowe. The £ 420,000 grave copy is among the best ever made. With the support of the Griffith Institute in Oxford, this part of the wall could also be colored using a black and white photo that Harry Burton took of the part of the destroyed south wall. The colors used in the copy are based on the other photographs by Factum Arte in the burial chamber. The tomb of Queen Nefertari ( QV66 ), the great royal wife of Ramses II , and that of Seti I ( KV17 ) are also planned as copies.
Objects from the grave treasure
_Replikat.JPG)
Replicas of Tutankhamun's tomb treasure were first shown at the British Empire Exhibition in London ( Wembley ) in 1924 and were the main attraction of that exhibition. Arthur Weigall, former inspector of the antiquities administration and correspondent for the Daily Mail , was in charge of the reconstruction of the grave and the furnishings .
The exhibition "Tutankhamun - his grave and the treasures" has shown over 1,000 copies of objects from the grave for many years and allows visitors to the exhibition not only to admire the pieces, but also the situation as Howard Carter and his excavation team found them after their discovery found to empathize. Copies of the exhibits are made very carefully and true to detail. The exhibition includes copies of many gods, ritual beds, chariots, the four shrines surrounding the sarcophagus, the canopic shrine, the canopic box, the Anubis shrine, and Tutankhamun's coffins and death mask. The entire wall decoration from the burial chamber is also shown, including the south wall reconstructed using black and white photos by Harry Burton with the three underworld deities and Isis.
See also
literature
Grave and excavation history
- Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Komet, Frechen 2001. ISBN 3-89836-202-7 .
- Howard Carter : The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. Bloomsbury, London 2014, ISBN 978-1-4725-7686-6 .
- Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. Bloomsbury, London 2014, ISBN 978-1-4725-7763-4 .
- Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. Bloomsbury, London 2014, ISBN 978-1-4725-7777-1 .
- IES Edwards : Tutankhamun. The grave and its treasures. Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach 1997, ISBN 3-7857-0876-9 .
- Zahi Hawass , Sandro Vannini: Tutankhamun. The legendary tomb of the Pharaoh. Frederking & Thaler, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-89405-711-4 .
- Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. The American University Press, Cairo 2013, ISBN 978-977-416-637-2 .
- Erik Hornung : The Valley of the Kings. Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-47995-2 , pp. 27-29.
- Thomas Hoving : The Golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. The 1st authentic representation of the greatest archaeological discovery of all time. Gondrom, Bayreuth 1984, ISBN 3-8112-0398-3 .
- TGH James : Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Müller, Cologne 2000, ISBN 88-8095-545-4 .
- Jaromír Málek : The Treasures of Tutankhamun. German, London 2006, ISBN 0-233-00197-2 .
- Nicholas Reeves : The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. Thames & Hudson, London 1995, ISBN 0-500-27810-5 .
- Nicholas Reeves, Richard H. Wilkinson : The Valley of the Kings. Mysterious realm of the dead of the pharaohs. Bechtermünz, Augsburg 2002, ISBN 3-8289-0739-3 , pp. 122-128.
- Nicholas Reeves: Fascination Egypt. The great archaeological discoveries from the beginning until today. Frederking & Thaler, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-89405-430-1 , pp. 160-166.
- MV Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Ebeling, Luxembourg 1980, ISBN 3-8105-1706-2 .
- Alberto Siliotti: Valley of the Kings. Müller, Cologne 2001, ISBN 88-8095-602-7 , pp. 34-43.
- Joyce Tyldesley : Myth of Egypt. The story of a rediscovery. Reclam, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-15-010598-6 , pp. 217-248.
- Kent R. Weeks , Araldo de Luca: In the Valley of the Kings - Of funerary art and the cult of the dead of the Egyptian rulers. Weltbild, Augsburg 2001, ISBN 3-8289-0586-2 , pp. 146–171.
- Wolfgang Wettengel (Ed.): Myth of Tutankhamun. Wettengel, Nördlingen 2000, ISBN 3-00-006214-9 .
To objects from the grave treasure
- Katja Broschat, Florian Ströbele, Christian Koeberl, Christian Eckmann, Eid Mertah: Heavenly! The iron objects from Tutankhamun's tomb (= mosaic stones. Research at the Roman-Germanic Central Museum , Volume 15). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum , Mainz 2018, ISBN 978-3-88467-304-1 .
- Alessia Amenta, Maria Sole Croce and Alessandro Bongioanni: Cairo Egyptian Museum. National Geographic Art Guide, with a foreword by Zahi Hawass , 2nd edition, National Geographic Germany, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-934385-81-8 , pp. 257-335.
- The main works in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Official catalog. Published by the Antiquities Service of the Arab Republic of Egypt . von Zabern , Mainz 1986, ISBN 3-8053-0640-7 ; ISBN 3-8053-0904-X (museum edition), no. 174–193.
