Transnistria

This article deals with the Transnistria region and the internationally unrecognized state in the east of the Republic of Moldova. For information on the area known as Transnistria from 1941 to 1944 under Romanian occupation, see Gouvernement Transnistria .

Приднестровская Молдавская Республика Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika ( Russian ) Република Молдовеняскэ Нистрянэ Republica Moldovenească Nistreană ( Moldova ) Придністровська Молдавська Республіка Prydnistrowska Moldawska Respublika ( Ukrainian ) Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
flag coat of arms
De facto regime , area is part of under international law	Republic of Moldova
Official language	Russian , Moldavian , Ukrainian
Capital	Tiraspol
Form of government	Presidential Republic
head	President Vadim Krasnoselski
Head of government	Prime Minister Alexander Martynov
surface	3,567 km²
population	475,665 (2015)
Population density	133 inhabitants per km²
currency	1 Transnistrian ruble  = 100 kopecks
founding	2nd September 1990
National anthem	Anthem of Transnistria
Time zone	EET ( UTC +2)
License Plate	PMR
ISO 3166	not assigned sometimes alternatively: PMR
Telephone code	+373

Transnistria ( Russian Приднестровье , Ukrainian Придністров'я , Romanian Transnistria ), proprietary name Moldovan Pridnestrovian Republic (short Pridnestrovie , or PMR ; Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika or short Pridnestrovie ) is a mainly east of the river Dniester located, stabilized de facto regime . Around half a million people live in the area, which is entirely within the borders of the Republic of Moldova .

The republic was formed between 1990 and 1992 when the Soviet Union collapsed in the now “ frozen ” Transnistria conflict through secession from the Republic of Moldova. It has been de facto independent from the central government in Chișinău since 1990 and has its own government, currency, administration and military, among other things. So far, however, no other state or international organization has recognized the area as a sovereign state. Under international law , the region is therefore still considered part of the Republic of Moldova. Transnistria is therefore a founding member of the community of non-recognized states , which also include the controversial regions of Arzach , Abkhazia and South Ossetia , which mutually support each other in their efforts towards sovereignty.

The area is under decisive Russian influence, for example 1200 to 1400 soldiers of the Russian armed forces are stationed in Transnistria.

geography

Road map of Transnistria with neighboring areas

Political division of the country into Rajons . Areas claimed but not held by the PMR are hatched.

The area of ​​the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic, depending on the definition, covers 3567 or 4163 square kilometers, which corresponds to 10.5% or 12.3% of the area of ​​Moldova. In terms of area, Transnistria is larger than Luxembourg .

The length from northwest to southeast is 202 kilometers. Transnistria lies in the lowlands , about 50 to 200 meters above sea level, between the territory of Moldova in the west and Ukraine in the east, along the eastern bank of the Dniester. The capital Tiraspol has around 150,000 inhabitants and is located in the south of the country, roughly between Odessa (100 kilometers) and Chișinău (70 kilometers). To the west of the Dnister are the city of Bendery and some suburbs as well as the village of Kizkany near Slobodzeja . Some villages in the Transnistrian Dubossary Rajon east of the Dniester are under the control of the Moldovan government, but are claimed by Transnistria as well as the places west of the Dniester, Varnița and Copanca , which are controlled by the Moldovan government .

The most important cities of Transnistria besides the capital Tiraspol are Bendery, Rybnitsa and Dubossary . Dnestrovsk as the location of an important power station and the Rajon capitals Grigoriopol , Kamenka and Slobodseja also have a certain regional importance .

Most of the population lives in the southern Rajonen with the highest population density. Tiraspol, Bendery, Slobodseja and some surrounding communities together form an agglomeration of almost 350,000 inhabitants and thus by far the largest urban space in the area, on which the majority of the economy is concentrated.

The nearest international airport ( KIV ) is outside of Transnistria near Chișinău, 60 kilometers northwest of Tiraspol. There is a military airfield in Tiraspol that is to be expanded for passenger traffic.

administration

Transnistria is divided into a total of five Rajons , the two cities Tiraspol and Bendery are independent administrative subjects (literally "cities of republican subordination").

Rajon	Russian name	Romanian name	Administrative headquarters
Kamenka district	Каменский район	Raionul Camenca	Camenca (Kamenka)
Dubossary district	Дубоссарский район	Raionul Dubăsari	Dubăsari (Dubossary)
Grigoriopol district	Григориопольский район	Raionul Grigoriopol	Grigoriopol
Rybnitsa district	Рыбницкий район	Raionul Rîbnița	Rîbnița (Rybnitsa)
Slobodsey district	Слободзейский район	Raionul Slobozia	Slobozia (Slobodseja)
Tiraspol city	Тирасполь	Tiraspol	Tiraspol
City of Bender	Бендеры	Bender	Bender (Bendery)

population

The November 2004 census counted around 555,000 inhabitants, made up of around 31.9% Moldovans , 30.3% Russians and 28.9% Ukrainians . There are also minorities such as Bulgarians (2.5%), Jews , Armenians , Tatars , Gagauz and Belarusians . Since the end of the 1992 war, the percentage of the population of Russians increased, while the population decreased, just like in Moldova.

According to the Soviet census of 1989, around 700,000 people still lived in this area, 39.9% Moldovans, 25.5% Russians and 28.3% Ukrainians. The proportion of the respective population groups varies from region to region. In the north of the country, in the region around Kamenka , only 6.9% of the residents identified themselves as Russians, in contrast to 61% in Giska . Bulgarians make up only 2.5% of the population nationwide, but around 80% in the village of Parcani . Most of the residents have one or more other citizenships in addition to the Transnistrian, mostly Moldovan or Russian, often both.

Since the country gained de facto independence, its own “Transnistrian identity ” has emerged, which is defined independently of ethnic origin.

Population groups

Moldovans

Traditionally dressed Moldovans perform a dance

The Moldovans are the largest population group in Transnistria. Their share of the population has declined continuously since the beginning of the 20th century and fell from 44.1% in 1926 to 31.9% in 2004. The number of Moldovans has now stabilized somewhat. Their main settlement areas are in particular the rural regions of the country. In the two most populous cities, Bendery and Tiraspol, their share is relatively low, where they are only 24.7% and 15.2%. In rural areas there are many villages that are almost exclusively inhabited by Moldovans. With 64.8%, Grigoriopol district is the Transnistrian region with the highest percentage of Moldovans.

Some of the Moldovans, especially in cities, now prefer to speak Russian instead of Moldavian / Romanian .

Russians

With a share of 30.3%, Russians are the second largest population group in Transnistria, just behind the Moldovans. After the area of ​​Transnistria belonged to the Russian Empire from 1792 , numerous Russian settlers settled there, especially in the larger cities. This influx continued during the Soviet Union . Russian settlements are mostly the larger cities and towns in the south of Transnistria, especially Tiraspol , Bendery and Kizkany , which were predominantly inhabited by Russians as early as the 19th century. But Russians are also well represented in numbers in the north, in the cities of Dubossary and Rybnitsa . The proportion of Russians among the rural population is significantly lower, even if there are villages in most parts of the country where the majority of the population is Russians. Only in the northernmost district, in Kamenka district , where Russians make up only 6.9% of the population, is their presence low.

Because of the dominant position of the Russian language and culture, many Transnistrians of non-Russian origin see “Russian” as part of their identity.

Ukrainians

Trilingual place-name sign of Tiraspol (Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian)

With a share of 28.9%, Ukrainians are the third largest ethnic group in the country. They are strongly represented in the cities as well as in the countryside. Their main settlement areas include the city of Tiraspol, where their share is around 33%, and the north of Transnistria. In Rybnitsa Rajon , with 45.6%, Ukrainians are by far the largest population group; in Kamenka , the northernmost district of the country, they are also represented above average with 42.6%. There are numerous Ukrainian-majority villages in both of these districts.

Many Ukrainians in Transnistria and Moldova now speak Russian instead of Ukrainian as their mother tongue; in 1979 this was already around 37%. Even the Surzhyk , a Russian-Ukrainian mixed language is widespread.

Other minorities

Bulgarians

Parcani , the only predominantly Bulgarian village in Transnistria

In addition to the three large ethnic groups, many other minorities live in Transnistria, of which the Bulgarians, with 2.5% of the total population (around 14,000 people), are numerically the most important. The center of the Bulgarians in Transnistria is the village Parcani , in which a Bulgarian majority lives. Bulgarian is taught at the schools there, and there is also a “Center for Bulgarian Culture” at the University of Tiraspol .

German

The Transnistrian census in 2004 showed a number of 2071 Germans in Transnistria. Most of them are Russian Germans who only settled there a few decades ago.

However, there was also a historical German minority in Transnistria. Early 19th century founded German settlers from Baden and Alsace three colonies in what is now Transnistria: Glückstal (since 1944 Glinoje ) mountain village (since 1944 Kolossowo ) and Neudorf (since 1944 Karmanowo ). The three villages were close to one another and until 1944 were almost exclusively inhabited by Germans. The three villages are in the Grigoriopol district . In the Russian census of 1897 , 23,527 people in the Tiraspol district , to which the German settlements belonged at that time, stated that German was their mother tongue. The German settlers ran their own schools, and there were several German-speaking parishes. The Second World War , however, meant the end for the German community: in 1944 the majority of the settlers either fled to Germany or were deported to other parts of the Soviet Union or murdered. A smaller number of Germans were able to stay or returned later. In 1989 around 7% of the population in Glinoje, the former Glückstal valley, were Germans. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Transnistria conflict , there was another wave of emigration to Germany , so that only a few, mostly older, Germans still live in the formerly German villages of Transnistria.

language

Former Transnistrian postage stamp - printed in Russian

Sign in Romanian in Cyrillic: "Bine ați venit!" (Welcome!)