- Exhibition catalog Tutankhamun in Cologne. von Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0438-2 .
- Francesco Tiradritti, Araldo De Luca: The Treasury of Egypt - The famous collection of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Frederking & Thaler, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-89405-418-2 , pp. 194-243.
- André Wiese, Andreas Brodbeck: Tutankhamun. The golden afterlife. Grave treasures from the Valley of the Kings. Hirmer, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-7774-2065-4 , pp. 238-363.
Web links
- KV62 in the database of the Theban Mapping Project
- Factum Arte and Ministry of State for Antiquities: High-resolution images with zoom of the decoration in the burial chamber , accessed on September 29, 2015.
- The Griffith Institute, University of Oxford: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation . English-language website about Carter's excavations, with original photos, excavation diaries and a complete list of all finds at: griffith.ox.ac.uk , last accessed on August 14, 2015 (English).
- The Getty Conservation Institute: Conservation and Management of the Tomb of Tutankhamen , accessed August 24, 2015.
- The Getty Conservation Institute, Lori Wong: The Conservation and Management of the Tomb of Tutankhamen (KV 62) A Project Bibliography (PDF) accessed on November 10, 2015.
- Adventure exhibition: Tutankhamun - his grave and the treasures , accessed on September 3, 2015.
- Factum Arte: 3D Scanning the tomb of Tutankhamun , accessed on youtube on November 1, 2015.
Remarks
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Flexible pectoral with suspension chains and counterpoise clasp. Carter-No 267g, Burton photograph p1189. accessed on April 10, 2016.
- ↑ The king's throne and proper name are given in the transliteration and transcription of the hieroglyphs .
- ^ Translation after Thomas Schneider : Lexicon of the Pharaohs. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1102-7 . P. 301.
- ↑ Corresponds to a current purchase value of around £ 450,000. Historical conversion rate ( memento of the original from March 5, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 2nd Season, October 3rd 1923 to February 9th 1924, October 12, 1923 .: As I do not work for tourists nor am I a tourist agent I have taken no notice of this futile remark. accessed on February 29, 2016.
- ↑ The names of the chambers A - Yes go back to the Theban Mapping Project (PDF).
- ↑ In addition to Ba and Ach, a spiritual aspect in ancient Egyptian mythology .
- ↑ In such grave texts Osiris always refers to the deceased ("Osiris NN") himself, not the god Osiris .
- ↑ Long live Re, the horizontal ruler who rejoices in the land of light (on the horizon). In his name as Re, the father who comes as the sun disk (Aton).
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Photographs by Harry Burton Photos p1510 and p1577.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Jürgen von Beckerath : Chronology of Pharaonic Egypt (= Munich Egyptological Studies . (MÄS) Volume 46). von Zabern, Mainz 1997, ISBN 3-8053-2310-7 , pp. 189-190.
- ↑ Dating after Rolf Krauss from: Thomas Schneider : Lexikon der Pharaonen. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1102-7 , p. 318.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 64.
- ↑ a b c Marianne Eaton-Krauss: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 93.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation . (The Howard Carter Archives.) On: griffith.ox.ac.uk ; accessed on October 14, 2015 (English).
- ^ Theodore M. Davis: The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou . Duckworth Publishing, London 2001, ISBN 0-7156-3072-5 , p. 3.
- ^ TGH James : Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. IB Tauris, London 1992; Revised new edition: Tauris Parke, London 2006, ISBN 1-84511-258-X , p. 477.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. With Percy White: The Tomb of the Bird. London 2014, xii.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 67.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 1st Season, October 28th 1922 to May 30th 1923. , accessed October 30, 2015.
- ↑ IES Edwards : Tutankhamun. The grave and its treasures. Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach 1978, pp. 14-16.
- ^ Howard Carter's diary with entries from November 5 and 6, 1922 . On: griffith.ox.ac.uk ; last accessed on October 21, 2015.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. The American University Press, Cairo 2013, ISBN 978-977-416-637-2 , p. 62.
- ↑ Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 8.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: The Unknown Tutankhamun. Bloomsbury London 2016, ISBN 978-1-4725-7561-6 , p. VIII in the foreword.
- ^ Thomas Schneider : Lexicon of the Pharaohs. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1102-7 , p. 318.
- ↑ Aidan Dodson: Amarna Sunset. Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 , p. 164.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Globular vase (calcite). accessed on June 19, 2016 (English).
- ↑ Aidan Dodson: Amarna Sunset. Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 , pp. 30-31.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 199.
- ↑ Ian Shaw, Paul Nicholson: Reclam's Lexicon of Ancient Egypt. Philipp Reclam jun., Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-15-010444-0 , p. 201.
- ↑ Christian Jacq : The world of hieroglyphs. Rowohlt, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-87134-365-X , p. 141.
- ↑ Christine el Mahdy : Tutankhamun. Life and death of the young pharaoh. Blessing Munich 2000, ISBN 3-89667-072-7 , p. 89.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 82.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, pp. 182-183.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 8th Season, 1929-30. accessed on December 14, 2015.
- ^ A b T. GH James: Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. Revised new edition: London 2006, p. 434.
- ^ A b c Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 66.
- ↑ Joyce Tyldesley: Myth of Egypt. The story of a rediscovery. Stuttgart 2006, p. 195.
- ^ African Archeology net: Ministry of Culture, Supreme Council of Antiquities, Law No. 117 of 1983, as amended by Law No. 3 of 2010, promulgating the antiquities protection law. , accessed on May 11, 2016.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 63.
- ^ A b c Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 60.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 77.
- ^ Rainer Wagner in: Tutankhamun in Cologne. von Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0438-2 , p. 23.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 56-57.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 33.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 56.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 58-59.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 40.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 46.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. List of Objects, 250-299. accessed on October 3, 2015.
- ↑ a b Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 42.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 59.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves, John H. Taylor: Howard Carter before Tutankhamun. British Museum Press; London 1992, ISBN 0-7141-0959-2 , p. 152.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 116.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Seal and cord from third inner shrine , Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 60667). accessed on October 13, 2015.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tut-ench-Amun. Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1981, V. No. 1513, ISBN 3-7653-0262-7 , p. 83.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 34.
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Arthur Mace's excavation diaries. 1st excavation season 1922-3, 2nd excavation season 1923-4. accessed on March 23, 2016 (English).
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, pp. 166-167.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tut-ench-Amun. Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1981, V. No. 1513, ISBN 3-7653-0262-7 , pp. 90-91.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 43.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. List of the excavation journals and diaries. accessed on November 4, 2015.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, pp. 64–65.
- ↑ Joyce Tyldesley: Myth of Egypt. The story of a rediscovery. Stuttgart 2006, p. 242.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, p. 294.
- ↑ a b Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, pp. 298 and 302.
- ↑ Joyce Tyldesley: Myth of Egypt. The story of a rediscovery. Stuttgart 2006, p. 243.
- ↑ a b c d Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 210.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, pp. 133 and 134.
- ↑ a b Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, pp. 158-159.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, p. 164.
- ↑ a b c d The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 2nd Season, October 3rd 1923 to February 9th 1924, October 12, 1923. Retrieved January 26, 2016 (English).
- ↑ Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, pp. 9-10.
- ^ A b Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 137.
- ^ A b Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 139.
- ^ TGH James : Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. Revised new edition: London 2006, p. 407.
- ^ Excavation journals and diaries made by Howard Carter and Arthur Mace. Howard Carter's excavation diaries (transcripts and scans): 1st Season, October 28th 1922 to May 30th 1923 , accessed on February 16, 2016.
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 3rd Season, January 19th to March 31st 1925. Retrieved April 4, 2016 (English).
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 1st Season, October 28th 1922 to May 30th 1923. February 18 and March 8, 1923; accessed on February 29, 2016.
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 9th Season, September 24th to November 17th 1930, November 1, 1930. Retrieved March 10, 2016 (English).
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 190-191.
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Photographs by Harry Burton: Carter No. 001k: Wooden box of Smenkhkare. accessed on March 22, 2016 (English).
- ^ A b Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 97.
- ↑ a b c KV 62 (Tutankhamen). General Site Information - Site History. (No longer available online.) In: Theban Mapping Project . Archived from the original on December 12, 2007 ; accessed on December 28, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ A b Nicholas Reeves, Richard H. Wilkinson: The Valley of the Kings. Mysterious realm of the dead of the pharaohs. Augsburg 2000, p. 126.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, p. 23.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. Cologne 2000, p. 77.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves, Richard H. Wilkinson: The Valley of the Kings. Mysterious realm of the dead of the pharaohs. Augsburg 2000, pp. 125-126.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves, Richard H. Wilkinson: The Valley of the Kings. Mysterious realm of the dead of the pharaohs. Augsburg 2002, p. 124.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives :. Find no. 001k, Wooden box of Smenkhkare. accessed on October 11, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 75.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 36.
- ^ The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 9th Season, September 24th to November 17th 1930. October 21, 1930. Retrieved November 3, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 76-77.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, p. 327.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearing of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 102.
- ↑ a b KV 62 (Tutankhamen): Chamber I. In: Theban Mapping Project . Retrieved December 28, 2015 .
- ↑ TGH James : Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, pp. 138, 141.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tut-ench-Amun. Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1981, V. No. 1513, ISBN 3-7653-0262-7 , p. 55.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 39.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Komet, Frechen 2001, p. 62.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, pp. 174-175.
- ^ YouTube: Lecture by Nicholas Reeves: Sunday at the Met. Recent Research in Egyptian Art: Behind the Mask of Tutankhamun. March 6, 2011 , accessed November 30, 2015.