According to the Transnistrian Constitution, there are three official languages ​​that are at least de jure equal: Russian , Ukrainian and Moldovan .

In everyday life, Russian is by far the most widely used language and clearly dominates in public life, in the media sector and in politics. The dominance of Russian is also favored by its status as a world language and the resulting wide range of media, films, books and Internet offers from abroad. As the only one of the three official languages, Russian is spoken and understood almost entirely by all population groups; It is therefore automatically used as the lingua franca in ethnically mixed areas.

However, there are schools in all three official languages, and the state television broadcaster Pervy Pridnestrovsky also broadcasts programs in Ukrainian and Moldovan. At Transnistrian schools, besides Russian, at least one other official language of the country has to be learned, i.e. Moldovan or Ukrainian. While in the larger cities of Transnistria you can mainly hear Russian in everyday life, Ukrainian and Moldavian / Romanian are widespread in rural areas. Official documents and official interviews can also be requested in all three languages, although in practice this often fails due to a lack of language skills on the part of officials.

With the exception of many foreign words from Russian, Moldovan is identical to Romanian , but is written with Cyrillic characters. Until 1989 Moldavian was the name of the official language in all of Moldova and was also written there with Cyrillic script. In 1989 it was finally decided to return to the Latin alphabet, but this was boycotted in Transnistria. The term "Moldovan language" was initially retained in Moldova, and it was only in 2013 that the official language was officially called Romanian. However, Transnistria insists on the use of the Cyrillic alphabet and the term Moldovan. Since the language is only written in Cyrillic script in Transnistria, there is only a small range of Moldovan-Cyrillic media, including the state newspaper Adevărul Nistrean .

The dominance of Russian is also evident in the education system. According to a report by the Moldovan Political Science Institute Institutul de Politici Publice from 2009, Russian is the only language of instruction in 70.3% of Transnistrian schools. 17.4% of the schools are exclusively Moldovan-speaking, 8.4% bilingual Moldovan-Russian, 3.1% of the schools teach in Romanian (in Latin script) and the remaining 1% in Ukrainian.

Thus, in 28.9% of schools all or part of the teaching is in Romanian or Moldovan, which is slightly lower than the proportion of Moldovans in Transnistria (31.9%). Again and again in conflict with the Transnistrian authorities, the six schools with Romanian language of instruction written in Latin script. They are operated and financed in part by the Moldovan Ministry of Education, and their teaching staff is mostly critical of Transnistria. In some cases, attempts have been made to place the schools under Transnistrian administration, to force the use of the Cyrillic alphabet or to prevent ceremonies that are perceived as “provocative”, such as the singing of the Moldovan national anthem. The school conflict reached a climax in 2004, when the Transnistrian Education Minister Jelena Bomeschko had four of the six Romanian- speaking schools forcibly closed and suggested that the parents concerned send their children to Moldovan-Cyrillic schools. After strong criticism from Moldova and international organizations such as the OSCE , the decision was reversed and the schools were reopened.

Only around one percent of the schools in Transnistria teach in Ukrainian. Russian is still considered the language with the higher social prestige, and large parts of Transnistrian Ukrainians are Russian-speaking anyway and therefore prefer Russian-speaking schools for their children. In other areas, too, Ukrainian is the official language of Transnistria with the weakest position. Street signs, for example, are rarely trilingual, but mostly bilingual (Russian and Moldovan). This weak position of Ukrainian is due to the history of the region: In contrast to the other two official languages, Ukrainian only achieved this status since 1990, with the de facto independence of Transnistria. Until then, the language had no official status, there were no Ukrainian-speaking schools or signs with Ukrainian lettering. In contrast, Moldovan and Russian were already anchored in the school system during the Soviet Union. Ukrainian was then a language used exclusively in private, informal settings; thus the situation of the language has definitely improved since 1990. In rural areas there are many villages, mainly inhabited by Ukrainians, where Ukrainian is the everyday language. The surschyk , a hybrid of Ukrainian and Russian, is widespread . Transnistria publishes the state newspaper "Homin" in Ukrainian.

religion

Monastery in Kizkany

Church in the fortress of Bendery

The majority of the population professes Orthodox Christianity , according to some surveys, around 90% of the population describe themselves as Christian Orthodox. Due to the anti-religious policy of the Soviet Union, a large part of the population is not religiously practicing. Many of the residents of Transnistria are also atheists.

There is also a Catholic minority, which, depending on the estimate, comprises up to 4% of the population. It is particularly represented in the north of the country, and it is often people of Polish origin. The Catholics of Transnistria all belong to the diocese of Chisinau, but are grouped together in their own "Deanship of Transnistria". In Ribnitsa, the underground Catholic community obtained its official recognition in 1990 (still under Gorbachev) and was given a piece of land on which it built the parish church of St. Joseph. Because of the strong Russification of the originally Polish Catholics, there is a liturgical rarity that the Latin liturgy is celebrated in the Russian language. In Rashkov, the magnificent baroque church, donated in 1749 by the Polish magnate Josef Lubomirski, was renovated with Polish aid. There are a total of six Catholic parishes in Transnistria.

The Baptists in Transnistria are grouped in 25 local congregations with around 4,000 members. They form one of nine regional associations in the Union of Christian Evangelical Baptist Churches in Moldova (and Transnistria) .

The significant Jewish community in Transnistria played a major role in the past . Jews were particularly well represented in the cities of Bendery and Tiraspol, where at times they made up more than a third of the population. Most of the Jews in Transnistria were murdered during the German-Romanian occupation by the Holocaust . The majority of the remaining Jews emigrated after the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the 2004 Transnistrian census, 1259 people gave “Jewish” origin, which corresponds to 0.23% of the total population. Unofficial estimates put this number as slightly higher. There are still four active synagogues in the country . The Jewish umbrella organization of Moldova and Transnistria assumes that around 1900 Jews live in Tiraspol and the surrounding area alone and another 400 in Rybnitsa. Many buildings that were formerly used as synagogues, Jewish hospitals, religious shops or Jewish schools have survived the war, but are used for other purposes or are in ruins.

Country name

The Transnistrian government prefers the term "Pridnestrovie" to the name "Transnistria" and is used in the German language edition of Radio PMR .

The name Pridnestrovie is to be understood as "land on the Dniester" (pri = an, bei) and also refers explicitly to the Russian form of the name (Dnestr) of the river Dniester (Roman. Nistru , Ukrain. Дністер / Dniester , Russian. Днестр / Dnestr ). The designation “Transnistria”, however, implies a location “across” the river. Another reason is the use of the term by the authorities during the Romanian occupation of the area during World War II. In German one speaks predominantly of "Transnistria". The "Dnestr Republic" form is also rarely encountered.

In a decree of the Transnistrian government of November 29, 2000 the spelling of the country and the central bank was set in Latin script: Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika (PMR) and Pridnestrovskii Respublikanskii Bank (PRB). However, these are only the Russian names, the Moldovan names are excluded. In this context, the decree theoretically prohibits any further use of the terms that contain “Transnistria”. The abbreviation PMR for Transnistria is very common locally.

history

From antiquity to early modern times

Tighina fortress built by the Moldovan prince Stefan the Great and later the Ottomans

The area of ​​today's Transnistria has changed hands frequently in its history, and the population structure has also changed again and again due to the political circumstances.

In ancient times, Transnistria was under the influence of the Scythians and Dacians . As part of the Moesia Province , it also belonged to the Roman Empire for several centuries . In the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes, Cumans and other ethnic groups settled in the region . The region probably belonged to the Kievan Rus for a while and was briefly ruled by the Mongols after the Mongol storm in the 13th century. From the 15th century, parts of today's Transnistria belonged to Poland-Lithuania , the Khanate of Crimea and the Cossack - Hetmanate . Later the region to the west of the Dnestr became part of the Romanian principality of Moldova , which was allied with the Ottoman Empire .

Russian conquest of Transnistria

"Wind tower" near Strojenzy from the 19th century

Distribution of ethnic groups in the Transnistrian region, 1870

In 1792/93, after the Russo-Austrian Turkish War , the Russian Empire was able to expand its sphere of influence to the east bank of the Dnestr River and most of today's Transnistria became part of the so-called New Russia . At that time, the majority of the population in Transnistria consisted of Ukrainians, Romanians and Tatars. Soon afterwards, numerous colonists of various origins, mostly Russians and Ukrainians, were deliberately settled in the previously sparsely populated region. Some of the Black Sea Germans also immigrated to Transnistria from the beginning of the 19th century, and there were several villages founded by Germans. The present capital of the country, Tiraspol, was founded in 1792 on the initiative of the Russian general Alexander Suvorov as a border post of the Russian Empire. By 1812 Russia was also able to take control of Bessarabia and now owned the entire area of ​​today's Moldova. The north of Transnistria was assigned to the Podolia Governorate , the south to the Cherson Governorate , whose border was the Dnestr River. The cities of Bendery and Kizkany again belonged to the Bessarabia Governorate , the extent of which largely corresponded to that of today's Moldova.