- ^ Zahi Hawass, Francis Janot: Mummies. Witnesses to the past. White Star, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-86726-079-4 , p. 143.
- ↑ The main works in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mainz 1986, No. 180.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: The Unknown Tutankhamun. Bloomsbury London 2016, ISBN 978-1-4725-7561-6 , p. 118.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 129.
- ↑ Joachim Willeitner in: Spektrum.de: Is Nefertiti in Tutankhamun's grave? , August 13, 2015 , accessed March 16, 2016.
- ↑ M. Uda, G. Demortier, I. Nakai in: International Library of Archeology. X-Rays for Archeology. The Radiographic Examinations of the Guardian Statues, Springer 2005, ISBN 1-4020-3580-2 , p. 250.
- ↑ KV 62 (Tutankhamen): Burial chamber J. (No longer available online.) In: Theban Mapping Project . Archived from the original on September 27, 2007 ; accessed on December 28, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ IES Edwards: Tutankhamun. The grave and its treasures. Bergisch Gladbach 1997, p. 81.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 85.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Carter No .: 258, Handlist description: Niche containing recumbent figure of Anubis. accessed on October 10, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamen: Khe King. The tomb. The Royal Treasure. Thames & Hudson, London / New York 2000, ISBN 0-500-27810-5 , p. 135.
- ^ Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt : Tut-ench-Amun. Licensed edition for the Gutenberg Book Guild, Frankfurt 1963, p. 76.
- ^ A b The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Carter No .: 257, Handlist description: Niche containing Osiris figure. accessed on October 10, 2015.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 215.
- ↑ Excerpt from Erik Hornung : The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997 (unchanged photomechanical reprint of the 1979 edition) ISBN 3-7608-1037-3 , p. 320.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden pharaoh Tut-ench-Amun. Gondrom, Bayreuth 1984, p. 234.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, pp. 170-172.
- ↑ a b M. V. Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Luxembourg 1980, p. 52.
- ↑ a b T. GH James: Tutankhamun. Cologne 2000, p. 85.
- ↑ Andreas Schweizer: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 87.
- ↑ MV Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Luxembourg 1980, p. 66.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 17.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Mystery of the Mummy from KV55. In: guardians.net. Retrieved January 8, 2016 .
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 72.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss in: N. Reeves (Ed.): After Tutankhamun. Research and Excavation in the Royal Necropolis at Thebes. Routledge, 2009, ISBN 978-0-415-86171-7 , p. 85.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, pp. 33-34.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Sarcophagus, Carter No 240.Retrieved December 16, 2015.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: The Sarcophagus in the Tomb of Tutankhamun. In: CN Reeves (ed.): After Tutankhamun. Research and Excavation in the Royal Necropolis at Thebes. Routledge 2013, ISBN 978-0-415-86171-7 , p. 87.
- ↑ Independent: Tutankhamun interred in second-hand sarcophagus. , September 21, 2015, accessed December 5, 2015.
- ↑ a b c d The Griffith Institute. Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 4th Season, September 28th 1925 to May 21st 1926, November 4, 1925. Retrieved November 30, 2015 (English).
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 87.
- ↑ a b T. GH James: Tutankhamun. Cologne 2000, p. 88.
- ^ Jürgen Settgast: Gold mask in the exhibition catalog Tutankhamun in Cologne. von Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0438-2 , p. 162.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 96.
- ^ Jürgen Settgast: Gold mask in the exhibition catalog Tutankhamun in Cologne. Mainz 1980, p. 162.
- ↑ a b M. V. Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Luxembourg 1980, p. 80.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 114.
- ↑ Erik Hornung : The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Unchanged photomechanical reprint of the 1979 edition, Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1037-3 , pp. 318–319.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. The King's Mummy, Carter No. 256, Burton photograph: p2001. accessed on November 18, 2015.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 78.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 62.
- ↑ Zahi Hawass: In the footsteps of Tutankhamun . Theiss, Darmstadt 2015, p. 153 .
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 98.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 154.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 5th Season, September 22nd 1926 to May 3rd 1927. Retrieved on November 30, 2015 (English).
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Howard Carter's drawings made during the examination of Tutankhamun's mummy, November 11-19, 1925. Retrieved November 30, 2015 (English).
- ^ Zahi Hawass, Francis Janot: Mummies. Witnesses to the past. White Star, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-86726-079-4 , p. 113.
- ↑ The Cairo Post, September 27, 2014: Antiquities minister axes planned King Tut mummy move , accessed December 27, 2015.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: The Unknown Tutankhamun. Bloomsbury London 2016, ISBN 978-1-4725-7561-6 , p. 117.
- ↑ KV 62 (Tutankhamen): Side Chamber Yes. In: Theban Mapping Project . Retrieved December 28, 2015 .