After the Russian Revolution

The capital Tiraspol in 1941

Bendery 1938

After the end of the First World War , the former Bessarabia was annexed to Romania. The area east of the Dnestr River, i.e. almost the entire area of ​​today's Transnistria, on the other hand, became part of the Ukrainian republic within the newly founded Soviet Union . Only the city of Bendery and the area around Kizkany fell to Romania because they were west of the river.

In 1924, the Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (MASSR) was founded as a republic of Ukraine in the Soviet Union . The MASSR comprised the areas of Romanian-speaking minorities in Ukraine, including Transnistria. Its capital was Balta until 1929 , then Tiraspol.

The immigration of Russians and Ukrainians to the region also continued in the Soviet Union, as a result of which the proportion of ethnic Romanians and Moldovans continued to decrease, particularly in the cities. In the regions west of the Dnestr belonging to Romania, the opposite was the case; there the proportion of the Russian and Ukrainian population sank sharply and a state policy of Romanization began, in addition there was the influx of numerous Romanian settlers.

Bendery (then officially Tighina ), which has belonged to Romania since 1918, and its surroundings are historically part of Bessarabia ; in terms of linguistic and ethnic composition, however, it already stood out in the interwar period. Despite the Romanization efforts, it remained a predominantly Russian-speaking city: in 1930 there was around 15% Romanian-speaking population compared to a majority of 52.8% Russian-speaking. In Kizkany, Transnistrian and Romanian at the time, the proportion of the Russian-speaking population was 47.3%, well above the average of Bessarabia.

Transnistria during World War II

Starving Jewish child in Transnistria, 1943, during the Romanian occupation

In 1939, the National Socialist German Reich and the Stalinist Soviet Union signed the German-Soviet non-aggression pact and thus divided parts of Eastern Europe among themselves. In 1940 the Soviet Union annexed Bessarabia, which had belonged to Romania since 1918. Bessarabia was united with parts of the former MASSR to form the Moldavian Soviet Republic , while the areas of the MASSR, which were mostly inhabited by ethnic Ukrainians, were finally annexed to the Ukrainian SSR.

At the beginning of August 1941, Transnistria was conquered by German and allied Romanian troops who took part in the war against the Soviet Union . From 1941 to 1944 the area between the Dnestr and the Southern Bug was under Romanian rule. It was attached to Romania as the province of Transnistria . The Romanian occupation area at that time was much more extensive than today's Transnistria and extended far into the Ukraine. Romania even annexed the cities of Odessa and Mogilew-Podolski , which were far outside the traditional Romanian settlement area and in which almost no Romanians lived. Of the 2.33 million inhabitants in the occupied area, only 8.4% were Romanians. Even in the districts of Tiraspol, Dubăsari and Rîbnița, which essentially comprised today's Transnistria, Romanians were numerically more represented, but did not form a majority. Nevertheless, in this short time a period of intensive Romanization began.

During the Romanian occupation, a large part of the Jewish population in the region was deported and murdered . There were camps there to which Jews from other parts of Romania and the Ukraine were also deported; a total of between 250,000 and 300,000 Jews were killed there.

As part of the Uman-Botoșani offensive , the Red Army managed to retake the entire Dnestr region, including what is now Transnistria, in March and April 1944. In the first years after World War II, thousands of people were deported. All persons who were considered to be collaborators with the German and Romanian occupiers, as well as “Moldovan-Romanian nationalists” were forcibly resettled with their families to Siberia or Central Asia.

Re-affiliation to the Soviet Union

Large prefabricated housing estate in Rîbnița

Soviet Transnistria, 1980s

Transnistria was one of the regions most strongly influenced by the Soviet Union

After the end of the Second World War , the Romanian occupied territory was dissolved and the 1940 borders restored. As part of the Moldovan Soviet Republic, Transnistria belonged again to the Soviet Union. There was no special status for Transnistria or even an administrative unit that bore this name until 1989. These terms, as well as the existing borders, were only used again or redefined from the end of the 1980s, when greater internal political tensions became apparent in Moldova.

In the Moldovan Soviet Republic, both Russian and Moldavian (Romanian) were the official languages. Transnistria developed into an important industrial location during its membership of the Soviet Union and was the economic backbone of Moldova. There was a strong population growth, which particularly affected the cities and was closely related to economic development. In many cities, including smaller ones, the number of inhabitants doubled in less than a decade. In order to cope with this increase, large residential areas with prefabricated buildings were often built .

In 1989 about 15% of the population of the Soviet Republic of Moldova lived in Transnistria, but about 40% of the gross domestic product was generated there and 90% of the electrical energy was generated. The proportion of ethnic Moldovans there was below 40%, while Ukrainians, Russians and other minorities in Transnistria together made up over 60% of the population in 1989. The proportion of the preferentially Russian-speaking population was even higher. A significant percentage of the Moldovans living there were also Russian-speaking as part of the creeping Russification that had been going on since the end of the 18th century . Transnistria differed from the rest of Moldova not only in terms of economic and social factors, but also in terms of the ethnic and linguistic composition of its population. It was one of the regions of the country that were most politically and culturally shaped by the Soviet Union and where approval of its policies was highest.

People from all parts of the Soviet Union settled in Transnistria. The New York Times described this as the Soviet "version of the American melting pot" and found that it was "places like this where homo sovieticus originated." With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the former pioneer region suddenly became a relic of the past.

Transnistria conflict

→ Main article : Transnistria conflict

initial situation

The Moldovan national movement met with rejection in Transnistria, only in the mostly Moldovan central part around Dubăsari it found a number of supporters.

From the mid-1980s onwards, encouraged by Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika policy , there was an increase in nationalistic tendencies throughout the Soviet Union, which slowly but surely showed ever stronger signs of disintegration. In Moldova, a national movement based on Romania emerged, which was particularly directed against membership of the Soviet Union and the state-sponsored position of the Russian language , which was perceived as overpowering .

A particularly important role the party played here Frontul Popular din Moldova (Popular Front of Moldova) . It was originally founded by young intellectuals and reformers who advocated democracy, self-determination and perestroika , and initially even attracted members of ethnic minorities such as Gagauz and Russians . However, the party turned more and more to Romanian-Moldovan nationalism, soon consisted almost entirely of ethnic Moldovans and was ultimately considered chauvinist and nationalist. In predominantly Russian-speaking areas, it found very few followers.

After elections in Moldova, the Frontul Popular din Moldova came to power, which at that time represented ultra-nationalist positions and was directed in particular against Russian-speaking population groups, Gagauz and other minorities. As early as 1989, Russian was abolished as the official language in the Moldovan Soviet Republic and Moldavian was declared the only official language. It was also decided to convert Moldovan (Romanian) to the Latin alphabet in the future. Moldova finally declared the country's sovereignty in 1990 and began to Romanize public life. The abolition of Russian as the official language led to major protests, especially in the eastern part of the country, where it was the language of the majority of the population. In the following period, there was increasing discrimination against minorities in Moldova. People of non-Moldovan origin were ousted from almost all major cultural institutions within a few months. In Transnistria and the Gagauz region , civil rights groups were formed demanding the reintroduction of Russian as the official language and regional autonomy. The government of the Moldovan SSR prohibited such movements. Communist hardliners, supporters of remaining with the Soviet Union and almost all representatives of the ethnic minorities now tried to form a common opposition.

Ethnic tensions continued to rise dramatically across Moldova. Sections of the nationalist Frontul Popular openly demanded the expulsion of immigrant Russians and other minorities. The Moldovan leadership around Mircea Ion Snegur also publicly discussed their goal of unification with Romania. The situation came to a head when a pro-Russian protester was killed by militant Moldovan nationalists.

The Russian-speaking population groups (Russians, Ukrainians, Russian-speaking Moldovans and others) saw their rights as severely threatened by Moldova's new nationalist politics. In the whole of Moldova, the Russophone population was only a minority, but mostly concentrated in a few centers where they often represented the majority. This particularly affected Gagauzia, the city of Bălți , the region around Taraclia and especially Transnistria, which soon developed into a focal point. The municipalities of Tiraspol , Bendery and Rybnitsa openly refused to accept the new language law.

The dominant factor behind the negative attitude towards the supposed rapprochement with Romania was the identification with the Russian language and the Soviet Union. Russian-speaking ethnic Moldovans were represented in leading positions in the Transnistrian government.

In Transnistria, factory director Igor Smirnov headed an independence movement. Smirnov exerted great influence on the workforce in the region and eventually founded a party, the United Council of Labor Colleges. He had only moved to Tiraspol from the Ukrainian SSR in 1987 and was a high-ranking member of the Communist Party.

At this point in time, the borders of today's Transnistria were determined for the first time, initially as a basis for a planned autonomous region. The river Dnestr was supposed to form the border between Transnistria and Moldova, but areas west of the Dnestr were also called for, in which there was mostly a Russian-speaking majority. On the one hand, these were the large city of Bendery and its suburbs Giska , Protjagailowka and Warniza , on the other hand, a larger area with the villages of Kizkany , Kopanka , Kremenchuk , Mereneschty and Sagornoje . The creation of an autonomous or even independent Transnistria initially remained only one of many demands made by political activists; the reintroduction of Russian as the official language initially enjoyed higher priority within the pro-Russian protest movement. Only when the breakup of the Soviet Union finally became apparent did the secession from Moldova become one of their core issues.

Escalation of the situation

Today's war memorial in Bendery

In the 1990 elections, Smirnov and his party in Transnistria won a clear victory and also entered the Moldovan parliament. His most important demands included the reintroduction of Russian as the official language and Moldova remaining within the Soviet Union. In the Moldovan parliament, however, his party did not have enough influence to enforce these demands. A short time later, all members of the “United Council of Work Colleges” left the Moldovan parliament and fled to Transnistria. Members of parliament of Russian origin had previously been attacked by nationalist protesters in Chișinău while the police watched. In Transnistria, calls for the part of the country to split off became louder and louder.

There, activists from the Smirnov faction gradually took control, while the situation in Moldova continued to slide. At the end of 1990, three young demonstrators were killed and 16 injured by the Moldovan police during a demonstration for the independence of Transnistria in Dubossary . They were the first victims of the conflict, and the events contributed massively to the further escalation. The Transnistrian leadership finally organized a referendum, in which in 1990 a majority of over 90% of the electorate voted for separation from Moldova.

On September 2, 1990, Transnistria declared its independence from Moldova as the Transnistrian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic and initially pursued the goal of being recognized as an independent Soviet republic within the Soviet Union. Also Gagauzia tried to secede from Moldavia given the political development and also strove for recognition as a separate Soviet republic. In other Russia-friendly regions of Moldova there were major protests, but no secession.

After the failed August coup in 1991 , the collapse of the Soviet Union could no longer be stopped; Moldova declared its final independence as the Republic of Moldova in August 1991. The Moldovan leadership openly continued its nationalist policy and tried to implement the annexation of Moldova to Romania in practice.

Complete independence was also proclaimed in 1991 in Transnistria, which had supported the coup to maintain the Union; The aim was now to build a state of its own, and any remaining with Moldova was refused.

In 1991 the first presidential election took place in Transnistria, in which Igor Smirnov prevailed with 65.1% against the runner-up Grigori Marakuza (31%). Smirnov became the first president of Transnistria, Marakuza joined the Smirnov faction a short time later and was speaker of parliament until 2005.

However, Moldova did not accept the unilateral secession of Transnistria and continued to regard Transnistria as part of its territory. Moldova began to build its own army and intended to retake the region with a military operation. It received weapons and support from Romania, among other things. Transnistria also began to set up its own militias.

Fighting

Transnistrian Parliament

On March 1, 1992, the Moldovan offensive against Transnistria began. Numerous Romanian volunteers fought on the Moldovan side, while Transnistria received support from Russian and partly Ukrainian volunteers and Cossacks . The Moldovan army was up to 30,000 men in mid-1992, compared to around 12,000 Transnistrian militiamen.

The area that was controlled or claimed by Transnistria was, with a few exceptions, east of the Dnestr and was therefore relatively easy to defend.

Moldova began its offensive near the district capital Dubossary, where one of the main river crossings was also located. Although Dubossary itself could not be taken, the Moldovan troops captured several suburbs of the city, including Cocieri , and a few other villages. After these initial advances, the Moldovan army made no further progress in this area due to the strong Transnistrian resistance and did not achieve any further successes there until the end of the conflict. Likewise, despite the ongoing fighting, a stalemate was looming on other fronts.

When a ceasefire was about to be concluded in June 1992, the Moldovan army unexpectedly began a new offensive on the city of Bendery on June 19. Bendery was the fourth largest city in Moldova at the time and was mostly inhabited by Russians and Ukrainians. However, in contrast to almost all other places controlled by Transnistria, it was on the western bank of the Dnestr, so that Moldova could attack it from several sides. Heavy fighting broke out, as a result of which the Moldovan army was able to take Bendery. According to the human rights organization Memorial , the Moldovan army is said to have fired on houses as well as on civilians who tried to help injured Transnistrian fighters. In Transnistria it is remembered as the “Tragedy of Bendery” and there is a museum dedicated to the commemoration of these events. There are different figures about the number of victims of the attack on the city. Memorial named 77 dead and 532 injured. The Transnistrian President Igor Smirnov gave 342 dead and 672 injured, another source even spoke of 489 dead and more than 1200 injured. A Moldovan newspaper reported 109 civilians and several hundred soldiers killed on both sides. Of the almost 140,000 inhabitants at the time, almost 100,000 fled the city for a short time, but were soon able to return.

A little later, Transnistrian units managed to retake Bendery and hold it until the end of the war. After that, neither side succeeded in making significant progress.

The armed conflict did not officially end for good until July 25, 1992. With the mediation of Russia and its 14th Army under General Alexander Lebed stationed in Transnistria , the conflicting parties were finally separated and signed a permanent ceasefire, compliance with which is monitored by a peacekeeping force consisting of Russian, Moldovan and Transnistrian soldiers.

According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , a total of 585 people were killed in combat operations during the armed phase of the conflict 1991–1992, most of them in the fighting between Bender and Tiraspol.

Transnistria was largely able to achieve its goals, while Moldova finally lost control of the region as a result of the conflict. Transnistria was now de facto independent and controlled most of the territory it claimed. Only in the vicinity of Dubossary did Moldova succeed in recapturing some of the villages mainly inhabited by ethnic Moldovans, which are located in the Moldovan Rajon Dubăsari . In addition, Varnița , a suburb of Bendery, as well as the ethnically mixed town of Copanca , two settlements further south fell to Moldova. The course of the border has not yet been precisely clarified at some points, so that tensions and mutual provocations continue to arise.

The Moldovan Foreign Minister Nicolae Tîu took the position at the UN General Assembly on October 8, 1993 that the Transnistrian conflict “was being used by the Russian Federation as a pretext to justify the continued presence of its armed forces on the territory of our country. The presence of the 14th Guard Army is the main obstacle to resolving the conflict ”. In Transnistria, on the other hand, they insisted on the stationing and approval of their presence was confirmed in a referendum in 1995.

Moldova does not accept the secession of Transnistria and is trying to reintegrate Transnistria. However, both sides have adhered to the ceasefire since the end of the conflict and have largely accepted the status quo. There are repeated negotiations between Transnistria and Moldova about a final solution to the conflict, but these have always been unsuccessful. Since then, life has returned to normal for the population. For example, border traffic between Transnistria and Moldova is handled pragmatically and easily.

independence

Drama theater in Tiraspol

The Dniester at Camenca

National celebrations in Tiraspol

Military parade of the Transnistrian Army

Since the settlement of the conflict, Transnistria has been an autonomously operating secessionist region, which regards itself as an independent state, but has not yet been recognized internationally by any other state and, under international law, still lies within the borders of the Republic of Moldova . Transnistria has been a member of the Community of Unrecognized States since 2001 . The Transnistrian government is striving for international recognition of the state.

In the years after the armed conflict, the country tried to consolidate its state structures. Its own currency, the Transnistrian ruble , was printed, Transnistria distributed its own passports, its own university was founded, and its own administration and government were established.

In 1994 Gagauzia, which had also split off in 1990, was peacefully reintegrated into Moldova. Gagauzia had previously been guaranteed extensive autonomy rights. A solution based on this model did not come about for Transnistria, however, because the two conflicting parties could not agree. In addition, radical political forces in Moldova had massively lost their importance and the country embarked on a more moderate political development.

The continued existence of Transnistria as a “stabilized de facto regime” is also made possible by the Russian troops stationed there, which the Russian Federation undertook to withdraw at the 1999 OSCE summit, but has not yet fulfilled these obligations. Although Russia has not yet officially recognized Transnistria either, the government in Tiraspol has received financial aid from Russia.

In fact, the negotiations between the conflicting parties have stalled, which is why the Transnistrian conflict is referred to as a “frozen conflict”. Both the Moldovan and the Transnistrian sides have come to terms with the status quo to such an extent that, from the politicians' point of view, resolving the conflict does not have top priority. In Transnistria, a positive assessment and evaluation of the Soviet past and communism is widespread. Although the Transnistrian Communist Party is only an opposition party, the traditional symbolism of the Soviet Union has been retained in Transnistria, for example the hammer and sickle can be seen on both the national coat of arms and the Transnistrian flag.

EUBAM Moldova / Ukraine, a border control mission of the European Union on the Moldovan-Ukrainian border , has existed since November 30, 2005 to prevent the smuggling of arms, people and drugs from and to Transnistria. In a NATO resolution of November 18, 2008, Russia is requested to comply with the commitments made at the 1999 Istanbul OSCE Summit and to withdraw the troops stationed in Transnistria.

In September 2012, the European Union lifted all visa sanctions against Transnistrian officials. On November 20 of the same year, the Transnistrian President defined the integration of Transnistria into the Eurasian Economic Union as a priority of Transnistrian foreign policy.

Due to the crisis in Ukraine in 2014 , Russian maneuvers and the application for accession to the Russian Federation, the Transnistria conflict was temporarily in the news again. In view of Russia's military engagement in eastern Ukraine, which is contrary to international law, the Ukrainian government began to increasingly perceive the Russian troops stationed in Transnistria as a threat and on June 8, 2015 it terminated the agreement with Russia, which allowed the Russian part of the multilateral peacekeeping force to be supplied via Ukrainian ports. Chișinău, for its part, only allows the qualified 380 members of the peacekeeping force to pass through, but not more than 1,000 other members of the former 14th Army . Meanwhile, in Transnistria, too, there was talk of the possibility of a military threat from the increased presence of Ukrainian troops, and Shevchuk signed decrees that reservists should be evacuated.