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, p. 26.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 92.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Carter No. 266b: Alabaster (calcite) canopic box on sledge covered with linen sheet. accessed on January 30, 2016 (English).
- ↑ a b T. GH James: Tutankhamun. Cologne 2000, p. 108.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 133-134.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 105.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Inscription of the heart scarab on the back (Card / Transcription No .: 261j-3). accessed on October 6, 2015.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 224.
- ↑ MV Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Luxembourg 1980, p. 142.
- ↑ Erik Hornung : The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Unchanged photomechanical reprint of the 1979 edition, Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1037-3 , pp. 95–96.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 106.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 225.
- ^ Salima Ikram: Some Thoughts on the Mummification of King Tutankhamun. Institut des Cultures Méditerranées et Orientales de L'Académie Polonaise des Sciences. Études et Travoaux XXVI, 2013, pp. 296–297.
- ↑ Zahi Hawass: In the footsteps of Tutankhamun . Theiss, Darmstadt 2015, p. 168 .
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Solid gold statuette of Amenhotep III. accessed on November 2, 2015.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Lock of plaited hair. accessed on November 2, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 88.
- ↑ KV 62 (Tutankhamen): Side chamber Ia. In: Theban Mapping Project . Retrieved December 28, 2015 .
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 90.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 211.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, pp. 78-100.
- ↑ Ian Shaw, Paul Nicholson: Reclam's Lexicon of Ancient Egypt. Reclam, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-15-010444-0 , p. 99.
- ^ Wolfgang Helck , Eberhard Otto : Painting. In: Small Lexicon of Egyptology. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-447-04027-0 , p. 178.
- ^ Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt: Tut-ench-Amun. Frankfurt 1963, p. 76.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 67.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? (= Amarna Royal Tombs Project. Valley of the Kings Occasional Paper No. 1). Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, pp. 8-9.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, p. 9.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 18.
- ^ A b Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 74.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 17.
- ↑ Georg Steindorff in: Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte: The burial chamber of Tutankhamun. Cairo 1938, p. 645.
- ^ A b Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 72.
- ↑ Erik Hornung : The Valley of the Kings. Munich 2002, p. 29.
- ↑ a b c Marianne Eaton-Krauss: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 100.
- ↑ Ian Shaw, Paul Nicholson: Reclam's Lexicon of Ancient Egypt. Reclam, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-15-010444-0 , p. 195.
- ↑ Georg Steindorff in: Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte: The burial chamber of Tutankhamun. Cairo 1938, p. 659.
- ↑ Aidan Dodson : Amarna Sunset. Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 , p. 86.
- ↑ a b c d Marianne Eaton-Krauss: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 102.
- ^ Rainer Hannig: The language of the pharaohs. Large concise Egyptian-German dictionary: (2800 - 950 BC) . (= Cultural history of the ancient world . Volume 64). von Zabern, Mainz 2001, ISBN 3-8053-1771-9 , p. 392.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Find no. 256.4, o, diadem. accessed on October 11, 2015.
- ^ A b Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 20.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 72-73.
- ↑ a b Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 68.
- ↑ Erik Hornung : The Egyptians' underworld books. Unchanged photomechanical reprint of the 1989 edition, Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1992, ISBN 3-86047-236-4 , p. 69.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 73-74.
- ↑ Friedrich Abitz: King and God. The gods in the Egyptian royal tombs from Thutmose IV to Ramses III. (= Egyptological treatises. Volume 40). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1984, ISBN 3-447-02334-1 , p. 85.
- ↑ Erik Hornung: Valley of the Kings. Weltbild 1996, ISBN 3-89350-741-8 , p. 89.
- ↑ Aude Gros de Beler: Tutankhamun. Frechen 2001, p. 108.
- ↑ Christine El Mahdy : Tutankhamun. Life and death of the young pharaoh. Blessing Munich 2000, ISBN 3-89667-072-7 , p. 150.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 169.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. External trappings of the mummy, 256b. accessed on January 4, 2016.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Carter No. 577: A Sekhem scepter (gold, wooden core, embossed and cloisonné, ornament). accessed on February 13, 2016.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Müller, Cologne 2000, ISBN 88-8095-545-4 , p. 184.
- ↑ a b T. GH James: Tutankhamun. Cologne 2000, p. 80.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 60.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. Appendix VI, Description of Objects, Plate XXXVIA. London 2014, p. 197.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, ISBN 3-8112-0398-3 , p. 380.
- ↑ Guardiansnet: Press Release, Tutankhamun Scan , March 8, 2005 , accessed February 17, 2016.
- ↑ The Cairo Post, September 27, 2014: Antiquities minister axes planned King Tut mummy move , accessed December 27, 2015.
- ↑ Christine el Mahdy: Tutankhamun. Life and death of the young pharaoh. Blessing Munich 2000, ISBN 3-89667-072-7 , p. 84.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 55.
- ^ TGH James: Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. Revised new edition: London 2006, p. 464.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 82.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, p. 103.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 39.