In a resolution on June 22, 2018, the General Assembly of the United Nations (UNGA) called for the first withdrawal of the Russian armed forces ( 14th Guard Army ) from Transnistria in the Republic of Moldova, which is not internationally recognized as the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. 64 states (including Great Britain, Canada, Poland) voted in favor of the proposal; 15 countries (including Iran, North Korea, Russia and Syria) voted against it and 83 abstentions. Russia's Deputy UN Ambassador Dmitri Polyansky referred to the OSCE's existing mediation efforts in the Transnistrian conflict, and the resolution is damaging the efforts of the OSCE.

Application to join the Russian Federation

The Russian state news agency RIA Novosti reported on March 18, 2014 that the Transnistrian government had applied to join the Russian Federation. On March 21, 2014, Russian troops started a maneuver in Transnistria. These developments follow those on the Crimean peninsula : During the Crimean crisis in 2014, a referendum on March 16 led to the declaration of the Republic of Crimea as an independent state - the representatives of the Republic of Crimea, previously deployed with the help of Russian troops, then applied for membership the next day to the Russian Federation.

On March 23, the top commander of the declared NATO , Philip Breedlove , the Russian armed forces on the eastern border with Ukraine were so strong that they could also pose a threat for Moldova in the conflict over Transnistria.

On March 29, in a telephone conversation with US President Barack Obama, Vladimir Putin expressed concern about an "external blockade" of Transnistria. Russia does not want to intervene militarily there. The problems should be solved within the framework of the 5 + 2 negotiating group.

On April 17, 2014, the Supreme Council of Transnistria asked Russian President Vladimir Putin to recognize the independence of Transnistria and to agree to join Russia. According to the Transnistrian MP Galina Antjufeyeva, the Crimea serves as a model. According to MP Dmitri Soin, this move was agreed with Moscow.

With the recognition of Transnistria, however, Russia would block its influence on a reunified Moldova and promote Moldova's orientation towards the west. In fact, the pro-Russian Socialist Party won over 20% more votes in the 2014 parliamentary elections than in previous elections. Their candidate also won the 2016 presidential election .

politics

Transnistria's former president Igor Smirnov

Transnistria was ruled from 1991 to 2011 by President Igor Smirnov, who was confirmed in office with an overwhelming majority in three presidential elections in 1996, 2001 and 2006.

In the 2011 Transnistrian presidential election , Smirnov was surprisingly voted out of office and ended up only in third place. There was a runoff between the independent candidate Yevgeny Shevchuk and Anatoly Kaminsky , the speaker of parliament. Shevchuk won the runoff election. On December 30, 2011, he was sworn in as the new President. Shevchuk was previously referred to as a "reformer" by Western sources.

Under Shevchuk's leadership, the leading political class, some of which had been in office since Soviet times, was replaced by younger politicians and the office of prime minister was reintroduced. The first prime minister was Pyotr Stepanov , who resigned in July 2013. His successor was Tatiana Turanskaya . One of the declared priorities of the Transnistrian government is integration into the Eurasian Union and close political ties to Russia, as well as possible integration into the Russian Federation. Reunification with Moldova is still rejected.

In the 2016 Transnistrian presidential election , the previous speaker of parliament, Vadim Krasnoselski , was elected as the new president on December 11th. He received 157,410 or 62.3% of the votes cast. The largely unpopular incumbent Shevchuk, who was accused of corruption , for example because of embezzlement of funds worth 100 million US dollars , as well as high treason , by the opposition close to the sheriff corporation , received 69,179 or 27.38% of the vote. The remaining candidates, including the candidate of the Communist Party, landed far behind with results between 0.55 and 3.17%. Krasnoselski took office on December 16, 2016.

According to the government of Transnistria, the lack of international recognition is not only a hindrance to the country's economic development, but also to social life.

Attitude of the population to independence

All major political parties in Transnistria, including those from the opposition, support Transnistria's independence or accession to Russia; there is no significant political movement calling for reunification with Moldova. Almost the entire political landscape of Transnistria is characterized by a pro-Russia attitude.

A 2010 study by the University of Colorado Boulder found that a very large majority of the population of Transnistria is actually against reunification with Moldova. Even among ethnic Moldovans, the proportion of supporters of reunification is only around 25%, among all other population groups this proportion is around 10%. Regardless of ethnic origin, the population is increasingly developing its own Transnistrian identity, which is particularly anchored in the younger generation.

The question of whether Transnistria should continue to exist as a state in its own right or whether Russia should join is more controversial. Around 50% of the population consider joining the Russian Federation to be the best option, while around a third prefer full independence. Less than 15% of the population would like to return to Moldova.

The Romanian-language program of Deutsche Welle reported in 2014 that the reintegration of Transnistria was playing an increasingly minor role in Moldovan politics and that politicians in Chișinău had almost forgotten about Transnistria. The Moldovan political scientist Aurelian Lavric even suspected at the end of November 2014 that the then EU-friendly government of Moldova would have no interest in reintegrating "500,000 potentially pro-Russian voters" from Transnistria. In Moldova, EU-friendly parties only had a slim majority, so that the reintegration of Transnistria into regular Moldova could easily change the political balance of power in Moldova permanently towards a pro-Russian majority.

Referendums on future status

Many Soviet symbols are in use in Transnistria.

Since 1989, three referendums have been held in Transnistria on the future status of the country. To what extent the results of these referendums are actually representative of the Transnistrian population is questionable, especially since opponents of independence largely boycotted the votes. The election process and the counting of votes also took place without the supervision of renowned international organizations.

The first referendum was held from the end of 1989 to the beginning of 1990 and concerned the question of whether Transnistria should break away from Moldova as the "Transnistrian Moldavian Soviet Republic" and request recognition as a separate Soviet republic within the Soviet Union. According to official figures, 95.8% of the population voted for this proposal, with a turnout of 78.43%.

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a second referendum was held on December 1, 1991, in which 97.8% of the electorate voted for full independence of Transnistria. Before this referendum, Transnistria invited foreign governments to send election observers. The invitation of the Transnistrian government was largely ignored internationally, with the exception of a delegation from St. Petersburg , no foreign observers came. An invitation was also sent to the State Department of the United States , which did not send observers but later questioned the results of the referendum.

At the end of March 2006, another referendum on the future of Transnistria was prepared, and in July 2006 the Transnistrian parliament voted almost unanimously to hold it. On September 17, 2006, the more than 392,000 eligible voters should be able to choose between the following two questions on the ballot paper:

1. "Do you support the course towards the independence of the Moldavian Republic of Transnistria and the subsequent voluntary accession of Transnistria to the Russian Federation?"
2. "Do you think it is possible for the Moldovan Republic of Transnistria to renounce its independence and then join the Republic of Moldova?"

In July 2006, the European Union on the part of Moldova and Romania, which joined the EU in 2007, spoke out in advance of the referendum in Transnistria and called for the blocked autonomy talks with Moldova to be resumed. Ukraine under the then President Viktor Yushchenko also declared that it did not want to recognize the referendum. On July 20, 2006, the OSCE also decided that it would not recognize the referendum. Therefore, she will not send observers to the vote in September and at the same time accused the Transnistrian government of formulating the questions suggestively in order to achieve the desired result. However, the OSCE announced that it was ready to recognize a referendum on the future status of the region if this was the result of successful political negotiations, as the EU wanted, and if the conditions for a free and fair election were met. The representative of Russia to the OSCE rejected allegations that the referendum was dubious and provocative . He accused the Moldovan side of having made mistakes.

• On September 17, 2006, a referendum with 97.1% voted against the "renunciation of independence of Transnistria" and for the "maintenance of independence" as well as a later reunification with the Russian Federation. Only 2.3% voted against it. The turnout was 79%. More than 130 international observers, mostly from Russia, but also from Abkhazia and Ossetia, as well as unspecified "EU parliamentarians" and unofficial "representatives" of Germany observed the referendum. They reported, according to Russian sources, that no procedural violations were recorded during the secret voting and representatives of the Congress of Russian Municipalities from neighboring Moldova said that the referendum was held according to international standards. However, no internationally recognized observers were sent by the EU, as this “referendum” contradicts the internationally recognized sovereignty (de jure) and territorial integrity of the (now de facto neighboring) Republic of Moldova.

Diplomatic relations

Transnistria has not been diplomatically recognized by any member state of the United Nations , even if it has separate relations with Russia. Transnistria is a member of the Community of Unrecognized States , which includes Abkhazia , South Ossetia and Artsakh . The members of this community recognize each other's independence.

In addition, there has been a partnership between the small Saxon town of Eilenburg and Tiraspol since 2002 . The partnership has not been actively cultivated since the visit of an Eilenburg delegation.

Despite the tensions with Moldova, meetings between the Moldovan and Transnistrian leadership and mutual negotiations take place again and again. Economic relations between the two countries are relatively straightforward, as is travel.

In July 2016, Federal Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier traveled to Tiraspol for the first time to mediate between Moldova and Transnistria.