- ^ Rolf Krauss: On the archaeological findings in the Theban royal grave KV62. In: Communications from the German Orient Society in Berlin. No. 188, Berlin 1986, p. 165.
- ^ Rolf Krauss: On the archaeological findings in the Theban royal grave KV62. Berlin 1986, p. 173.
- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 198.
- ^ Rolf Krauss: On the archaeological findings in the Theban royal grave KV62. Berlin 1986, p. 176.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 65.
- ↑ Andreas Austilat: Archeology: Savior or Robber? On: tagesspiegel.de from January 22, 2010; accessed on February 15, 2016.
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- ↑ Claudia Sewig: Expert rehabilitates Tutankhamun's discoverer. On: Abendblatt.de (Hamburger Abendblatt) of January 21, 2010, last accessed on February 15, 2016.
- ^ A b N. Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, pp. 66-67.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Howard Carter's notes on various topics made in preparation of the complete publication of Tutankhamun's tomb. accessed on February 15, 2016.
- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 61.
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- ↑ TGH James: Tutankhamun. The eternal splendor of the young pharaoh. Cologne 2000, p. 79.
- ↑ a b Erik Hornung : The Valley of the Kings. Munich 2002, p. 28.
- ^ Catharine H. Roehrig: Royal Tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty. In: Richard H. Wilkinson, Kent R. Weeks (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of the Valley of the Kings. Oxford University Press, New York 2016, ISBN 978-0-19-993163-7 , p. 196.
- ^ Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt: Tut-ench-Amun. Frankfurt 1963, p. 101.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 1st Season, October 28th 1922 to May 30th 1923, November 26th 1922. Retrieved March 23, 2016 (English).
- ↑ Paul-Anton Krüger in: Süddeutsche Zeitung, Secret in the Valley of the Kings on October 12, 2015 , accessed on April 7, 2016.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Carter No .: 289b, Handlist description: Statuette of the King upon a leopard, Burton photograph: p1785. accessed on June 13, 2016.
- ↑ The Tombs of Tutankhamun and his Predecessor, Lecture delivered at the Bloomsbury Summer School, The Valley of the Kings Revisited, University College London, May 17, 1997. ( Memento of the original from September 25, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. On: nicholasreeves.com ; accessed on December 3, 2015.
- ↑ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 92.
- ↑ Norman de Garis Davies : The Rock Cut Tombs of El Amarna. Parts I & II. The Egypt Exploration society, London 2004, ISBN 0-85698-160-5 , pp. 43-44 and Table XLI.
- ↑ Nefertiti (for the time being) last documented mention → Athena Van der Perre: In the light of Amarna - 100 years of the discovery of Nefertiti. Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection State Museums in Berlin. Imhof, Petersberg 2012, ISBN 978-3-86568-842-2 , pp. 195-197.
- ↑ Peter Hessler (National Geographic): Inspection of King Tut's Tomb Reveals Hints of Hidden Chambers. (English) On: nationalgeographic.com of September 28, 2015; accessed on January 30, 2016.
- ↑ Factum Arte: Tomb of Tutankhamun No: 62 , accessed March 24, 2016.
- ^ A b Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, p. 7.
- ↑ see: The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. Photographs by Harry Burton: Burton Photo p0280. accessed on November 28, 2015 (English).
- ↑ ahram online, Nevine El Aref, September 30, 2015: INTERVIEW: Nicholas Reeves '60% sure 'ahead of Nefertiti announcement. , accessed on November 27, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, p. 7 and Figure 17.
- ↑ Factum arte: Nicholas Reeves's hypothesis. Nefertiti: A possible discovery? , accessed December 10, 2015.
- ↑ ahram online, Rana Gohar, August 16, 2015: Interview with Nicholas Reeves: An archaeologist 'on brink' of solving mystery of Queen Nefertiti's burial. , accessed on November 27, 2015.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, pp. 10-11, Figure 30.
- ↑ Theban Mapping Project, Tomb KV17, Sety I: Well chamber E ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English), accessed April 8, 2016.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, p. 6.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Burial of Nefertiti? Tucson 2015, AZ 85721-0045, p. 10.
- ↑ Die Welt, October 1, 2015: Nefertiti behind the mysterious wall , accessed on December 27, 2015.
- ↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine: October 1, 2015: Nefertiti behind the mysterious wall , accessed on December 27, 2015.
- ↑ ahram online Nevine El-Aref, September 29, 2015: Egyptian Minister Believes hidden chamber may not contain Queen Nefertiti , accessed December 27, 2015.
- ^ The Independent, Caroline Mortimer, December 21, 2015: Tutankhamun's half-sister Meritaten might have also been his wet nurse, archaeologists say , accessed April 30, 2016.
- ↑ Washington Post, October 5, 2015: King Tut's tomb may still be harboring big secrets about ancient Egyptians , accessed December 27, 2015.
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- ↑ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: Tutankhamun - then and now. In: Wolfgang Wettengel: The Myth of Tutankhamun. Nördlingen 2000, p. 94.
- ^ Marianne Eaton-Krauss: The Unknown Tutankhamun. Bloomsbury London 2016, ISBN 978-1-4725-7561-6 , p. 157.
- ↑ The Guardian: Tutankhamun - the secrets of the tomb go, accessed online on November 20, 2015. (English).
- ↑ a b own translation
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- ↑ Jaromír Málek: The Treasures of Tutankhamun. London 2006, p. 61.
- ^ The Getty Conservation Institute: Conservation and Management of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Scientific Investigation. , accessed on November 26, 2015.
- ↑ Egyptian Streets: Hidden Chambers Discovered in King Tutankhamun's Tomb by Scans , accessed on March 17, 2016 (English).
- ↑ a b The Guardian: Hidden rooms at tomb of Tutankhamun raise hopes of new treasures , accessed on March 17, 2016.
- ↑ ahram online, Nevine El-Aref, November 7, 2015: Infrared thermography study suggests other chambers exist inside Tutankhamun's tomb , accessed on November 28, 2015 (English).
- ↑ ahram online, Nevine El-Aref, November 27, 2015: Radar survey underway at Tutankhamun's tomb in Luxor , accessed on November 28, 2015 (English).
- ↑ BBC News: King Tutankhamun's tomb: Evidence grows for hidden chamber , accessed on November 28, 2015.
- ↑ The New York Times: Secret Tut Chamber? Egypt Calls Experts to Examine Evidence , accessed April 1, 2016.
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- ↑ Der Tagesspiegel: New findings on the Egyptian royal tomb will come later , accessed on April 1, 2016.
- ↑ Facebook: Ministry of Antiquities: Results of the Digital Radar Scans at King Tut's Tomb news from April 1, 2016.
- ↑ ahram online, Nevine El-Aref, March 23, 2016: New Minister of Antiquities Khaled El-Enany vows to tackle budget gaps: Interview , accessed on March 28, 2016 (English).
- ^ Grenzwissenschaft aktuell, Andreas Müller, March 25, 2016: Short message: Ministry of Antiquities comments new minister , accessed on March 28, 2016.
- ↑ ahram online, Nevine El-Aref, May 8, 2016: Experts clash over theory did Tutankhamun's tomb holds Nefertiti remains. , accessed June 13, 2016.
- ↑ It's official: Tutankhamun's tomb has no hidden chambers. In: National Geographic. May 7, 2018, accessed May 14, 2018 .
- ↑ Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz: Ornate gold sheets from the tomb of Tutankhamun. ( Memento of the original from December 8, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed March 15, 2016.
- ↑ Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Philosophical Faculty, Institute for the Cultures of the Ancient Orient: The gold sheets from the tomb of Tutankhamun - Studies on cultural communication between Egypt and the Middle East (DFG) , accessed March 15, 2016.
- ↑ Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz: Ornate gold sheets from the tomb of Tutankhamun. ( Memento of the original from December 8, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed March 15, 2016.
- ↑ Norman Hammond. Archeology. Tutankhamun's Gold Throne. In: The Times, May 17, 2014.
- ↑ Michael E. Habicht : Semenchkare - phantom king (in) of Achet-Aton. epubli, Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3-8442-8169-9 , p. 26.
- ↑ Norman Hammond: The Mystery Woman Behind the Pharaoh. ( Memento of the original from October 15, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: The Times . June 19, 2010, accessed November 28, 2015.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, pp. 52-53.
- ↑ online ahram, Nevine El-Aref: Tutankhamun unmasked? Edition 1271, November 19, 2015, accessed on November 28, 2015 (English).
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves in: Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections: The Gold Mask of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten . Volume 7, Number 4, 2015, pp. 77-79.
- ↑ Guido Heinz: Pharao Pepi I .: Documentation of the oldest known life-size metal sculpture using laser scanning and photogrammetry (PDF) accessed on February 17, 2016.
- ^ Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, November 5, 2015: At the beard of Tutankhamun. accessed on November 26, 2015 (pdf).
- ↑ Federal Foreign Office, September 1, 2015: Federal Foreign Office supports restoration work on Tutankhamun's gold mask , accessed on November 26, 2015.
- ↑ RP online, December 18, 2015: Henkel researcher sticks pharaoh's beard. , accessed December 20, 2015.
- ^ Paul-Anton Krüger in Süddeutsche Zeitung: Profile Christian Eckmann. Metal restorer and to a certain extent Tutenchamun's barber. dated December 18, 2015, accessed May 29, 2016.