Corruption allegations

Organized crime and corruption are very present in Transnistria, so that the country was even described in a report by Dirk Schümer as a “ Mafia small state at the mercy of Putin ”. The government around the former President Smirnov in particular was suspected of embezzling state funds.

An official report by the European Parliament in 2002 described Transnistria as a “ black hole in which arms and people are illegally traded and money is laundered ”. According to Moldova, smuggling is being carried out by rail on the Ukrainian border. In return, there are also numerous reports, including those by the EU and the OSCE , which rate the rumors of smuggling and human trafficking from Transnistria as exaggerated. In an interview with the Spanish newspaper El País in 2013, OSCE Chairman Leonid Koschara stated that “in the last few years there has not been a single case of arms smuggling through Transnistria”. Instead, smuggling is now used as misleading food , Evaded taxes in the millions, as Claus Neukirch, Deputy Head of Mission and Spokesman for the OSCE Mission to the Republic of Moldova, said in 2008.

entry

Since March 1, 2008, no invitation is required to enter Transnistria. When entering Transnistria, an entry and exit permit (similar to entry into the Russian Federation) must be filled out. It should be noted that when leaving Moldova via Transnistria to Ukraine, no official border posts of the Republic of Moldova are passed. No Moldovan entry and exit stamps are issued when crossing the border to and from Moldova via Transnistria into Ukraine, which can lead to problems with the authorities of the Republic of Moldova.

military

The armed forces of Transnistria have, according to estimates by the OSCE in 2009 for about 4,000 to 4,500-strong regular troops with 18 battle tanks , a significant number multiple rocket launchers and several Kampfzonen- and transport helicopters. According to its own information, the army has a strength of 15,000 men and some older helicopters of the type Mi-2 and Mi-8. There is a conscription system , but Transnistria can also fall back on additional Cossack and volunteer corps. Some estimates assume that a total of up to 120,000 men could be mobilized (as of 2009).

On the Russian side, 380 soldiers of the International Peacekeeping Force , but also over 1,000 other members of the former 14th Guard Army , are stationed in Transnistria.

Human rights

The government of Transnistria has been accused of serious human rights violations in the past . Some religious communities such as Baptists , Jehovah's Witnesses and Methodists are denied official admission.

An OSCE report from 2005 describes the general climate of media reporting in Transnistria as more pro-government and restrictive, but points to the existence of several independent printed products and the relatively free reporting trade union newspaper. Threats to journalists are exceptional; only one case is mentioned in the reporting period.

In 2004 six schools with Romanian language of instruction were closed. The official reason for this was the expiry of the temporary teaching license for these schools. After negotiations with the Transnistrian government, the schools were licensed and allowed to start teaching at the beginning of the school year. However, the school building in Rîbni jedocha was not returned to the teaching collective and the students had to start their lessons late in a kindergarten.

The human rights situation has improved noticeably in recent times. In 2012, Thomas Hammarberg , a representative of the European Council, traveled to Transnistria for the first time to investigate the situation in the country. The results of the report were published in early 2013. Hammarberg attested that the Transnistrian government, in office since 2011, was open and interested in the observance of human rights. However, he also referred to numerous persistent, sometimes serious problems and widespread corruption . Hammarberg also noted, however, that the lack of international recognition of Transnistria made the situation much more difficult.

economy

Transnistrian Central Bank

Transnistrian Taras Shevchenko State University

Most of the industry of the former Moldovan Soviet Republic is located in Transnistria . In contrast to the predominantly agricultural rest of Moldova (Bessarabia), the Transnistrian economy is dependent on large industrial companies that were settled in the Soviet era. Many of the products are geared towards export, steel plates , machines for casting production, cable products, large electrical machines , low voltage devices, electro-insulating fabrics, pumps , cement , furniture , cotton fabrics , shoes , sewing products, wine and brandy . Another important branch is the armaments industry , which developed from the former Soviet companies in the region. There are two large power plants in Dubossary and Dnestrovsk .

The largest company in the country is the sheriff group , which operates gas stations, supermarkets, liquor factories, bakeries, a publishing house, a construction company, a television station and a cellular network. Sheriff has a monopoly in the telecommunications sector (mobile communications, cable TV, Internet) through its subsidiary Interdnestrkom and has a great influence on the country's politics. The most important company in the manufacturing industry is the steel manufacturer Moldova Steel Works in Rîbnița. The spirits manufacturer KVINT , which produces not only wine and vodka, but also a world-famous, award-winning brandy , is also well known . Kvint is considered a kind of national symbol, the company's distillery is depicted on the five-ruble banknote . The textile and clothing manufacturer Tirotex claims to be one of the largest European textile manufacturers whose products are sold in Western Europe by Aldi , among others .

Since Russia sees Transnistria as a friendly region, this Russian natural gas is available for 240 US dollars per 1000 cubic meters (as of 2012). This relieves the little republic. Russia sets gas prices based on the relationship between the two countries and their importance as a transit country. Thanks to the Nord Stream pipeline in the Baltic Sea, Germany only pays a price of $ 379 per 1,000 cubic meters, while Poland, which is economically significantly weaker, had to pay a price of $ 528 in 2012. If there were no cheap gas supplies to Transnistria, electricity, gas and heating would be far too expensive for the majority of the population.

trade balance

Exports of 579.7 million US dollars were in 2005 imports of 855.8 million USD over. The most important trading partners are the CIS countries , especially Russia and Ukraine. Almost a quarter of Transnistrian exports go to the EU . The country is dependent on financial help from Russia (as of 2012).

tourism

Except for a modest day tourism to Tiraspol and the surrounding area, no tourism worth mentioning has developed so far . However, the country is trying very hard to increase tourism. In this context, the first tourist information office was opened in Tiraspol in May 2017.

currency

5 ruble banknote

1 ruble plastic coin

In 1994, Transnistria introduced its own currency, the Transnistrian ruble . In 2000 the ruble was denominated (1,000,000: 1) and new banknotes and coins were put into circulation. The currency is not recognized outside of Transnistria and is only partially convertible . At the beginning of 2012 it became known that Transnistria would like to introduce the Russian ruble in the future , in February 2013 a corresponding draft law was presented to parliament.

Two new banknotes were issued in May 2015 to mark the 70th anniversary of the Soviet Union's victory in World War II . The notes for one and ten Transnistrian rubles show a Soviet medal with a hammer and sickle on a ribbon of Saint George .

According to the official exchange rate, one euro is equivalent to approx. 18 PMR rubles.

Transnistria is the only country in the world to have plastic coins in circulation.

traffic

The railway lines on Transnistrian territory are operated by the state Pridnestrovian Railway Company. There is an airport in Tiraspol with the ICAO code LUTR . There is a trolleybus network in several cities, including Bendery and Tiraspol .

Culture

education

Tiraspol is home to the country's university, the Taras Shevchenko Transnistrian State University .

media

Gorky Cinema Theater in Bendery

Tiraspol

There are several state and private TV channels in Tiraspol, including Pervy Pridnestrovsky, Benderskoje Televidenije and TSV . The only cable network operator in the country, Interdnestrcom, is owned by the company "Sheriff" and broadcasts almost all of the current Russian-language channels in addition to the domestic ones. There are several newspapers ( Pridniestrovie , Adevarul Nistrean ) which, according to a report from 2005, are mostly owned by the state or state-affiliated organizations and the state press agency "Olvia-Press". Several radio stations broadcast in the country, including the international radio station Radio PMR , which broadcasts a multilingual program on shortwave . The broadcast languages ​​are German, English and French. Censorship is prohibited by Article 28 of the Transnistrian Constitution. There is no press in the Moldovan language with Latin script.

public holidays

On February 23rd, the "Patriotic Day " is held, a patriotic holiday addressed to the military. These organize competitions and demonstrate their commitment. Another patriotic holiday is May 9th, on which parades celebrate the victory of the Soviet Union over National Socialist Germany in the “ Great Patriotic War ”. A drinking feast on the banks of the Dniester is organized for war veterans in Tiraspol. The most important national holiday is September 2nd, the day on which the Transnistrian Republic was proclaimed in 1990. Military parades , concerts and dance performances are held in Tiraspol . Flowers are laid at the monument to the Heroes of World War II in front of Parliament.

The New Year festival on December 31st is celebrated in the family. According to Russian Orthodox tradition, Christmas takes place on January 7th.

Sports

Sheriff Tiraspol after winning the CIS Cup in 2009

Due to a lack of recognition, Transnistrian national sports teams cannot participate in prestigious competitions internationally.

Most of the Transnistrian athletes have, in addition to the Transnistrian citizenship, a passport from Moldova, Russia or another successor state of the Soviet Union. For example, Andrei Corneencov and Igor Bugaiov, who were born in Transnistria, played for the Moldovan national soccer team , Artyom Khachaturov for Armenia.