- ↑ Allgemeine Zeitung Mainz, Jens Frederiksen, July 1, 2016: Mainz restorer Christian Eckmann to repair Tutankhamun's mask. , accessed July 1, 2016.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, p. 105.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation. In: The Howard Carter Archives. 9th Season, September 24th to November 17th 1930. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
- ↑ Joachim Willeitner : Is Nefertiti in Tutankhamun's grave? on Spektrum.de, August 13, 2015, accessed March 8, 2016.
- ↑ Factum Foundation: Tutankhamun's South Wall , accessed November 10, 2015.
- ^ The Getty Conservation Institute: Conservation and Management of the Tomb of Tutankhamen , accessed September 29, 2015.
- ^ The Getty Conservation Institute: Conservation and Management of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Scientific Investigation , accessed September 29, 2015.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 118.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, p. 133.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 115.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 3: The Annexe and Treasury. London 2014, p. 106.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 116.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 1: Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber. London 2014, p. 148.
- ↑ Howard Carter: The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Volume 2: The Burial Chamber. London 2014, pp. 48-49.
- ↑ MV Seton-Williams: Tutankhamun. The Pharaoh. The grave. The gold treasure. Luxembourg 1980, p. 33.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, ISBN 3-8112-0398-3 , p. 381.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. University Press, Cairo 2013, ISBN 978-977-416-637-2 , p. 93.
- ↑ Wafaa el-Saddik , Rüdiger Heimlich: There is only the straight path. My life as the treasure keeper of Egypt. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2013, ISBN 978-3-462-04535-2 , p. 288.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: The Head of Nefertem. (= King Tutankhamun. The Treasures Of The Tomb. ) Thames & Hudson, London 2007, ISBN 978-0-500-05151-1 , p. 16.
- ^ TGH James: Howard Carter - The Path to Tutankhamun. Tauris, London 1992, new edition 2001, ISBN 1-86064-615-8 , p. 364.
- ↑ SZ-online.de The Tutankhamun exhibition comes to Dresden! , accessed October 2, 2015.
- ↑ Thomas Hoving: The golden Pharaoh - Tut-ench-Amun. Bayreuth 1984, ISBN 3-8112-0398-3 , p. 381.
- ↑ International Association of Egyptologists (IAE): List of missing artifacts from the Egyptian Museum Cairo ( Memento of the original from January 14, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English) (PDF; 748 kB), March 15, 2011.
- ↑ Looters destroy Tutankhamun treasures. In: spiegel.de. January 30, 2011, accessed December 29, 2015 .
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. University Press, Cairo 2013, ISBN 978-977-416-637-2 , pp. 239-241.
- ↑ Nevine El-Aref: Tutankhamun collection to be moved to Grand Egyptian Museum by end of 2016. ( Page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. On: english.ahram.org.eg (ahramonline) from June 19, 2016; accessed on July 7, 2016.
- ↑ Nevine El-Aref, August 24, 2016: Antiquities ministry starts transportation of Tutankhamun collection to GEM. At: english.ahram.org.eg (ahramonline), accessed on August 31, 2016 (English).
- ^ Jürgen Settgast: Epilogue in the exhibition catalog Tutankhamun in Cologne. von Zabern, Mainz 1980, ISBN 3-8053-0438-2 , p. 168.
- ↑ Nicholas Reeves: The Complete Tutankhamun. London 1995, p. 212.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: Discovering Tutankhamun. From Howard Carter to DNA. Cairo 2013, p. 63.
- ↑ a b Wafaa el-Saddik , Rüdiger Heimlich: There is only the straight path. My life as the treasure keeper of Egypt. Cologne 2013, p. 334.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: King Tutankhamun: The treasures of the Tomb. London 2007, p. 164.
- ^ André Wiese, Andreas Brodbeck: Tutankhamun. The golden afterlife. Grave treasures from the Valley of the Kings. Hirmer, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-7774-2065-4 , pp. 238-363.
- ↑ Wafaa el-Saddik, Rüdiger Heimlich: There is only the straight path. My life as the treasure keeper of Egypt. Cologne 2013, p. 333.
- ^ Zahi Hawass: King Tutankhamun: The treasures of the Tomb. Thames & Hudson, London 2007, ISBN 978-0-500-05151-1 , p. 112.
- ↑ Factum arte: The Facsimile of Tutankhamun's tomb , accessed on August 24, 2015 (English).
- ↑ Factum Foundation: Tutankhamun's South Wall , accessed November 10, 2015.
- ↑ Hull Museums Collections: The Tutankhamun Replicas , accessed December 17, 2015.
- ^ The Griffith Institute: Some thoughts inspired by a current exhibition: Tutankhamun: His Tomb and Treasures. , accessed December 24, 2015.
- ↑ Tutankhamun - his grave and the treasures. Retrieved on December 29, 2015 (exhibition in Dresden until February 28, 2016).
Coordinates: 25 ° 44 ′ 25 ″ N , 32 ° 36 ′ 6 ″ E