The capital Tiraspol is home to the most famous sports club in Transnistria, FC Sheriff Tiraspol : They play in the Divizia Națională , the highest Moldovan league, dominate them as series and record champions and regularly take part in UEFA Champions League qualifying games. UEFA Europa League matches have also been played in the Tiraspol Sheriff Stadium . The clubs Iskra-Stal Rybniza , Dinamo Bendery , FC Tiraspol , FC Dinamo-Auto Tiraspol and CS Tiligul-Tiras Tiraspol played or are also playing in the Moldovan first division.

literature

• Christian Kaserer: Transnistria - An entry point. Road trip through the last Soviet republic . guernica-Verlag, Linz 2018, ISBN 978-3-9504594-1-8 .
• Manfred Grund, Hans Martin Sieg, Kristin Wesemann: Transnistria and the future security architecture in Europe. KAS international information 09/10/2011, Berlin 2011, pp. 62–93.
• Klemens Büscher: Separatism in Transnistria - The PMR. between Russia and Moldova. In: Eastern Europe. Journal for contemporary issues in the East. Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin 1996, 9, ISSN  0030-6428
• Hannes Hofbauer : In the middle of Europe. Political travel reports from Bosnia-Herzegovina, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria / Moldova and Albania. Promedia, Vienna 2006, ISBN 3-85371-250-9 .
• Kramar, Marcell Nimführ, Andrey Smolensky: This is Radio PMR. News from Transnistria. Beautiful books, Berlin / Vienna 2007, ISBN 978-3-939181-07-1 .
• ThomasKunze / Thomas Vogel: The end of the empire. What happened to the former Soviet republics. Links, Berlin 2015. ISBN 978-3-86153-644-4 . Published under license from the Federal Agency for Civic Education (2016), ISBN 978-3-8389-0676-8
• Stefan Troebst: The Transnistrian conflict and its handling by the OSCE . In: Austrian Study Center for Peace and Conflict Research (Ed.): African Perspectives - Peace Report 1998. Stadtschleining 1998, pp. 347–379.
• Stefan Troebst: Cult of statehood in the pseudo-state. Identity management in Transnistria. In: Eastern Europe. Journal for contemporary issues in the East. Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin 2003, 7, ISSN  0030-6428
• Michael Martens: Tailwind from Kiev - conflict resolution with the help of Ukraine. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . January 10, 2005.
• Andrea Böhm: Forward, comrades, we have to go back! In: GEO . The new image of the earth. Hamburg 2006, 9, ISSN  0342-8311
• Florian Kührer: Bridge for a united continent from Vladivostok to Dublin? In: Eurasian magazine. The web magazine that brings Europe and Asia together.
• Andreas Menn: Construction of Nation and State in Eastern Europe. Transnistria and the Republic of Moldova. Vdm Verlag Dr. Müller, Saarbrücken 2008, ISBN 978-3-8364-5922-8 .
• Kilian Graf: The Transnistria conflict: product of late Soviet distribution struggles and disintegration conflict of the imploded Soviet Union. Disserta-Verlag, Hamburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-942109-30-7 .

Web links

Commons : Transnistria  - collection of images

Wiktionary: Transnistria  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

 Wikinews: Independence referendum: Transnistria wants to join Russia  - message

Wikivoyage: Transnistria  - travel guide

Wikimedia Atlas: Transnistria  - geographical and historical maps

• Official website of the President of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. In: en.president.gospmr.org. April 2, 2020, accessed April 30, 2020 (English, official website of the Transnistrian President). 
• Supreme Council Pridnestrovie. In: en.vspmr.org. March 12, 2020, accessed April 30, 2020 (English, official website of the Transnistrian Parliament). 
• Lars Reichardt: Land of the damaged smile. In: SZ-Magazin . September 15, 2006, accessed April 30, 2020 . 
• Jörn Klare : Moldova - Transnistria and its capital Tiraspol. Deutschlandfunk , December 29, 2013, accessed April 30, 2020 . 
• Andrea Diener : Longing for the Soviet Union. In: FAZ-Reise . Accessed April 30, 2020 . 

Individual evidence

1. ^ Constitution of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
2. ↑ Populația Transnistriei a scăzut cu 14.3 la sută ( Memento of August 3, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
3. ↑ OSCE: De Gucht Discusses Montenegro Referendum, Frozen Conflicts , Radio Free Europe, May 23, 2006
4. ↑ Frozen Conflicts In The Black Sea-South Caucasus Region ( Memento from June 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
5. ↑ ^{a b} Karl Penhaul, "To Russia with love? Transnistria, a territory caught in a time warp" , April 11, 2014 CNN
6. ↑ European Court of Human Rights : GRAND CHAMBER JUDGMENT IN THE CASE OF ILAȘCU AND OTHERS v. MOLDOVA AND RUSSIA ( Memento from April 12, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
7. ↑ ^{a b} Putin Demands Measures To Lift Transdniester 'Blockade' . Radio Free Liberty, March 31, 2014.
8. ↑ https://is.cuni.cz/webapps/zzp/download/120133212/?lang=en
9. ↑ ^{a b} Marta Melnykevych: From the separatist movement to a new identity group - people of Transnistria: declarations countered by reality , p 71
10. ↑ pop-stat.mashke.org ( Memento from August 13, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
11. ↑ refworld.org
12. ↑ http://parcani.at.ua/forum/17-399-1
13. ↑ http://litera.spsu.ru/rukovodstvo-2/132-2014-11-04-08-28-01
14. ↑ pop-stat.mashke.org
15. ↑ transnistria-tour.com
16. ↑ demoscope.ru
17. ↑ blackseagr.org (PDF)
18. ↑ Diagram of the museum in Glinoje
19. ^ Transnistrian Constitution
20. ↑ - ( Memento from June 23, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
21. ↑ http://www.moldova.org/en/transnistria-militia-intimidates-again-moldovan-schools/
22. ↑ http://www.osce.org/hcnm/56534
23. ↑ Ссокращение население Приднестровья. Retrieved March 31, 2014 (Russian). 
24. ^ Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Transnistria (unrecognized state): Overview. Refworld. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Retrieved June 30, 2012 (English).
25. ↑ Parohia "Sfântul Iosif", Rîbniţa. Website of the parish of St. Joseph in Ribnitsa, accessed on January 22, 2019 (Russian, unknown language, Romanian). 
26. ↑ Rashkov - a Forgotten Place of Tolerance and Prosperity. Retrieved January 22, 2019 . 
27. ^ Roman Catholic Diocese of Chisinau: Diocesan organization. Retrieved February 24, 2019 (Romanian). 
28. ^ William Yoder: Baptists in Moldova and in Transnistria. In: kirchen.ch. 2008, accessed on October 14, 2013 (PDF).
29. ↑ Бендеры. In: Электронная еврейская энциклопедия. Retrieved March 31, 2014 (Russian). 
30. ↑ pop-stat.mashke.org
31. ↑ bibliofond.ru
32. ↑ https://archive.today/20140817071611/http://www.jcm.md/ru/jewish-moldova/obshchiny/item/95-tiraspol
33. ↑ https://archive.today/20140817071559/http://www.jcm.md/ru/jewish-moldova/obshchiny/item/93-rybnitsa
34. ↑ https://archive.today/20120713063813/http://radiopmr.org/golos/list/8/
35. ↑ From the separatist movement to a new identity group - people of Transnistria: declarations countered by reality , Marta Melnykevych, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås / Norway 2014, p. 1
36. ↑ wortschatz.uni-leipzig.de Pridnestrovie and Transnistria
37. ^ Andrew Wilson, "The Ukrainians: Engaging the Eastern Diaspora" (Westview Press, 1998)
38. ↑ About Transdnistrea ( Memento from October 15, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
39. ↑ http://archive.org/stream/recensamntulgene02inst#page/462/mode/2up
40. ↑ Anton Golopenţia "Romanii de la est de Bug", vol. I, Editura Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 2006.
41. ↑ Compare ethnographic map on ro: Fișier: Transnistria harta etnica 1941.jpg
42. ↑ Dallin, Alexander (1957). "Romanization". Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory Under Foreign Rule. Center for Romanian Studies. pp. 87-90. ISBN 978-973-98391-1-2 . Retrieved March 18, 2014.
43. ↑ ushmm.org
44. ↑ usm-md.academia.edu
45. ↑ John Mackinlay, Peter Cross (Ed.): Regional Peacekeepers: The Paradox of Russian Peacekeeping. United Nations University Press, 2003, ISBN 92-808-1079-0 , p. 135.
46. ↑ lib.utexas.edu
47. ↑ ^{a b} opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com
48. ↑ Kolstø, Pal. Political Construction Sites: Nation-building in Russia and the Post-Soviet States. Westview Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8133-3752-6 , p. 139.
49. ^ Political Parties , Fedor, Helen, ed. Moldova: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress , Washington, DC, 1995.
50. ↑ Can Liberal Pluralism Be Exported ?, Will Kymlicka, Magdalena Opalski, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-924063-9 , p. 208.
51. ^ Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power , Anatol Lieven, Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-300-07881-1 , p. 246.
52. ↑ Can Liberal Pluralism Be Exported? , Will Kymlicka, Magdalena Opalski, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-924063-9 , p. 208.
53. ↑ ^{a b} King, Charles. The Moldovans. Hoover Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8179-9792-X , p. 151.
54. ↑ Paul Hare: Who are the Moldovans? In: Paul Hare, Mohammed Ishaq, Judy Batt: Reconstituting the market: the political economy of microeconomic transformation. Taylor & Francis, 1999, pp. 369-371.
55. ↑ The painful past retold Social memory in Azerbaijan and Gagauzia , Hülya Demirdirek, Postkommunismens Antropologi, University of Copenhagen, 12-14. April 1996.
56. ↑ sysert.ru
57. ↑ beltsymd.ru ( Memento from May 27, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
58. ↑ stevendroper.com (PDF)
59. ↑ eurasianaffairs.net
60. ↑ ^{a b c} minorityrights.org ( Memento of April 29, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
61. ↑ Anna Volkova, Lider (Tiraspol ': [sn], 2001), 8. Available online at: - ( Memento of September 8, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
62. ^ Stuart J. Kaufman: Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War . Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8736-6 , p. 143.
63. ^ Countrystudies.us
64. ↑ Коллектив "Мемориал" Массовые и наиболее серьёзные нарушения прав человека и половека и половека и половека и половека и половека и половро.коние ёноврого.коние ёноврого.коние ёновро жкофре енового.коние ёноврого.коние ёноврого.коние ёновро. Бендеры. Июнь-июль 1992. - 1992.
65. ↑ olvia.idknet.com ( Memento from November 12, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
66. ^ Arms and Ethnic Conflict , John Sislin, Frederic S. Pearson (Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), p. 99, ISBN 0-8476-8855-0 .
67. ↑ 20 лет войне на Днестре: Бендерская трагедия окончательно расколола Молдавию. segodnya.ua. June 19, 2012
68. ↑ ^{a b} Коллектив "Мемориал" Массовые и наиболее серьёзные нарушения прав человека и половека и коловека и коловека и положение в.конгоние в.конгука и коложение в. Бендеры . June-July 1992.
69. ↑ berg-bendery.org
70. ↑ riverkeepers.org ( Memento of July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF)
71. ↑ ПолитБайки - Тирасполь благодарит Ющенко за план ( Memento from August 20, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
72. ↑ Худяков В. В. В цветущих акациях город… Бендеры: люди, события, факты. - Бендеры: Полиграфист, 1999. - С. 377. - ISBN 5-88568-090-6 .
73. ↑ jurnal.md ( Memento from June 27, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
74. ↑ osce.org (PDF)
75. ^ Moldova: Dniestr , Uppsala Conflict Data Program, accessed March 7, 2018
76. ^ RIA Novosti , April 3, 2012: Transnistria Talks: Tiraspol endeavors to achieve equality with Chisinau
77. ^ OSCE Document Istanbul 1999 IV, Item 19
78. ↑ ^{a b} NATO resolution of November 18. Point 11. b. ( Memento from March 20, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
79. ↑ dw.de : Germany's silent Transnistrian diplomacy
80. ↑ kas.de (PDF)
81. ↑ Lenin's last stretch of land on taz.de. Retrieved June 7, 2012 . 
82. ↑ EUBAM map ( Memento of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
83. ↑ RIA Novosti , September 27, 2012: EU lifts visa sanctions against Transnistria officials
84. ↑ Kamil Całus: Transnistria formalises a pro-Russian turn in foreign policy , OSW , November 28, 2012 (PDF).
85. ^ "Russia speaks of protecting its citizens" Zeit Online, March 21, 2014.
86. ^ Confirmation of the Russian invasion by Bellingcat
87. ↑ There is a possibility of a military threat from Transnistria at the state border of Ukraine , RT, May 29, 2015.
88. ↑ Konrad Schuller and Friedrich Schmidt: “Fire under a frozen conflict” FAZ from June 11, 2015, viewed on June 11, 2015.
89. ↑ With Russia Boxed In, Frozen Transdniester Conflict Could Heat Up , rferl, May 30, 2015.
90. ↑ Shevchuk signed decrees: Young people in Transnistria should be convened , realitatea.md, July 20, 2015.
91. ^ Troop transports to Transnistria - Ukraine blocks Russian transit , NZZ, June 9, 2015.
92. ↑ General Assembly Adopts Text urging Troop Withdraw from Republic of Moldova, Strengthening Cooperation in Central Asia. In: Deutsche Welle . June 23, 2018, accessed June 23, 2018 . 
93. ^ After the Crimean referendum: Transnistria also wants to join Russia. Rianovosti, March 18, 2014, accessed March 19, 2014 . 
94. ↑ Transnistria wants to merge with Russia. Vestnik Kavkaza, March 18, 2014, accessed March 18, 2014 . 
95. ↑ Russian troops start maneuvers in Transnistria.
96. ↑ NATO warns of the expansion of the Crimean crisis ( memento from March 25, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), today March 23, 2014.
97. ↑ Putin wants to talk about Transnistria , n-tv on March 29, 2014.
98. ↑ Transnistria asks Putin to join Russia. Rianovosti, April 17, 2014, accessed April 17, 2014 . 
99. ↑ Power politics on the outskirts of the EU: why Transnistria matters , South East Europe at LSE, London School of Economics, June 19, 2014.
100. ↑ mfa-pmr.org
101. ↑ eastbook.eu
102. ↑ Forecasts: Krasnoselski wins the presidential election in Transnistria . In: Der Standard , December 12, 2016. Retrieved December 21, 2016.
103. ^ Transnistrian House of Cards ( Memento of July 11, 2016 in the Internet Archive ). In: New Eastern Europe , June 7, 2016. Retrieved December 21, 2016.
104. ↑ Приднестровье сделало выбор . In: Supreme Soviet of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic - Official site , December 12, 2016. Accessed December 21, 2016.
105. ↑ Вадим Красносельский вступил в должность президента Приднестровья . In: Парламентская газета , December 16, 2016. Accessed December 21, 2016.
106. ↑ srf.ch
107. ↑ ^{a b} freedomhouse.org
108. ↑ ^{a b} washingtonpost.com
109. ↑ officiere.ch (PDF)
110. ↑ ^{a b} dw.com
111. ↑ olvia.idknet.com ( Memento from September 6, 2012 in the web archive archive.today )
112. ↑ de.ria.ru
113. ↑ Wanted to join: Ukraine wants NATO protection , Focus Online, August 24, 2008.
114. ↑ See Herdegen: Völkerrecht. 6th edition. § 45; Ipsen: international law. 5th edition. Section 34, marginal number 16.
115. ↑ 5-500.ru
116. ↑ International observers for independence referendum in Transnistria , RIA, September 15, 2006.
117. ↑ en.rian.ru
118. ↑ regnum.ru ( Memento from February 27, 2015 in the Internet Archive )
119. ↑ eu-un.europa.eu ( Memento of November 13, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (English).
120. ↑ Café Tiraspol - taz.de
121. ↑ RP ONLINE: Tiraspol / Chisinau: Steinmeier wants to solve the conflict in Transnistria. In: RP ONLINE. Retrieved August 9, 2016 . 
122. ↑ ^{a b} freedomhouse.org
123. ↑ Dirk Schümer : Message in a bottle in the sea of ​​destruction . In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 30, 2013.
124. ↑ European Parliament: Ad hoc delegation for Moldova, June 5 and 6, 2002 (PDF; 182 kB)
125. ↑ Ahto Lobjakas on Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty: Moldova: Western Diplomats Say Reports Of Smuggling From Transdniester Likely Exaggerated , October 11 of 2005.
126. ↑ internacional.elpais.com
127. ↑ In the Transnistrian conflict, a compromise would be possible in six to twelve months. In: Eurasian magazine. March 5, 2008, accessed January 5, 2014.
128. ↑ [1] Information from a YouTube article.
129. ↑ Bernard Aussedat: How can trust and security in Moldova be restored? , OSCE Yearbook 2009, ifsh.de (PDF)
130. ↑ International Religious Freedom Report 2003 (Moldova)
131. ^ Report by the OSCE Representative for Freedom of the Media, Miklós Haraszti, on Transnistria, 2005, p. 2.5. (PDF; 69 kB)
132. ^ Report on the attack in the weekly bulletin of the Center for Journalism in Extreme Situations (subsidiary of the Russian Union of Journalists), 50/2004
133. ^ Transnistria, The Forgotten Conflict . brain-storming.info. Archived from the original on February 20, 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
134. ↑ Moldovan Schools in Transdniestria - OSCE Magazine (in English) ( Memento from May 22, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
135. ↑ coe.int
136. ↑ un.md ( memento of October 2, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF)
137. ^ Report of the OSCE Representative for Freedom of the Media, Miklós Haraszti, on Transnistria, 2005, p. 5 (PDF; 69 kB).
138. ↑ kvinz.biz - About Kvint ( Memento from January 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
139. ↑ tirotex.com ( Memento from July 28, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
140. ↑ Prices for Russian gas in Europe
141. ↑ International Crisis Group, Moldova: Regional tensions over Transdniestria (PDF; 483 kB)
142. ↑ First tourist information center opened. May 4, 2017, accessed January 22, 2019 . 
143. ^ Historical overview of the Central Bank of Transnistria
144. ↑ eastbook.eu
145. ↑ german.ruvr.ru
146. ↑ Why a banknote causes fear in Ukraine . The world. May 22, 2015. Accessed May 24, 2015.
147. ↑ Приднестровский Республиканский Банк. In: www.cbpmr.net. Accessed December 30, 2019 . 
148. ^ Report by the OSCE Representative for Freedom of the Media, Miklós Haraszti, on Transnistria, 2005, p. 3.5. (PDF; 69 kB)
149. ^ Andrey Smolensky: Everyday life in Transnistria. In: Klaus Bochmann, Vasile Dumbrava, Dietmar Müller, Victoria Reinhardt (eds.): The Republic of Moldau. Republica Moldova. A manual. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig 2012, p. 592, ISBN 978-3-86583-557-4

Coordinates: 46 ° 49 '  N , 29 ° 36'  E